CTE-101

The Language and the

Indira Gandhi National Open University Learner
School of Humanities

Block

3
THE MULTILINGUAL WORLD OF THE
LEARNER
Block Introduction 115
Unit 1
Being a Multilingual 117
Unit 2
Using Multilingualism as a Resource 126
Unit 3
Code-Switching and Code-Mixing 136

113
EXPERT COMMITTEE
Prof. Ramakant Agnihotri (Retired) Prof. Pushpinder Syal Prof. Neera Singh
Dept. of Linguistics Dept. of English Director-School of Humanities,
Delhi University Punjab University, Chandigarh IGNOU
Now: Prof. M.L. Tickoo,
Prof. Emeritus School of Humanities
EFLU (formerly CIEFL)
Vidya Bhawan Society (English Faculty)
Hyderabad
Udaipur Ex. Singapore University Prof. Anju Sahgal Gupta, IGNOU
Prof. Neera Singh, IGNOU
Dr. A. L. Khanna (Retired) Prof. Malati Mathur, IGNOU
Prof. Yasmeen Lukmani Reader, Dept. of English
Retired- Dept. of English Prof. Nandini Sahu, IGNOU
Ramjas College, Delhi University
University of Mumbai Prof. Parmod Kumar, IGNOU
Dr. Rajni Badlani Dr. Pema Eden Samdup, IGNOU
Formerly Reader Ms. Mridula Rashmi Kindo, IGNOU
Prof. Jacob Tharu (Retired)
EFLU (formerly CIEFL), Hyderabad Dr. Malathy A, IGNOU
Dept. of Evaluation Retired as Manager English Studies
EFLU (formerly CIEFL) American Centre, New Delhi
Hyderabad

COURSE COORDINATOR
Prof. Anju Sahgal Gupta,
School of Humanities, IGNOU

BLOCK PREPARATION
Unit Writers Block Editor
Dr. Chhaya Sahwney (Unit 1&2) Prof. Anju Sahgal Gupta,
Asso. Prof. Gargi College, School of Humanities, IGNOU
University of Delhi
Secretarial Assistance and
Prof. Kamlesh Sadanand (Unit 3) Composing
Retired EFLU (formerly CIEFL), Ms. Premlata Lingwal
Hyderabad PA (SOH)

MATERIAL PRODUCTION
Sh. C. N. Pandey
Section Officer (Publication)
School of Humanities

August, 2019
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2019
ISBN:
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any other means, without
permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained from the University’s office
at Maidan Garhi, New Delhi-110 068 or the website of IGNOU www.ignou.ac.in
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University, New Delhi by Registrar, MPDD.
Laser Typeset by : Rajshree Computers, V-166A, Bhagwati Vihar, (Near Sector 2, Dwarka), Uttam Nagar, New Delhi-110059
BLOCK INTRODUCTION
In this block we have made you aware of the rich multilingual environment of
the learners, and the possible teaching strategies that may be employed for such
learners.
Multilingualism does not make the teaching-learning process more complex but
is a powerful and rich resource that the teacher can draw upon from the diversity
of her classroom. Pandit (1969) said that the “bilingual tongue is the mother
tongue” in India. In Unit 3, we discuss Code-Mixing and Code-Switching and
their use in the English classrooms. The units in this block are:
Unit 1 Being a Multilingual
Unit 2 Using Multilingualism as a resource
Unit 3 Code-Switching and Code-Mixing

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The material (pictures and passages) we have used is purely for educational
purposes. Every effort has been made to trace the copyright holders of material
reproduced in this book. Should any infringement have occurred, the publishers
and editors apologize and will be pleased to make the necessary corrections
in future editions of this book. Some of the material has been taken from earlier
CTE Courses.
The Multilingual World
of the Learner

116
UNIT 1 BEING A MULTILINGUAL
Structure

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Myth of Monolingualism
1.3 Language Families in India
1.4 The Pervasiveness of Multilingualism in India
1.5 Multilingualism as a Resource
1.6 Let Us Sum Up
1.7 Key Words
1.8 Suggested Readings
1.9 Answers

1.0 OBJECTIVES
The unit will help you to:
• understand the nature of multilingualism in India;
• critically examine the myth of monolingualism;
• reflect on how multilingual discourse shapes interactions and identities;
• appreciate its pervasiveness and implications on language use and language
education; and
• understand the need to use multilingualism as a resource.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The context of India is unique. This is because it is a varied multilingual country that
is characterized by four predominant language families with languages that far exceed
the number that any other country can boast of. It is fascinating that people in our
country speak several languages as part of their daily living. For instance, a person
who has moved to Delhi from a state in Bihar can typically talk in Bhojpuri or
Maithali to someone in/from his/her native village, in Hindi/Punjabi with friends and
strangers at public places, and in English at work. While this may suggest that people
use particular languages that are specific to certain social domains, it is not always
completely true. People who have access to multiple languages also mix or switch
between languages in informal social contexts. For example, they may say:
kal jo maine movie dekhi, it was so exciting!
(The movie that I watched yesterday was so exciting!)
he is such a bhaisahab ki mera us se baat karne ko man hi nahi karta. 117
The Multilingual World (He is so ‘non-smart’ person that I don’t feel like talking to him.)
of the Learner
uh tohka taakat raha hai.
(He is staring at you.)
The usage of the word ‘bhaisahab’ in the second example which is reserved for
addressing an elder brother/person respectfully does not in fact always carry respect
or politeness. It is sometimes used in a derogatory manner to show that such a
person is not smart because of the way he dresses up or speaks. Little nuances such
as these can only be captured and understood by people in social interactions when
they have similar proficiency levels and multilingual orientations. The nature of such
interactions suggest that these multiple languages are perhaps not organized in our
brain in a compartmentalized manner but are fluid. This simply means that a person
with such a multilingual disposition can mix or switch between languages quite naturally
without consciously thinking about how to use them.
A ‘verbal repertoire’ that each person has in multilingual societies comprises a range
of languages and variations within them. Mohanty, a well-known sociolinguist writes
of his linguistic repertoire:
I use Oriya in my home, English in my work place, Hindi for television viewing,
Bengali to communicate with my domestic helper, a variety of Hindi-Punjabi-Urdu
in market places in Delhi, Sanskrit for my prayer and religious activities, and some
conversational Kui with the Konds for my research in their community. These
languages fit in a mutually complementary and non-competing relationship in my life.
(Mohanty 2006, 263)
Multilingualism is prevalent across the world and not just in India. People who speak
different languages many a times live near each other. Or sometimes there may be
political boundaries between nations, or there may be widespread immigration within
a country but in all such cases, groups of people come into contact and communicate.
Examples would be of German and French regions within Switzerland or Germany
where children from diverse linguistic backgrounds in schools may be adept at Turkish,
German and English, or Russian, German and English. Languages in such situations
may be acquired through informal exposure or formal instruction at school. However,
it is usually the case that multilinguals have varying degrees of command of the
languages in their repertoire and some of the languages may not have positive
associations with them.
Check Your Progress 1
1. Which state or region do you belong to? Which languages are spoken there or
in the neighboring state?
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2. Name the languages you know. At what age did you acquire them? Which of
them are you most comfortable in while talking? And why?
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118 ................................................................................................................
 Being a Multilingual
1.2 MYTH OF MONOLINGUALISM
Traditionally, many countries that were considered monolingual are actually not any
longer monolingual or have inherent diversity that wasn’t taken into consideration.
One such example is that of countries where English is the native language. If we
take the case of America, we find that it has so many immigrant communities today
that have migrated from Mexico, Cuba, India, China, and Africa that it no longer
qualifies as a monolingual country. Immigration has largely contributed to its linguistic
diversity. Besides English, Spanish is the second largest language spoken in the
country.
If we take the case of the UK, the common perception is that English is the native
language. This sort of assumes that one single ‘English’ binds the whole country.
However, there are as many as 30 dialects within the country that are so varied and
distinct, especially in their accents, that it may be impossible to comprehend some of
them. In addition, the country also has 11 indigenous languages. Again, we associate
only ‘French’ with France but as many as 28 different accents or dialects are spoken
in different parts of France. Some of these include Corsican, Breton, Basque, and
Catalan. If we consider China, ‘Chinese language’ comes to our mind thinking that
it is one language. This is actually far from accurate. There are approximately 298
languages spoken in China, and the term ‘Chinese language’ refers to a group of 7
linguistic varieties with one single ancient origin. Most of us have heard of Mandarin
and Cantonese but the others that are not so well known are Wu, Min, Gan, Xiang
and Keiia. Some of these varieties are mutually unintelligible even though they have
the same origin.
The above examples illustrate that monolingualism is a myth. Some countries, as we
have seen in the examples given above, while seemingly have one language, different
varieties and different accents contribute to its diversity. Besides existence of several
languages, varieties/dialects and variations in accents within a country, reasons such
as colonization, immigration and trade have also brought different languages together
in several parts of the world.
We are now living in a highly globalized world. For this reason itself, people are also
no longer monolingual as they need to interact with people from other nationalities.
It is difficult to say if anyone can actually be called ‘monolingual’ any longer. Several
‘lingua francas’ have emerged as well that help people from different nationalities or
speakers of different languages communicate with each other instead of adopting
one lingua franca as a common language. In India, where linguistic diversity and
linguistic variability are a social reality, people use several languages quite naturally
and effortlessly while interacting with each other. English in India, spoken in all kinds
of ways depending on varying abilities, is also used as a lingua franca. It is widely
and habitually used by people when mother tongues are different in order to facilitate
communication between them. It has become a normal requirement in today’s world
that people speak several languages, whether for purposes of travel, business, school
education, social interactions or politics.
Check Your Progress 2
1. Name any two countries besides India which are multilingual. Which languages
are spoken there? What makes these countries multilingual?
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The Multilingual World 2. What is a lingua franca? You may refer to the key words for your answer.
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1.3 LANGUAGE FAMILIES IN INDIA

One of the primary reasons why India is called a multilingual country is that more
than 1600 languages are spoken here that belong to one of the four predominant
language families. These are:
The Indo-Aryan language family: languages belonging to this family are a subgroup
of the Indo- Iranian branch of the Indo-European language family. Some of the
languages that belong to this family are Hindi, Bangla, Gujarati, Punjabi, Marathi,
Konkani, Sindhi, Assamese, Maithili, and Oriya. According to the 2001 Census of
India, 78% of our population belongs to this language family. Not all the languages in
this group are recognized by our Constitution. For example, Bhojpuri and Magahi
are some examples of languages not recognized.
The Dravidian language family: languages belonging to this family are mainly
spoken in southern India and parts of eastern and central India. Kannada, Malyalam,
Tamil and Telugu belong to this group. Approximately 19% (2001 Census) of our
population speaks one of the languages of this family.
The Tibeto-Burman language family: a subgroup of Sino-Tibetan language family,
its speakers in India constitute only 1-1.5%% (2001 Census) of the total population
in India. It’s spoken primarily in the north east region of India. Bodo, Koch, Dhimal,
Kuki, Lepcha, Burmese, Naga are some of the languages spoken there.
The Austro-Asiatic language family: formally known as Mon-Khmer. Languages
belonging to this family are scattered throughout India. About twenty one Munda
languages and Khasi spoken in Meghalaya belong to this group. Its speakers comprise
only 1% (2001 Census) of our population.
An interesting fact about India is that despite its very diverse and distinct language
families, there is linguistic convergence. Indian languages are similar to each other in
their structure and therefore share characteristics that are common between them. It
is because of this reason researchers are fascinated looking at India as a linguistic
area. As can be noticed from the brief description of the language families, the
Indo-Aryan language family and Dravidian language family together constitute 97%
of our speakers. With the exception of Khasi that has an SVO (subject verb object)
word structure, all Indian languages follow the SOV (subject object verb) word
order. Borrowing and lending of words has also happened historically between
language families, making certain vocabulary common.
Some examples characteristics of Hindi as a SOV language
 They follow the SOV word order. (riya seb khaati hai: Riya eats an apple.)
 Adjectives precede nouns. (lal seb: red apple)
 Numerals precede nouns. (2 seb; 2 apples)
 Postpositions follow the nouns. (mez par kitaab rakhi hai: The book is lying on
120 the table.)
 Interrogative questions begin with ‘K’ words. (Kyon; Kaise; Kab; Kahan; Being a Multilingual
Kisliye; Kon: Why; How; When; Where; Why; Who)

 The direct object precedes the indirect object. (maine seb ko chaku se kaata:
I cut the apple with a knife)

 Time adverb precedes place adverb. (main kal chhe baje agra jaa rahi hun: I’m
going to Agra at 6 o’clock tomorrow.)

Check Your Progress 3

1. What do you understand by the term ‘language family’? Which language families
do the languages you know belong to?

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2. Give at least two examples from any two Indian languages besides Hindi to
show that they share similarities because of SOV word order.

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1.4 THE PERVASIVENESS OF

MULTILINGUALISM IN INDIA
The presence of four language families in our country is an indicator of the fact that
our country is multilingual. There is a popular saying, ‘Kos-kos par badle paani,
chaar kos par baani’ (Just as the taste of water changes every kilometer, so do the
languages every few kilometers in India.) This aptly describes the multilingual character
of our country. If you look at your own linguistic repertoire and some of those
around you, you would realize that everyone knows at least 2 or more languages.
The multiplicity of languages is all around us: on TV and radio channels, print media
(magazines, newspapers), movies, songs, books, stories, bill boards, and as mediums
of instruction. While the constitution of India recognizes only 22 languages, it is well-
known that besides the 1600 + languages, many are not accounted for or are clubbed
under one language. For example, Bhojpuri, Magahi, Awadhi and many others have
been grouped under Hindi.

In a study conducted by Gumperz and Wilson way back in 1971 in Kupwar, a small
village of about 3,000 inhabitants in Maharashtra, they found convergence among
the four languages spoken in the village. Marathi, Urdu, Kannada and Telegu were
distributed based on caste. The highest caste, the Jains, spoke Kannada and the
lowest caste, the scheduled caste spoke Marathi. The rope makers in the village
spoke Telegu and the Muslims Urdu. Since they all needed to speak to each other,
the syntax of all the four languages converged to create a lingua franca that was
dominated by Marathi as the language for inter group communication. What we find
in India is that despite widespread heterogeneity, communication has never been a
problem. 121
The Multilingual World Agnihotri (2014) in his article, Multilinguality, education and harmony suggests
of the Learner
that we should stop looking at multilingualism in an additive manner of L1 + L2 +L3
in which languages are learnt sequentially or simultaneously. He argues for the concept
of ‘multilinguality’ which is rooted in variability and fluidity. Such a concept rejects
demarcations between multiple languages that a person may know and looks at
language boundaries as porous and free flowing. He firmly believes that language
boundaries that we create are artificial and that languages we know flow effortlessly
into each other. A few examples that demonstrate such free flow between languages
have been given in the first section. In other words, multilinguality equips us to be at
ease when using multiple languages and is constitutive of us being human. It is for this
reason that despite multiplicity of languages in our country, communication never
ceases. Whether we mix, switch or develop lingua francas, we continue to use the
multiple languages we know.
Check Your Progress 4
1. Choose any two regions or states in India besides your own. Find out the
languages that are spoken in those regions or states. Which language families
do the languages you learnt about belong to?
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2. Although your command in the languages you know may vary, when and how
do you make use of the languages you know. Give examples to illustrate.
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1.5 MULTILINGUALISM AS A RESOURCE

Several parameters such as your country, dress, food, culture define your identity
and amongst them, language is one such significant parameter. But what happens
when you know several languages that are part of your verbal repertoire? Well, it
seems linguistic identities are no longer fixed but flexible, multiple and culturally
constructed. To maintain multiple identities means that one can belong to several
speech communities at the same time. This is one of the reasons why the phrase ‘a
global citizen’ has become trendy these days. In countries where large population of
immigrants have settled in, there is always pressure to shift towards the dominant
language. However, even in such cases, evidence shows that ethnic communities, in
US for example, try hard to maintain their languages and therefore their identities.
In our country, although we take great pride in being multilingual, and accept that it
can lead to metacognitive awareness and scholastic achievement, we forget this
reality in our classrooms. Our textbooks, education policies, curriculum, teachers
are all geared towards homogenizing our language classrooms. The linguistic
backgrounds of school children is often ignored and a standard language is imposed
as a medium of instruction. Children are not given the freedom to use the multiple
languages they already know in their classrooms. Unfortunately, this has led to further
122 alienation and done major damage to the identity of those children who are already
marginalized and are socially disadvantaged. If we begin to appreciate the multilingual Being a Multilingual
diversity in our classrooms, we may be able to follow the path of equality, social
justice and tolerance. A language teacher can play an important role in using
multilingualism as a resource in her class. Whether she is teaching a poem or grammar,
she can elicit multiple language data from children in her class through translation.
Once the data from several languages is on the board, children will be able to observe
similarities across Indian languages and generalize their own rules. Such a class
would be democratic as several languages get represented and no language assumes
a powerful status as a standard language. Multilingualism has to be the new norm in
our classrooms.
Check Your Progress 5
1. Find speakers of any two Indian languages along with Hindi to translate the
following questions given in English. Observe the data and write down the
similarities that you notice amongst Indian languages and the differences you
see with English:
a. Where are you going tomorrow?
b. Who are you going with?
c. Why are you going?
d. When will you return to Mumbai?
e. Which cities will you cross?
f. How are you going?
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1.6 LET US SUM UP

India is a multilingual country. It is characterized by linguistic diversity and
heterogeneity. It is not unusual to find people in our country who speak more than
two languages and maintain multiple identities. One of the main reasons for our
multilingual character is because of the four language families that exist in our country. 123
The Multilingual World Although distinct from each other, they share phonological, morphological and
of the Learner
syntactic similarities. It is time we started using multilingualism as a resource in our
classrooms so that we lay a path of social justice, especially for those marginalized
and socially deprived people whose languages are not valued outside or inside our
classrooms.

1.7 KEY WORDS

language family: is a group of languages related through descent from a
common ancestral language or parental language, called the proto-language of that
family. The term “family” reflects the tree model of language origination in historical
linguistics.
lingua franca: a language that is adopted as a common language between speakers
whose native languages are different.
multilingualism: is the use of more than one language, either by an individual speaker
or by a community of speakers. It is believed that multilingual speakers outnumber
monolingual speakers in the world’s population.
verbal repertoire: is the range of or set of language varieties used in the speaking
and writing practices of an individual or a speech community.
India as a linguistic area: a term used by Emmaneu to show linguistic convergence
in India where languages despite belonging to different language families show
common features.

1.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Agnihotri, R. K. (1998). Mixed codes and their acceptability. In R. K. Agnihotri,
A. L. Khanna, & I. Sachdev (Eds.), Social psychological perspectives on second
language learning (pp. 191– 215). New Delhi: SAGE.
Agnihotri, R. K. (2006). Identity and multilinguality: The case of India. In A. B.
M. Tsui & J. W. Tollefson (Eds.), Language policy, culture, and identity in Asian
contexts (pp. 185–204). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Agnihotri, R. K. (2009). Multilinguality and a new world order. In A. K. Mohanty,
M. Panda, R. Phillipson, & T. Skutnabb-Kangas (Eds.), Multilingual education for
social justice: Globalizing the local (pp. 268–277). New Delhi: Orient Blackswan.
Agnihotri, R. K. (2010). Multilinguality and the teaching of English in India.
The EFL Journal, 1, 1–14.
Gumperz, J. J. and R. Wilson (1971). Convergence and Creolization: A Case
from the Indo-Aryan/Dravidian Border in India. In D. H. Hymes (ed.),
Pidginization and Creolization of Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

1.9 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
Both 1 & 2 are open-ended questions.
124
Check Your Progress 2 Being a Multilingual

1. open-ended
2. Lingua Franca: a language that is adopted as a common language between
speakers whose native languages are different.
Check Your Progress 3
1. Language family: is a group of languages related through descent from a
common ancestral language or parental language, called the proto-language of
that family. The term “family” reflects the tree model of language origination
in historical linguistics.
2. Open-ended

Check Your Progress 4

1 & 2 are open-ended questions

Check Your Progress 5

1. Open-ended

125
The Multilingual World
of the Learner UNIT 2 USING MULTILINGUALISM
AS A RESOURCE
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Learning Theories and Language Teaching
2.3 The Indian Context
2.4 Multilingualism as a Resource
2.5 Consequences of Using Multilingualism as a Resource
2.6 Let Us Sum Up
2.7 Key Words
2.8 Suggested Readings
2.9 Answers

2.0 OBJECTIVES
This unit will enable you to:

 critically examine the role of learning theories and their influence on language
teaching methods;

 reflect on your own beliefs and classroom practices;

 appreciate that knowing and using more than one language is basic to each
one of us;

 explore how multilingualism can be used as a resource; and

 examine the long-term consequences of using multilingualism as a resource.

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Most of us in India grow up generally speaking more than one language and
listening to many languages around us. We use these languages easily, often
mixing or switching between them without consciously thinking about doing so.
For example, we may say to someone: aaj weather kitna zabardast hai! (How
awesome is the weather today!) or voh ladka jo corner seat par baitha hai
is so good looking (The boy who is sitting on the corner seat is so good looking).
In day to day conversations such utterances are common. And the remarkable
fluidity with which we make use of multiple languages in a variety of ways comes
naturally to us. In fact, if you question yourself whether you think in ‘a particular
language’ before speaking, you may find it difficult to answer that. This is because
you have access to more than ‘one language’ and these languages comprise
your verbal repertoire in multiple ways.
126
While informal settings give the freedom to come up with such utterances, formal Using Multilingualism as a
Resource
settings of schools do not. We are expected to stick to ‘a standard variety’
in our classrooms. Deviation from it or language variations find no place in
language classrooms. Students who come to school with a natural multilingual
orientation suddenly find themselves at a loss in a system where their verbal
repertoire is not valued. There is a continuous pressure in schools, for instance,
to allow only English in an English class and Hindi in a Hindi class. CCTV
cameras installed in some schools ensure that the medium of instruction remains
strictly English. It is not surprising then that students in such schools, where
language classes have no scope for accepting any other language other than
English or any language variation, find these classes threatening and non-engaging.
We all know that India is a multilingual country. We have four distinct language
families that despite their diversity share common linguistic features. Census data
and informal sources put the estimate of number of languages in India anywhere
between 400 to 1600+. And yet, this multilingual reality, also represented in
language classrooms, is completely ignored. Should not a multilingual classroom
demand multilingual solution? Should we not look for pedagogies that are rooted
in multilinguality? It’s time we rethink our curriculum, materials and pedagogies
based on our reality.
This unit will attempt to make you understand why it is important to reflect
on our beliefs and classroom practices based on our multilingual reality.
Check Your Progress 1
1. Do you allow your students to respond in Hindi/Regional language, a mix
of Hindi Regional language and English or any other language in your class?
What are your reasons for doing so?
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2. Make a linguistic profile of your class. Collect data to find out which
languages your students know, the age they acquired them, and region/
state they belong to. What does your data reflect?
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2.2 LEARNING THEORIES AND LANGUAGE

TEACHING
This section gives an overview of how behaviorism emerged as one of the most
influential learning theories of the19th century. Propagated by Watson, Ivan
Pavlov and B F Skinner, this school of thought established the role of environment
as primary in learning. It was believed that any behavior could be conditioned
over a period of time till it became a habit. Several experiments were conducted
on animals to prove that learning involved forming new habits. Language learning
was considered no different from any other behavior. 127
The Multilingual World While these developments were taking place in the field of psychology, the
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structuralists in the field of linguistics began to also look at languages as a set
of structures. People like Hockett, Bloomfield and Sapir focussed on rules that
governed these structures. Languages were broken down into simple structures
that could be taught in a linear and additive manner.
These perspectives therefore, with certain underlying assumptions, impacted how
languages were taught. Learners were largely seen as passive recipients of
knowledge and their mind as a storehouse where knowledge could be
accumulated. Languages were seen as distinct from one another, whether L1,
L2 or L3, that were organized as separate systems, almost as rigid compartments
in our mind.
The classical grammar translation method was in vogue in the 16th century. It
was used for teaching foreign languages, primarily Greek and Latin. Students
learnt grammar rules to be able to translate texts of one language into another.
The rules were learnt by rote and then practiced by doing grammar drills.
The Direct Method originated as an alternative to grammar translation method,
laying more stress on listening and speaking of L2, and vocabulary development.
It was believed that listening and speaking skills could be nurtured and developed
in L2 if learners practiced enough L2. This method prohibited the use of L1
in the classroom.
The audio lingual method came about as an outcome of Behaviourism. The advent
of audio technology during the 1950s pushed further the importance of developing
spoken skills in L2. This method focussed on training through a system of
reinforcement. To develop proficiency in L2, the teacher adopted the methodology
of using drilling and practice to teach grammar so that the learners could rote
memorize and mimic patterns of L2 repeatedly. Correct usage elicited positive
reinforcement and incorrect usage negative reinforcement till the time students
attained accuracy and perfection. Mistakes in L2 were considered pathologies
that had to be treated by more drills. The direct method and the audio lingual
method were similar in that they kept L1 out of classroom.
All these methods perceived the learners as mere passive recipients. However,
several methods that followed this such as the Humanistic method, the
Communicative method, have brought the attention on the active learner and
the learning context.
Check Your Progress 2
1. Do you think some elements of these language teaching methods prevail
even today in our classes? If yes, which ones?
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2. As teachers of English, do you feel that L1 should be not used in teaching
L2? Give at least two reasons to support your answer.
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128 .................................................................................................................
 Using Multilingualism as a
2.3 THE INDIAN CONTEXT Resource

Most of us perhaps don’t remember much of what was taught in our language
classrooms. But what we do remember is how we spent countless hours
memorizing rules of English grammar, learning definitions of parts of speech,
making sentences using difficult words, and copying questions and their answers
from the blackboard. Language classes focussed on developing discrete skills
in listening, speaking, reading and writing. Language textbooks were structured
‘from simple to complex’ beginning with decoding of letters of the alphabet to
words (that were random/decontextualized collection of words), followed by
short sentences and finally paragraphs. Nothing much seems to have changed
since then.

The bottom-up approach to teaching a language continues to exist in many

schools till date. With its focus primarily on learning the form of language rather
than its usage, it has failed to help students communicate for instance, in English
in their daily lives. While children are always fluent speakers of languages they
come to school with, they fail to achieve language fluency in English with
piecemeal formal training. The problem gets further aggravated because they
are not given the freedom to use languages that they already know in their
language classroom. Surely, the problem lies not with them but elsewhere. The
entire education system pushes for accuracy in learning a language through rote
learning. Language classes focus on grammar tasks, vocabulary building and
comprehension which is content-based rather than in actual communicative
situations. Mistakes are perceived as lack of learning. Opportunities to reflect
or express their own ideas are seldom provided. Exposure to authentic sources
of learning materials that exist in the form of story books, brochures,
advertisements, wrappers, cartoon strips, movies or documentaries remains
limited in classrooms. The textbook becomes the bible, initiating our children
to learn a language in a structured sequential manner.

Further, as teachers, we enforce homogeneous classrooms while the actual reality

is quite the opposite. We forget that students come from varied linguistic and
cultural backgrounds, with different levels of prior knowledge and experiences.
Outside the classrooms, we can observe how our students with different linguistic
backgrounds communicate with each other. They can be heard mixing languages
or switching between them. They don’t have the liberty to communicate the
way they naturally do inside our classrooms.

However, we need to re-think and re-examine our pedagogy and the long
tradition of nurturing a homogenous linguistic culture by focussing on one
dominant language in our classrooms. We will have to go beyond grammar
teaching. The focus will have to be on using authentic materials, texts and activities
that will give our students greater exposure. If we have to make language learning
engaging and meaningful, we will also have to accept the multilingual orientation
of our students and use it as a resource. We need to understand that if we
promote only the use of English in our classrooms, we signal to our students
that we don’t value their own languages or that variations of any sort are
unacceptable forms of language.
129
The Multilingual World Check Your Progress 3
of the Learner
1. Have a careful look at the English language textbook you use to teach
English. Try to analyze how the book is organized, the nature of its content
and exercises. What generalizations can you draw from it?
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2. Do you think it is important to go beyond our textbooks and workbooks
when we teach English to our students? Why or why not? Make a list
of some other authentic materials that you can use in your classrooms.
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2.4 MULTILINGUALISM AS A RESOURCE

Recent research has shown that in multilingual societies where people know
multiple languages, language boundaries are porous and fluid. What this means
is that people have internalized these languages to an extent that they do not
have to consciously think in one language before speaking in another. In other
words, people are inherently multilingual in such societies and have the ability
to use one or more languages, or switch or mix them according to the situational
domains they are in. If we accept this reality, we will have to accept that creating
homogenous classrooms where we impose one language and ignore the
multilingual reality will not work well. We are not fair to the children when
we dismiss their linguistic and cultural backgrounds. By doing so, we alienate
them and their backgrounds in our classroom. As teachers of English, it is time
we reflected on our beliefs and teaching practices.
It is possible to use the multilingual diversity as a resource in our classroom
by maintaining multilinguality at the centre of language teaching activities. But
how exactly do we do that? If you, for instance, have to teach them a poem
in English, what could you possibly do? Here are a few suggestions:
Get them first to recite the English poem.
Then, focus on the theme that it deals with.
Next, let them identify subtle elements and features of the poem that they may
identify.
Now, split your class into groups to translate the poem into any other language
of their choice.
Finally, get each group to present their translated versions of the poem.
What you will find is that once this activity is done, many rich discussions will
130 naturally emerge around the poem. What would become important in such an
exercise is not about the accuracy of translation but the process of translating Using Multilingualism as a
Resource
the poem. This activity will not only be cognitively challenging and more engaging,
but will also help your students to generalize rules of grammar on their own.
Students will begin to notice on their own that while Indian languages are verb-
final, English is verb-medial or that Indian languages have postpositions while
English has prepositions.
Let’s take another activity of forming plurals:
List some nouns in English with their plurals on the board
Next, ask a random set of students to come to the board and write the
equivalents words in the languages they know
Your board may end up with data like the following:
English Hindi Assamese Bangla Malyalam
cap-caps topi-topiyan tupi-tupibore tup-tupiguli tappi-tappigal
cat-cats billi-billiyan mexuri- bilie-bilieguli puchcha-
mexuribore puchchagal
book-books kitab-kitabe kitab-kitabore boi-boiguli pustakam-
pustagal
dog-dogs kutta-kutte kukur-kukurbore kukur- patti-pattigal
kukurguli
Even with this limited data, the students will take no time to observe, classify
and categorize the plural markers in each language. In one glance, they will
tell you that the plural marker in English is -s; Hindi -yan and -e; Assamese
-bore; Bangla -guli and Malyalam -gal. Further, they will observe that Assamese
and Bangla are quite similar in that they share vocabulary or that Hindi has
more than one plural marker or that although the plural marker is -s in English,
the realization of that -s is -z in the word ‘dogs’. You could then get them
to explore with more data in each language and generalize rules of their own.
They will discover that Hindi, for example, has more plural markers and that
almost all languages have exceptions where there is a zero plural marker (English:
sheep-sheep) or an odd one that is not affixed for a majority of words (English:
ox-oxen).
Another example of using multilingualism as a resource could be when you are
teaching them question formation in English. You could again get students to
write the equivalents of English information questions:
 English: Where did you go yesterday?
Hindi: aap kal kaha gaye the?
Haryanvi: tu kaal ki gaya tha?
Punjabi: tussi kal kitte gaye si?
 English: Why are you crying?
Hindi: aap kyon ro rahe ho?
Haryanvi: tu kya tayi rove hai?
Punjabi: tussi kyon ro rahe ho? 131
The Multilingual World  English: What have you brought?
of the Learner
Hindi: Aap kya laye hain?
Haryanavi: tu ke laya hai?
Punjabi: tussi ki liyaye ho?
Given this data on the board, you can ask you students to analyze it. They
will observe that in English, the question words begin with -wh whereas in Indian
languages with-k; that question words come in the sentence initial position in
English but that is not true for Indian languages. They can explore more data
of other languages and discover that all Indian languages behave similarly in
forming questions. The next step could be to get them to also write answers
to these questions, observe the data and generalize that the answer to each
question comes exactly beneath the question word in Indian languages but not
in English.
In Hindi for example:
aap kal kidhar gaye the?
me kal agra gaya tha.
Such activities will generate a lot of excitement and involvement of students
as they discover and learn more about their own languages along with English.
Rather than memorizing rules, they will learn to formulate rules on their own.
Check Your Progress 4
1. Elicit data from 2-3 other languages that are represented in your class on
the degrees of adjectives. Derive your own rules and discuss the similarities
and differences across languages.
English pretty-prettier-prettiest
Hindi sundar-bahut sundar-ati sunder
2. Do you agree that such activities can be incorporated in your teaching and
will help students to learn better? Why or why not?
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2.5 CONSEQUENCES OF USING

MULTILINGUALISM AS A RESOURCE
The above section would have hopefully made you think about your own teaching
methods and beliefs. While using such activities, your role and that of the
textbook or materials you use is bound to change. This may leave you feeling
insecure but you must understand that classroom transactions based on such
activities will actually enhance learning and redefine your role as an observer
and listener as opposed to a giver of knowledge. You will have to create a
linguistic profile of your students at the beginning of the year to know which
132 languages are represented in your class. You will have to also observe how
children interact with each other informally and if you can generalize certain Using Multilingualism as a
Resource
patterns of language use. Once you do this, you will feel more confident and
empowered to try out this approach to teach English. This of course does not
mean that the role of the textbook will totally get eliminated. You will just have
to find spaces within the context of your class to use multilingualism as a resource.
Your teaching strategy will automatically go through a change.
The benefits of using such activities will be far greater than the usual language
classes that focus on learning rules by rote. For example:
 Students and the language teacher will have enormous exposure to multiple
languages.
 Students will get an opportunity to represent their home languages in class.
 The level of participation and involvement will increase making learning more
engaging and meaningful for students.
 Students will gain confidence as they engage in group activities to observe,
classify, categorize languages and formulate rules on their own. This will
build their meta cognitive and linguistic awareness.
 The amount of data generated from within the classroom will far exceed
language data given in any standard textbook.
 The distance between the teacher and her students will narrow as the teacher
herself becomes a learner and a facilitator rather than an authoritarian figure
in the classroom.
 Teachers will constantly become reflective through this new teaching
practice.
 The whole teaching learning enterprise will revolve around functional
proficiency rather than having a limited focus on building discrete academic
skills.
 A social change may come about as students discover that all languages
are patterned, and rule governed. There is nothing superior or inferior, pure
or impure, or backward about any language.
Check Your Progress 5
Using multilingualism as a resource in your classroom, plan for an activity in
your class. Write down your observations about your own role and the impact
it had on your students’ learning.
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133
The Multilingual World
of the Learner 2.6 LET US SUM UP
We would all agree that language has a deep connection with our identities.
In India, most of us maintain multiple identities by being multilingual. If we
continue to promote monolingualism in our classrooms, we will do great injustice
to our students by recognizing merely one language that is not theirs. Adopting
multilingualism as an approach to teach English is likely to generate fascinating
learning opportunities and possibilities. Such a class will be sensitive to cultural
and linguistic diversity and help create an atmosphere of social tolerance, justice
while enhancing analytical and cognitive abilities of our students.

2.7 KEY WORDS

Behaviourist learning theory: a school of thought in psychology that viewed
animal and human behavior as habits that could be observed, measured and
conditioned over a period of time.

Structuralist learning theory: a school of thought in linguistics that looked

at form of language as a set of structures that could be broken down into
subparts.

Multilingualism: the ability to use fluently more than one language by an

individual or society

2.8 SUGGESTED READINGS

Agnihotri, R. K. 1995. Multilingualism as a classroom resource. In K. Heugh,
A. Sieruhn, & P. Pluddemann (eds.), Multilingual education for South Africa,
3–7. Johannesburg/Germany: Heinmann.

Agnihotri, R. K. 1997. Multilingualism, colonialism and translation. In S.

Ramakrishna (ed.), Translation and multilingualism: Post-colonial contexts,
34–46. Delhi, India: Pencraft International.

Agnihotri, R. K. (1998). Mixed codes and their acceptability. In R. K. Agnihotri,

A. L. Khanna, & I. Sachdev (Eds.), Social psychological perspectives on second
language learning (pp. 191– 215). New Delhi: SAGE.

Garcia, O. (2009). Education, multilingualism and translanguaging in the 21st

century. In

A. K. Mohanty, M. Panda, R. Phillipson, & T. Skutnabb-Kangas (Eds.),

Multilingual education

for social justice: Globalizing the local (pp. 128–145). New Delhi: Orient
Blackswan.

Pandit, P. B. 1988. Towards a grammar of variation. In L. M. Khubchandani

(ed.), Language in a plural society, 40–49. Delhi, India: Motilal Banarasidass
& Shimla IIAS.

134
 Using Multilingualism as a
2.9 ANSWERS Resource

Check Your Progress 1

1. This is to reflect on your teaching practice. If you do not allow any other
language other than English, is it because you feel that is the only way
they will learn and get exposure to English or is it because you feel that
their L1 will interfere with learning of English? If you allow mixing, switching
or use of any language, is it because you want your students to be as
comfortable in class as they are outside the class?
2. Creating a linguistic profile will help you to know your students better and
plan your activities that may require data from other languages. This data
will also help you to reflect on the fact how our classrooms are essentially
multilingual in nature.
Check Your Progress 2
1. This question will help you to reflect on the role of teacher, textbook, and
the teaching methodology. For example, do we still not focus on dictation
of words that our students memorize and reproduce?
2. This is about your beliefs. If you believe that L1 interferes with L2 learning,
why do you believe so?
Check Your Progress 3
1. Textbook analysis should help you to comment on the nature of its content,
organization and exercises. Is the book guided by behaviouristic principles
or does it have any scope of independent analysis and link with the personal
experiences of the learners?
2. This is to help you identify some authentic materials on your own. These
could be films, documentaries, magazine articles, wrappers etc. You will
have to think of activities around them and the purpose of using such
materials.
Check Your Progress 4
1. The purpose of this activity is to see how Indian languages are similar in
nature and different from English. The basic reason for this is the different
word orders that Indian languages have as opposed to English.
2. This is an open-ended question. You will have to first believe that
multilingualism is indeed a resource and then try out an activity in your
own classroom.
Check Your Progress 5
This is also an open-ended activity.

135
The Multilingual World
of the Learner UNIT 3 CODE-SWITCHING AND
CODE-MIXING
Objectives
3.0 Objectives

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Pre-requisites to Code-Mixing and Code-Switching

3.2.1 Language Contact

3.2.2 A Linguistic Community

3.3 Mixing Codes

3.3.1 What is a Code?

3.3.2 Conditions for Code-Mixing and Code-Switching

3.4 The Language of Code Mixing

3.4.1 What is Code Mixing?

3.4.2 Study of the Language of Code Mixing in Written Language

3.4.3 The Language Aspect of Conversational Code-Mixing

3.5 Constraints on Code-Mixing

3.6 Switching Codes

3.6.1 Switching and Mixing

3.6.2 Motivation for Code-Switching – Does the Speaker always

have a reason for Switching Codes?

3.7 Let Us Sum Up

3.8 Things to Do – Points to Ponder

3.9 Key Words

3.10 References and Further Readings

3.0 OBJECTIVES
In this Unit, we shall consider the pre-requisites to code mixing and code-
switching, the meaning of ‘code’ in the context of ‘mixing’ and ‘switching’ and
also the requisites for them to occur in written and interpersonal communication.
Linguists’ views on the language and the constraints on code-mixing, and the
motivation for this will be presented with examples from their data. We shall
then look at other samples of conversation to see whether speakers always
have a considered reason for switching codes. We will also look at linguists
views on the difference between code mixing and code switching.
136
After completing this Unit you should be able to: Code-Switching and Code-
Mixing
 understand the background against which code mixing and code switching
occur;
 recognize code mixing and code switching as natural phenomena in bi/
multilingual settings with special reference to India;
 recognize the Indian multilingual setting as different from other bilingual/
multilingual nations;
 analyze the use of a mixed code and code switching and its possible
motivation in written and oral communication; and
 appreciate the fact that the use of more than one language can help students
to make meaning in the language learning process.

3.1 INTRODUCTION
You have already learnt that in most countries there are at least two languages
that are spoken and/or written. In other words, people of most countries in
the world today use more than one language to communicate. You have also
seen that in India people are by and large bilingual and a large number are
multilingual. And this ability can be used to great advantage in the classroom.
In a bi/multilingual setting different languages co-exist and are used to perform
different functions. These functions depend upon the role a language plays in
a particular setting. For example, the official language of a state is generally
used in all official (administrative) communication. In English speaking countries
the official language is English, though in the private domain other languages
may be used along with English. In India the situation is quite complex. Hindi
is the official language and English the associate official language of the Central
Government. While the language used by the States to communicate with the
Centre is Hindi/English, the official language of each state is the first language
of that State. Thus Tamil is used as the official language of Tamil Nadu. Telugu
is the official language of Andhra Pradesh, Bengali is the official language of
Bengal and so on. Other labels that indicate the status and functions of a language
are tribal language, minority language, regional language, link language.
Unlike the names of languages the labels are not naturally exclusive. A tribal
language may be an official language, as Mizo is the official language of Mizoram.
A scheduled language like Sindhi is a minority language. Sometimes the labels
also change when socio-political changes take place. For example, Konkani,
which was a minority language become a majority language when the new State
of Goa was created and it also became its official language and a scheduled
language listed in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. Such forces that bring
about a change in the status of the language are due to the social and political
forces.
The kind of structural and functional relation between languages in multilingual
settings have a bearing on the choice of language for a given purpose. The
choice is not entirely free. For example, the role of Hindi as the official language
of Himachal Pradesh, precludes the use of a Pahadi language for official work.
Thus if an official role is assigned to a language, it prevents another language 137
The Multilingual World from being assigned the same role. However, the official status of a language
of the Learner
need not necessarily affect an individual’s use of language in the private domain.
The freedom that an individual has to choose the language they wish to
communicate in is dependent on several factors such as knowledge of the
language of people they interact with (if it is different from their first language),
the context (formal/informal), the topic of conversation, etc. Sometimes when
two individuals speak different languages and do not know each other’s first
language, communication is possible only when a third language known to both
is chosen, depending on the attitude they have to the third language they choose.
For example, when a Tamil or Malayalam speaker and a Hindi speaker
communicate with each other they would most probably choose English, because
it is a neutral language and therefore, more acceptable. Often the social
relationship between interlocutors influences the choice of language for
communication. Generally, in such cases the language of the person with higher
social status is chosen. But all other things being equal, individuals in India tend
to use two languages known to them – switching between them or mixing them,
creating a code-mixed variety which has a form of its own. Educated speakers
in India who know English and an Indian language, mix English with the Indian
languages. Speakers who do not know English may mix Hindi with their mother
tongue, for example, an Indian in Himachal Pradesh may mix Hindi with Pahadi/
Himachali.
In this Unit, we shall study the phenomenon of code-mixing and code-switching
as an aspect of the unique multilingual setting in India. We shall consider pre-
requisites to code-mixing and code-switching, and look at some requisites for
these. We shall also examine the language factor in code mixing, that is,
constraints on code mixing, and possible motivation for code mixing.
In the next section, we look at the backdrop against which code mixing and
code switching happens.

3.2 PRE-REQUISITES TO CODE-MIXING AND

CODE-SWITCHING
3.2.1 Language Contact
When we consider a sociolinguistic phenomenon such as code mixing and code
switching we pre-suppose the co-existence of two or more languages or varieties
of a language in a state, and each of these languages or varieties of a language
has its own place and function in various domains. When we say these languages
co-exist we mean that these languages come into contact with each other because
they form part of a speaker’s competence, that is, the same individual may
know more than one language / variety of a language and therefore have two
or more co-existing competencies. They could draw on these competencies in
different contexts. From the point of view of communication this would form
an individual’s repertoire. In addition to ‘intra-personal’ contact of languages,
‘interpersonal’ contact between people using more than one language in public
and private domains naturally results in these languages coming into contact as
well. This is evident in code-mixing and code-switching in bi/multilingual
communities.

138
3.2.2 A Linguistic Community Code-Switching and Code-
Mixing
A linguistic community is a group of people who share the same language.
Members of this community, who are monolingual may have a high and a low
variety. The high variety is formally learnt by instruction and used in “formal”
social contexts such as public speech, classroom instruction and for identification
of knowledge and its transmission in the written mode. A multilingual community
is one in which speakers know and are able to use more than one language
for communication. Competence in more than one language can be viewed from
individual as well as social perspectives.
India is a multilingual country. There are speakers of 200 languages that
historically belong to four different language families, viz., Indo European (54)
Dravidian (20), Austro-Asiatic (20) and Sino-Tibetan (84). The rest (22) are
unclassified and foreign languages. These languages are abstractions of our
11,600 mother tongues reported by the people in the 1961 census. This language
diversity is not merely demographic, it is also functional. There are 22 official
languages used as medium of administration, 43 educational languages used as
medium of instruction at the primary level, nearly 100 languages used as medium
of information dissemination through print and so on.
Though the country is divided into states on linguistic lines, each state is
multilingual. Linguistic minorities vary from 4% in Kerala to almost 40% in
Manipur. The States are multilingual to different degrees.
While there are two official languages (English and Hindi) of the Central
Government, the official languages of the states are as many as there are states.
At the level of the individual, we often come across people with competence
in at least two languages, sometimes even three or four, owing to increased
inter-state mobility. But at the socio-political level the choice of language tends
to get restricted to two or at best three languages. Knowledge of a number
of languages serves as a resource for individuals to communicate with others
successfully. When they use two or more languages alternately at either the level
of the word, or the level of the phrase or the sentence they code-mix or code-
switch. Before we consider the aspects from which code mixing/code-switching
have been examined by linguists we shall briefly look at what a ‘code’ means
and what the requisites are for people to mix or switch codes.

3.3 MIXING CODES

3.3.1 What is a Code?
The first question that comes to mind when one refers to code mixing/switching
is ‘what is a code?’ Strictly speaking a ‘code’ is defined in the Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary as ‘a system of words, letters, numbers or symbols that
represent a message or records information secretly or in a shorter form’. Looked
at from the perspective of language as a system of communication it would
mean an arrangement of words in a rule-governed system that convey meaning.
Thus a mixed code would be one in which two codes with different systems
are combined to make meaning. What are the requisites for code mixing?

139
The Multilingual World 3.3.2 Conditions for Code-Mixing and Code-Switching
of the Learner
Some conditions are necessary for code mixing/switching to happen. The first
of these is a knowledge of or an awareness of at least two codes (languages
or language varieties). Code mixing, in other words can only happen if
participants in an interaction know at least two languages. Not only should they
know two languages they should also share the same two languages. For
example, code mixing or code switching cannot happen between two people
one of whom knows Tamil and Malayalam and the other English and Marathi.
The extent to which two individuals mix codes can vary according to their
competence in the languages they use to communicate.
Look at some real-life conversations, for example:
1 A: Thambi, please give me Tayir (curd).
B: Yes, yes, bring bring. (serves A with curd)
A: Kunjam kunjam
B: Little, little.
A: thank you.
2 A: Please buy karapurvalli, I like them. (a variety of banana in
Tamil Nadu)
B: Yes, yes get Tumaro.
A: NaLLairku (nice is)
B: Hahaha…
3 A: Aap ke pass printed material hai – suuti (cotton)
B: Ha hai memsaheb. Aaie dekhye.
A: Bahot dark colours nahii chaahiye.
B: Jo chahiye vohii dikhaaunga. Ye dekhiye… Ye le test hai, ekdam
new. Rung fast hai, garenTiiD.
In the first and second conversations it is clear that A and B do not speak
a common Indian language. A knows English well and B’s first language is Tamil.
A also has a smattering of Tamil and B a smattering of English. A uses mainly
English and switches to Tamil only at the word level. Hence the Tamil words
tayir, kunjam – KarpurvaLLi and a short utterance – naLLa irku.
In spite of the use of single words in the switched code, communication happens.
Code mixing is thus used as an effective communicative device.
In dialogue 3, A knows both English and Hindi well. B responds to A’s query
in Hindi at first, then switches to English words to describe the material he
is selling ‘latest’, ‘new’, ‘fast hai’, ‘garantiid.’
Look at another conversation in which all the speakers know English well and
but for one speaker have Tamil as their first language.
140
 A: Have you seen the invitation card? Code-Switching and Code-
Mixing
B: What invitation?
A: To an evening of two plays by Becket.
B: No.
A: (Shows the card)
B: Ah. (Reads the card)
Lights… Narsingh Rao
Oh the same Narsingh Rao
A: Yes. Have you seen Daasi.
B: No.
C: I haven’t either.
A: I’m told they’re going to show all these films on TV.
D: When?
A: I don’t know. They’re going to show ViiDu next Sunday.
C: Archana acts in that, doesn’t she?
B: Yes.
D: In what?
C: ViiDule modal modelle aekTpaNNi naale.
Notice that the entire conversation is in English until the very end when C
unpredictably switches to Tamil and utters the entire sentence in Tamil. The entire
conversation is in English because one of the participants doesn’t know Tamil,
and has a mother tongue other than Tamil. It is clear from these examples that
in terms of functional value and prestige, English is important in the Indian
multilingual setting.

3.4 THE LANGUAGE OF CODE MIXING

3.4.1 What is Code Mixing?
Before we consider the ‘language factor’ in code mixing we would like to point
out that code mixing/switching is not a simple case of borrowing used to fill
in gaps that may occur in the lexicon of a given language. The phenomenon
can be noticed even when equivalents in the two languages exist. Moreover,
unlike borrowings, code mixed elements do not necessarily get assimilated into
the recipient language by regular linguistic change.

3.4.2 Study of the Language of Code Mixing in Written

Language
The study of code mixing/switching by linguists presupposes the acceptance of
these as a natural phenomenon of bi-/multilingualism governed by rules like any
other natural language. Thus Kachru (1975) discusses the formal aspects of
code mixing and says that it involves ‘functioning at least, in a disystem, and
141
The Multilingual World as a consequence, developing another linguistic code comprising formal features
of the Learner
of two or more codes. Kachru examines the various linguistic units and processes
which are involved in code mixing (Hindi-English) with examples primarily from
Hindi magazines/newspapers. In other words, the examples are those of the
written variety of code mixing.
(a) Unit Insertion: This according to Kachru refers to the introduction of a
grammatical unit above a word in a sentence (e.g., a noun phrase or a
verb phrase) from another language. for example,
i. NP Insertion
1 tenk va redar prapt karne ki bhi yojna (Navbharat Times NBT 8.3.75)
tank and radar procure do of also scheme
ii. VP Insertion
2 Vipaksh dvara vak aut (NBT-7.3.75)
Opposition by walkout
(b) Unit Hybridization: This refers to the use of code mixing within a unit, say
for example a NP, a VP or a compound verb.
3 isliye cans lene ke siva hamare pas koi upay nahi tha
Therefore chance take – except our near any alternative not was
(Dharmayug (D) 17.6.73)
4 Sarkas aur numayis yaha phel hai
Circus and exhibition here fail are
Kachru says that this process has developed into an extremely productive
process for ‘mixing’ Indian languages such as Hindi, Urdu with non-Indian
languages, English and Persian. This process is most productive in producing
what are termed ‘compound verbs’ and ‘conjunct verbs’. For example,
(1st type) expect karna ‘to expect’; satisfy karna ‘to satisfy’; examples of
the 2nd type are ‘holiday lena’ ‘to take a holiday’; ‘permission dena’ ‘to
grant permission’.
(c) Sentence insertion: It means inserting a sentence of one language into
another language for example:
5 parhne me Sima ki bahut ruchi hai vah kahti hai
Education is necessary for life (D, 29, 4.73)
(d) Idiom and Collocation Insertion: The idioms and collocations of English
have generally a higher frequency of occurrences in code mixed Indian
languages, than, say, proverbs. Some of the examples given are:
6 aur mai parivartan ghar se suru karuga kyuki
and I change home from begin will do because
Charity begins at home. (D, 29.4.73)
142
7 tum ko ho kya gaya why do you cry over spilt milk Code-Switching and Code-
Mixing
to you happen what ……………………………….
sab thik ho jayega
all fine will become
(e) Inflection attachment and re-duplication
There are a number of English and Persian borrowings in South Asian languages
in such code mixing, e.g. sakuti digri vala (a person who possesses a school
degree; D, 12.8.73)
The process of re-duplication, which is very common in South Asian languages,
is applied to English items, e.g.
8 …acting (acting) …vekting mai ka janu re
(Saptahik Hindustan 29. 7.7.3)

3.4.3 The Language Aspect of Conversational Code-Mixing

Some studies have analysed Hindi English code mixing in conversation. Ira Pandit
(1986) has made an attempt to describe some aspects of the syntax of Hindi
English code mixing. We give below some of the examples from her analyses
of the data she recorded.
Simple sentences
A Head noun in subject noun phrase in English + copula in Hindi
1 Society hii aisii hai
subject copula
Society is like that.
2 Itti opportunities hain
subject copula
There are so many opportunities.
B Head noun in subject noun phrase in English + intransitive verb in Hindi
3 atmosphere itanaa informal ho jaata hai
subject verb intran
The atmosphere becomes so informal.
4 pataa nahiin kabse yeh trend chal rahaa hai
subject verb intran
No one knows since when this trend has been going on.
C Genitive noun phrase in the subject position
i Modifying noun phrase and genitive morpheme in Hindi + head noun
phrase in English + verb in Hindi
5 Bachchon kaa expenditure kuch kam nahiin hotaa hai
Mod Gen Head
The amount that has to be spent on children is by no means small. 143
The Multilingual World ii Modifying noun phrase and head noun phrase in English, genitive morpheme
of the Learner
in Hindi + verb in Hindi
6 Joint family ke advantage bahot saare hain
Mod NP Gen Head
iii Modifying nounphrase and genitive morpheme in Hindi + head noun phrase
in English + verb in English
7 hamaara opinion carries no weight
Mod Gen Head V
My opinion carries no weight.
VERB PHRASE CONSTRUCTIONS
D Predicate adjective in English + copula in Hindi
8 vo thoraa backward hai
Pred Adj cop
E Predicate adjective in English + intransitive verb in Hindi
9 abnormal thoraa saa ho jaate hain
Pred Adj int
They become a little abnormal.
F Object in English + Verb in Hindi
10 aise narrow escapes roz nazar aate hain
Object V
Such narrow escapes are seen everyday.
G Adverbials in English + verb in Hindi
11 Usko definitely pataa chal jaataa hai
Adv V
He gets to know about it definitely.
H Adverbials in Hindi + verb in English
12 yahaan par they are not from poor families.
Adv V
Here they are not from poor families.
CONJUNCT VERB/NOUN + VERB CONSTRUCTIONS
I Noun in English + Verb in Hindi
13 hamane usako baraa suggest kiyaa ki tum science le lo.
N V
COMPOUND SENTENCES
J Conjoined sentences
i First conjunct in Hindi + conjunction in Hindi + second conjunct in
144 English
 14 adults kii nahiin hai lekin it should be for adults. Code-Switching and Code-
Mixing
conj
It’s not for adults but it should be for them.
ii First conjunct in English + conjunction in English + second conjunct
in Hindi
15 I don’t say anything because larakiyaan mujhse chiratii hain
I don’t say anything because the girls are jealous of me.
iii First conjunct in English + conjunction in Hindi + second conjunct
in English
16 It is the psychology which is important aur the psychological aspect
you know differs from person to person. Conj
COMPLEX SENTENCES
K Conditionals
i “If” clause in Hindi “then” clause in English beginning with the Hindi
“tab”/ “to”
17 agar tum baat karo unakii personal life ke bare men
If you talk about their personal life.
to they take more interest in their studies.
then
ii “If” clause in English “then” clause in Hindi.
18 If you can get a good servant to thiik hai.
It is all right if you can get a good servant.
L Complement Sentence
i Matrix sentence in Hindi, complementizer in English, embedded
sentence in English
19 ye log impression aisaa dete hain that they are very busy.
comp
These people give the impression that they are very busy.
20 She said kii do spirits aayiin room men and said kii ye bachcha hai
comp comp
isko le chalate hain
She said that two spirits came into the room and said that this is
the child they should take away.
ii Matrix sentence in Hindi, complementizer in Hindi, embedded sentence
in English.
21 to ye bolataa hai kii you be ready and we will run away.
comp
Then he says that you be ready and we will run away. 145
The Multilingual World M Relative clauses
of the Learner
i main clause in Hindi, relative clause in English
22 Hamaari class men kaii girls hain who have got good marks.
Rel cl
There are many girls in my class who have got good marks.
ii Main clause in English, relative clause in Hindi
23 PCS men jo larakiyaan hain they are much better.
The girls who are in PCS are much better.
From the numerous examples of structures in the data on code mixing it is
clear that it is a complex phenomenon; and though the nature and extent of
code mixing is highly unpredictable in face-to-face oral interaction, it seems to
be systematic.

3.5 CONSTRAINTS ON CODE-MIXING

Though the number of languages studied in code mixing is rather limited, linguists
have proposed some universal constraints on code mixing. The existence of
universal constraints is based on the assumption that the mixed code has the
properties of a natural language. The assumed linguistic properties of the mixed
code according to Annamalai (IJSL 75, 1989) are (a) mixing is governed by
levels of units such as word level, clause level, sentence level and so on (b)
it is sensitive to syntactic constituents like Noun Phrase, Verb Phrase, etc. and
(c) it is a variable with reference to word classes such as nouns verbs etc.
Here we shall look at the constraints / restrictions on code mixing in South
Asian languages as proposed by Kachru (1975). According to him, there seems
to be a cline of acceptability in code-mixing. It is not an open-ended process
either grammatically or lexically. He illustrates this with the following constraints.
A Rank shift constraint
The rank-shifted constructions are not from English. For example the
following sentences are an odd mix.
*1 voh kitab which is on the table meri hai
That book …………………...mine is.
*2 mera voh amriki dost who lives in Chicago aj hamare ghar ayega
My that American friend ……….................…………..today our
house will come
B Conjunction constraint
i In code mixing of South Asian languages and English conjunctions (and,
or, etc.) are not used to conjoin two NPs. The following sentences
sound odd, for example

146
 *3 NP and NP aye the. Code-Switching and Code-
Mixing
*4 mai usko akhbar deta but diya nahi
I to him newspaper give gave not
Kachru says that conjoining two sentences from two languages is,
however, common.
bhai, khana khao and let us go.
brother meal eat
ii The conjoining item is from the same language in which the
conjoined sentence is introduced. Therefore, the following sentence
is not the preferred construction.
*6 John abhi aya nahi lekin I must wait for him.
John yet come not but
C Determiner constraint
There are several constraints on the items which can be code mixed in
a noun phrase in pre-head position.
*7 vaha five sundar larkiya parh rahi thi (numeral)
*8 tum this sundar larki ki bat kar rahe the?
These sentences according to Kachru sounded odd.
D Complementizer Constraint
i If the two sentences are from the same source languages, a
complementizer from another source is not inserted.
*9 mujhe lagta hai that ram kal aayega
to me seems aux… Ram tomorrow will come
ii Given two sentences from two sources (say, Hindi and English) the
preference is given to a complementizer from the language used in
the first sentence, e.g.
10 muje lagta hai ki ram will come tomorrow
To me seems aux that Ram…
This is especially true with verbs of perception (e.g. sunna ‘to hear’, sochna
‘to think’) or verbs of saying (e.g., kehna ‘to say’; batana ‘to tell’)
But Pandit has counter examples to some of the above constraints in her data.
For example, conjunction constraint B (i) and (ii)
(i) Uske bhai and bahan aane waale hote hain
conj
Raja raao and baadal sarcar hii nahiin hain library men
(ii) Sentences 14, 15 and 16 above of Pandit’s data.
147
The Multilingual World There are counter examples to Kachru’s complementizer constraint [D (i)
of the Learner
and (ii)]
Examples:
(i) You get an idea kii this is the sort of novel you are reading.
comp
(ii) She said kii do spirits aayiin room men and said kii ye baccha hai isko
Comp Comp
le chalate hain
She said that two spirits came into the room and said that this is the child
they should take away.
- She thinks kii she is in the way.
Comp
- You know they feel kii baraa kuchh garbar maamlaa hai.
Comp
There is something seriously wrong.
Pandit also has counter examples to Kachru’s Rank shift/Restrictive relative
clause constraint in which an English relative clause cannot be embedded
into a Hindi sentence.
Consider the following:
- hamaari class men kaii girls hain who have got good marks.
Rel clause
College main kuchh larakiyaan hain who have boy friends.
Ref Clause
The fact that in the data a Hindi restrictive relative clause is embedded
in an English main clause also challenges this constraint. Look at the
following sentence, for example.
- PCS men jo larakiyaan hain they are much better.
Ref Clause
The difference in the data on code mixing and the counter examples indicate
that there is not enough research and data on code mixing/code switching that
can make it predictable. Only a huge data base could help us formulate a ‘system’
in terms of the language of code-mixing/code switching.

3.6 SWITCHING CODES

3.6.1 Switching and Mixing
What is the difference between code mixing and code switching? You might
ask.
When we switch codes we use a different language or variety of language midway
through a stretch of speech. Switching codes could either be partial and involve
only a part of a sentence or clause or phrase, and result in a code mixed variety
148 as we have seen above, or it could be a switch to another languages so that
it forms a large chunk of speech in an interaction. This is longer stretch of Code-Switching and Code-
Mixing
speech in a different language and is a characteristic of code switching. In other
words, the stretches of the languages involved are generally longer in switching
than in mixing, and we can speak of mixing as concerning a unit of grammar
and switching as concerning a unit of discourse.

3.6.2 Motivation for Code-Switching – Does the Speaker

Always have a Reason for Switching Mixing Codes?
Linguists have made attempts (Grumperg 1971, Kumar 1987, Pandit 1986) to
study the factors that trigger a switch. Change in the context, in role relationships
may trigger a switch from English to the mother tongue and vice versa. A change
in the topic of discourse may elicit code switching. The value attached to a
language or a dialect, and sometimes the intention of the speaker may be
expressed by a switch.
In India, the use of English could occur in formal situations in the spoken as
well as the written forms, because English is associated with official and formal
contexts in the public domain. However, a switch to a common mother tongue
cannot be ruled out when the topic of conversation shifts from the domain of
office to the personal domain or when the boss in an organization switches
to a common mother tongue to accommodate those who are not fluent in English.
In a study conducted on the use of English in industries in Andhra Pradesh
(Sadanand 1983), it was found that executives at the highest levels in urban
industrial organizations switched from English to Hindi/Urdu/Telugu and vice versa
depending on the language the employees were comfortable with. Therefore,
it is not always the case that interaction in the public domain (workplace) is
restricted to English. The senior executives were flexible in their use of language,
in this case it was not the topic of conversation (which was most often technical)
nor was it the role relationship (relative rank in an organization) that triggered
a switch. It was in fact the senior executive’s desire to communicate effectively
in order to ‘get the job done’ which was the primary aim. The motivation for
switching codes was sociostrategic in the public domain.
Another reason for switching codes in socio-political contexts (public domain)
could be to make a point more forcefully, impress the listener and convince
them. Recently, there was a newspaper article (Deccan Chronicle, 5th October,
2014 p.10) on the Prime Minister’s use of English alliteration in his speeches
in Hindi as one of his devices to turn a simple concept into something appealing.
Modi spoke of the “5Ts” (talent, traditional, tourism, trade and technology) to
build brand India. On a TV channel Mr. Modi said the country needed the
3S’s (skill, scale, and speed) to match China.
It is evident from the examples above that codes switches in the public domain
are motivated primarily by the desire to get their message across effectively.
In the personal domain the motivation for code switching/mixing could either
be socio-cultural or socio-psychological.
Look at the following telephone conversation.
A: Hi, how are you?
B: Hi. I’m quite well, thanks. I’ve been very busy……….long hours of teaching
…………. A huge portion to cover. 149
The Multilingual World A: I just hope you don’t feel stressed. Have you to teach today?
of the Learner
B: No. mujhe chaothe pe jana hai at 9.30.
A: Oh, then you must be getting ready to go, main phir bat karungi. Bye!
B: Bye!
B’s switch to Hindi is owing to the occasion ‘chaotha’, a prayer meeting on
the fourth day after someone’s death, which is a part of Indian culture. But
A’s switch to Hindi is not easy to explain.
Look at another real-life conversation
A: I waited for you yesterday evening.
B: I’m so sorry. I should’ve called you. But I lost your number.
A: That’s OK. I’ll give you my number now.
B: You know I had to go to my cousin’s house. Uska pehla Karva Chauth
tha.
Here B switches to Hindi because ‘Karva Chauth’ is culture specific. In North
India it is celebrated nine days after Dussehra. On this day women fast and
pray for the long life of their husbands. The first fast after marriage is a special
occasion.
In both these conversations, the trigger seems to have been a socio-cultural
event which is typically Indian.
These examples, however, should not lead us to believe that all such instances
invariably trigger a switch. Individuals may vary among themselves and a
speaker may vary from one context to another in what s/he mixes and how
much s/he mixes to express herself/himself. There is thus a certain degree of
indeterminacy.
Again in the personal domain individuals may sometimes mix codes, switching
to the language of the person spoken to in order to identify with them. The
switch may signal a friendly attitude and thus establish a good rapport with
him/her. For instance, in dialogues 1 and 2 in section 3.3.2 speaker A and
B have different mother tongues, so A uses English to communicate with B
but switches to Tamil words to identify with B who in turn uses the little English
he knows and thus a friendly atmosphere is created.
In dialogue 3, A uses Hindi, which she knows well mixed with English to ask
for what she wants. B in turn uses Hindi mixed with English to indicate that
he has understood A. While the choice of English words by B in the mixed
code is intended to attract the customers attention to the quality of the material
and promote his business, it is not clear why A has switched to ‘printed materials’
and ‘dark colours’. It is possible that A did not have an appropriate Hindi
equivalent for the word ‘printed’. But there is a common Hindi word for ‘dark
colours’ (gehre rang). So the motivation for a switch in the latter case is not
easy to explain.
In ‘Some Observations on Motivation’ for code switching, Ashok Kumar (1987)
attempts a neat classification of the ‘considerations’ that dictate the alteration
150
from ‘Hindi to English’. This is based on a study of Hindi-based bilinguals.
a) Switching under emotional stress; Code-Switching and Code-
Mixing
b) Switching for imposing authority;
c) Switching for fashion;
d) Inevitable, technical code-switching;
e) Switching for business;
f) Switching in creative writing;
g) Euphemistic code-switching; and
h) Switching for reinforcement
While it may be possible that a switch from Hindi to English is triggered by
these considerations, the switching of codes in the following narration (Pandit
1986, p. 66) cannot be attributed to any motivation or change in the topic
of discourse.
1 I had gone to Kamala Nagar Mr. Puri ke saath.
2 We wanted to go kyonki kuch khareedanaa tha.
3 You know that place Birla Mills ke pass?
4 When you go to Amba raaste men naheen hai?
5 As it is my husband is very nervous jahaan tak merii driving kaa savaal
hai.
6 Vo mujhe drive naheen karene dete aur main bhii.
7 I don’t’ tell him in the morning kii main car le jaa rahii huun.
8 Us din to I had a very narrow escape.
9 Vahaan se murane lage vo jo roundabout naheen hai?
10 I was just turning.
11 Vahaan se ek private bus aa rahi thii.
12 Vo itanii speed se aayee.
13 I had just turned.
14 Vo itnii jyada speed se aayee aur usane moraa aur front mein, right side
pe badly touch huyii gaarii.
15 Itanii zor se aawaaz huyii kii I can’t tell you.
16 I was so scared.
17 Maine car rok dii.
18 I put a stop otherwise to sub kuch khatam ho gayaa hotaa.
Thus A’s narration of how she narrowly escaped a terrible accident illustrates
the difficulty of describing all instances of code mixing in terms of motivation.
Switching to a code mixed variety is common in the unique Indian multilingual
setting. This is probably owing to two or more co-existing competencies in the
individual which he/she may draw upon for communicating meaning.

151
The Multilingual World
of the Learner 3.7 LET US SUM UP
We have seen that language contact is a pre-requisite to code mixing and code
switching. It is essential for two or more languages to co-exist in the individual
and between people for them to code switch. Each of the languages that co-
exist is a resource for various communicative and social functions. A community
in which its members know and speak more than one language is a bi/multilingual
community. India is a multilingual country with speakers of about 200 languages,
which are used for various functions such as mediums of administration, mediums
of instruction at the primary level and mediums of information dissemination
through print media.
When we speak of a sociolinguistics phenomenon such as code-switching and
code-mixing we mean that a ‘code’ is an arrangement of words that convey
meaning within a rule-governed system. Mixing codes would then mean that
two different systems are combined to make meaning. In order to mix codes
the speakers must share at least two codes (languages or language varieties).
Code mixing must not be mistaken for a simple case of borrowing used to
fill in gaps that may occur in the lexicon of a given language. Unlike borrowings
the elements do not necessarily get assimilated into the recipient language.
Linguists discuss the formal aspect of code mixing and code switching on the
basis of the assumption that they have the properties of a natural language.
The existence of universal constraints also follows from the same assumptions.
We have looked at the constraints proposed by Kachru (on Hindi/Urdu-English
code mixing) based on data of written and spoken language and an analysis
(Pandit 1986) of the structure of code mixed Hindi-English in conversation
followed by counter examples of Kachru’s constraints. The latter demonstrate
the indeterminate nature of code switching and the need to have a very large
data base for the properties of code mixing and code switching to be more
predictive.
We have considered possible reasons/motivations for code switching in the public
and personal domains and have listed a number of reasons (Ashok Kumar 1987)
given for switching from Hindi to English. By giving an example of data from
Pandit, however, we have drawn your attention to the difficulty of describing
all instances of code switching in terms of motivation.

3.8 THINGS TO DO – POINTS TO PONDER

1 What is your mother tongue? Why do you think it is your mother tongue?
2 How many languages (other than your mother tongue) do you know? Tick
the right column:
Language Well Not so well Not well at all

152
3 How many languages do you use to communicate with others? Code-Switching and Code-
Mixing
4a Make notes of your own use of language in different contexts. Do you
mix codes?
4b Which languages do you use at work, in class, at home with family, with
friends and neighbours?
5 Record three conversations of educated bilinguals who know English. Did
any of the participants use a code-mixed variety? Did mixing happen at
the level of the word (as in dialogues 1 and 2 in 3.3.2…? or/and at the
level of the phrase or/and at the level of the whole sentence? You could
refer to Pandit’s analysis of code-mixed language.
6 Look at the possible reasons/motivations for code-switching listed by Ashok
Kumar. Can you apply any of these or any others to the code-switching
in the conversations you recorded?

3.9 KEY WORDS

Bilingual A bilingual is one who uses more than one language.
Linguistic community A group of people who share a language and norms
of its use as well as values assigned to it.
Multilingual community A linguistic community sharing more than one language
and their functional allocation.
Language repertoire The set of languages a speaker possess and uses.
Mother tongue One of the languages in the language repertoire of
a speaker which is used to identify him or her socially.
Borrowing Borrowing is the use of words and grammatical
features from another language, which are assimilated
into the system of the recipient language.
Mixing The alternative use of words and grammatical structure
of another language by a bilingual to convey social
meanings.
Constraints Systematic restrictions on mixing; violation of a
constraint will give an odd/ill-formed mixed sentence.
Switching The alternate use of another language for the length
of a discourse unit when there is a change in
participants or topic or a combination of factors.

3.10 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READINGS

Annamalai (1989) ‘The Language Factor in Code Mixing’ in IJSL75, pp
48-54.
Ashok Kumar (1987) ‘Code-switching. Some Observations on Motivation’
in Indian Linguistic, vol. 48, March-December, 1987.
Gumperz John J (1971) ‘Hindi-Punjabi Code Switching in Delhi’ in Language
in Social Groups. Essays by John Gumperz. Selected and introduced by Anwer
Dil, Stanford University Press, 1971. 153
The Multilingual World Kachru Braj. B. (1975), Toward Structuring the Form and Fucntion of Code
of the Learner
mixing: An Indian Perspective’ in Studies in the Linguistic Sciences, Volume
5, Number 1, Spring 1975.
Pandit Ira (1986), Hindi-English Code-Switching. Mixed Hindi English. Datta
Book Centre, 1986.
Sadanand Kamlesh (1983), ‘The Use of English in Industries in Andhra Pradesh’,
Ph. D. Dissertation 1983. CIEFL, Hyderabad (A. P.)

154