UGC NET Syllabus 2025 for Paper 1

Unit-I: Teaching Aptitude

 Teaching: Concept, objectives, levels of teaching (memory, understanding and reflective),
characteristics and basic requirements
 Learner’s characteristics: Characteristics of adolescent and adult learners (academic, social,
emotional and cognitive), individual differences
 Factors affecting teaching related to: Teacher, Learner, Support material, Instructional
facilities, Learning environment and Institution
 Methods of teaching in institutions of higher learning: Teacher centred vs. learner-centred
methods; offline vs. online methods (Swayam, Swayamprabha, MOOCs etc.).
 Teaching support system: Traditional, modern and ICT based
 Evaluation systems: Elements and types of evaluation, evaluation in Choice Based Credit
Systems in higher education, computer-based testing, innovations in evaluation systems

Unit-II: Research Aptitude

 Research: Meaning, types, and characteristics, positivism and post-positivistic approach to
research
 Methods of research: Experimental, descriptive, historical, qualitative and quantitative
methods
 Steps of research
 Thesis and article writing: Format and styles of referencing
 Application of ICT in research
 Research ethics

Unit-III: Comprehension
 A passage of text is given. Questions are asked from the passage which need to be answered.

Unit-IV: Communication
 Communication: Meaning, types and characteristics of communication
 Effective communication: Verbal and non-verbal, inter-cultural and group communications,
classroom communication
 Barriers to effective communication
 Mass-media and society

Unit-V: Mathematical Reasoning and Aptitude

 Types of reasoning
 Number series, letter series, codes and relationships
 Mathematical aptitude (fraction, time & distance, ratio, proportion and percentage, profit
and loss, interest and discounting, averages etc.)

Unit-VI: Logical Reasoning

 Understanding the structure of arguments: Argument forms, structure of categorical
propositions, mood and figure, formal and informal fallacies, uses of language, connotations
and denotations of terms, the classical square of opposition
 Evaluating and distinguishing deductive and inductive reasoning
 Analogies
 Venn diagram: Simple and multiple use for establishing validity of arguments
 Indian Logic: Means of knowledge
 Pramanas: Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference), Upamana (Comparison), Shabda
(Verbal testimony), Arthapatti (Implication) and Anupalabddhi (Non-apprehension)
  Structure and kinds of Anumana (inference), Vyapti (invariable relation), Hetvabhasas
(fallacies of inference)

Unit-VII: Data Interpretation

 Sources, acquisition and classification of data
 Quantitative and qualitative data
 Graphical representation (bar-chart, histograms, pie-chart, table-chart and line-chart) and
mapping of data
 Data interpretation
 Data and governance

Unit-VIII: Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

 ICT: General abbreviations and terminology
 Basics of Internet, Intranet, E-mail, Audio and Video-conferencing
 Digital initiatives in higher education
 ICT and Governance

Unit-IX: People, Development and Environment

 Development and environment: Millennium development and Sustainable development goals
 Human and environment interaction: Anthropogenic activities and their impacts on the
environment
 Environmental issues: Local, regional and global; air pollution, water pollution, soil
pollution, noise pollution, waste (solid, liquid, biomedical, hazardous, electronic), climate
change and its socio-economic and political dimensions
 Impacts of pollutants on human health
 Natural and energy resources: Solar, Wind, Soil, Hydro, Geothermal, Biomass, Nuclear and
Forests
 Natural hazards and disasters: Mitigation strategies
 Environmental Protection Act (1986), National Action Plan on Climate Change, International
agreements/efforts -Montreal Protocol, Rio Summit, Convention on Biodiversity, Kyoto
Protocol, Paris Agreement, International Solar Alliance

Unit-X: Higher Education System

 Institutions of higher learning and education in ancient India
 Evolution of higher learning and research in post-independence India
 Oriental, conventional and non-conventional learning programmes in India
 Professional, technical and skill-based education.
 Value education and environmental education
 Policies, governance, and administration
Teaching Aptitude
INTRODUCTION
Teaching aptitude is all about evaluating candidates who want to enter teaching profession on the
basis of their knowledge and skills. It refers to basic qualities required to become a successful
teacher. This includes qualification, intelligence, attitude, and many other qualities expected from a
person who wants to become a successful teacher.
Teaching is a methodology in which various activities are involved. The word teaching’ is derived
from the word ‘to teach which means ‘to instruct’.
It means a process in which one individual gain knowledge or learn something from a more
knowledgeable person. Teaching is skillful application of knowledge, experience and scientific
principles with an objective to setup an environment to facilitate learning.
Teaching aptitude is a part of teaching in which a teacher tries to mould, shape and develop the
behavior of students according to the needs, cultures and thoughts of the society.
Teaching aptitude is made up of two words Teaching’ and-aptitude’ which refers to the quality of a
teacher by virtue of which he teaches his students.
In other words, various teaching aids, teaching methodologies and teaching activities which are
necessary for teaching are Collelectively called teaching aptitude.
It is a part of teaching in which studies are above on the relationship of teacher and students in
conducive and controlled environment

It is a well known fact that a child acquires a lot of knowledge and learns a lot of skills, attitudes,
manners from his/her mother, father, brother, sister, and grandparents. All of them teach the child
basic knowledge, skills and attitudes required of living a good life. In this process the role of the
mother is very crucial and prominent in shaping the values of the child. Therefore, it is said, mother
is the first teacher of the child. When the child moves from family and neighborhood to a formal
school, he/she is exposed to a different kind of learning environments. In the school, he/she learns
from teachers, peers and others. He/she is taught by the teacher with new learning experiences in
different subjects like mathematics, language, social sciences, sciences, etc. Apart from gaining
learning experiences in subject areas, she/he acquires new learning experiences through sports,
picnics, group works, project works etc. Therefore, teaching and learning are closely interrelated to
each other. Although you have some understanding of these concepts, in this unit, we will discuss
the pedagogic understanding of these concepts, relationship between them and the different ways
through which the students learn the subjects at elementary level.
 Political System Of A County

Autocratic system Laissezfair

Democratic system

PROPOUDERS OF DEFINITIONS ON THE ABOVE BASIS

H. C. Morrison N. L. Gage John Brubacher

Definitions of Teaching
Some renowned scholars have define teaching which are given below:
 Albert Einstein defines, Teaching is a supreme art to awaken joy in creative expression and
knowledge.”
 According to APJ Abdul Kalam, “Teaching is a noble profession that shapes the character,
Calibre and future of an individual. If people remember me as a good teacher that will be a
biggest honor for me.”
 Edmund Amidon defines, “Teaching as an interactive primarily process classroom talk which
takes place between involving teacher and pupil/ and occurs during certain definable activity.
 Jackson:- Teaching is a face to face encounters between two or more persons, one of whom (
teacher) intends to effect certain changes in the other participants ( students). (3) J B Hough
and James K
 Duncan:- Teaching is an activity with four phases, a curriculum planning phase, an instructing
phase, and an evaluating phase. This definition presents the organizational aspect by which we
can describe and analyze the teaching process )
 H C Morrison:- Teaching is an intimate contact between the more mature personality and a
less mature one
 N.L. Gage (Democratic point of view):- Teaching is interpersonal influence aimed at
changing the behavior potential of another person.
 Clerk:- Teaching refers to activities that are designed and performed to produce in students
behavior.
 G. Wells - Teaching is cluster of activities that are noted about teachers such as explaining
deducing, questioning, motivating, taking attendance, keeping record of works, students
'progress and students background information.
 Flanders - Teaching is a transactional activity between the teacher and taught, teaching
behaviour by its very nature exists in the context of social interaction. The acts of
 B.O. Smith - teaching lead to reciprocal contacts between the teacher and the learners and the
interchange itself called teaching including two sets of factors those over which the agent has no
control (class Teaching is a system of actions involving an agent, an end in view, and a situation
 size, size of classroom, physical characteristics of pupils, etc.) and those that he ean modify (way
of asking questions about instruction and ways of structuring information or ideas gleaned)
 Shri Aurobindo - The first principle of true teaching is that nothing can be taught.
 B. F. Skinner - Teaching is the arrangement of contingencies of reinforcement.
 Thomas F. Green - Teaching is the task of a teacher which is performed for the development of
a child.
 Morse and Wingo - The teaching is "understanding and guiding of children as individual and as
groups It means the providing of learning experiences that will enable each learner to grow
continuously and sequentially towards his delt role in society.
 John Brubacher - Teaching is an arrangement and manipulation of a situation in which there
are gaps and obstructions which an individual will seek to overcome and from which he will
learn in the course of doing so.
 Joyce and Weil - Teaching is a process by which teacher and students create a shared
environment including sets of values and beliefs which in turn colour their view of reality.

Objectives of teaching
1. To develop all round personality of the learner through the curriculum.
2. To shape the behaviour of the learner in a desired direction.
3. To help the student to adjust and live harmoniously in the new situation environment.
4. To encourage the students to learn and think for themselves to solve the problems.
5. To acquaint the student with the content of the subject to be taught.

To Develop Critical and Logical Thinking

 Identify the problems
 Analyze the problems
 Establish relationships
 Select relevant facts, principles etc.
 Advance arguments in support of or against an issue
 Draw inferences and conclusions
 Verify the inferences

To Create Interest in the Study

 Play active roles in activities
 Read historical documents, maps, charts, etc.
 Study Case Study and Presentation of related topics
 Write articles on related topics.

To Develop Understanding
 Classify facts, events, terms, concepts etc.
 Compare and contrast the events, trends, concepts etc.
 Discriminate between the significant and the silly matters
 Arrange facts etc. in a particular known order
 Detect errors in the statement and rectify,
 Identify relationship between causes and effects etc.
 Illustrated events, principles by citing examples
 Interpret the maps, charts etc. from the source of history.
Types of Teaching
Teaching types can be summarised as following:

1. On the Basis of Teaching Objectives: The teaching types are:

(1) Cognitive = Brain Mechanism
(2) Affective = Heart Mechanism
(3) Psycho-motor = Motor Mechanism

2. On the Basis of Teaching Levels: The teaching types are:

(1) Memory Level
(2) Understanding Level
(3) Reflective Level

3. On the Basis of Existing System: The teaching types are:

(1) Autocratic
(2) Democratic
(3) Laissez-faire

4. On the Basis of Nature of Teaching: The teaching types are:

(1) Descriptive
(2) Diagnostic
(3) Remedial

5. On the Basis of Educational Process: The teaching types are:

(1) Presentation
(2) Demonstration
(3) Action

6. On the Basis of Educational Management: The teaching types are:

(1) Formal
(2) Non-formal
(3) Informal

Variables of Teaching and their Functions

The teaching process has the following three variables:

Independent variable: Teacher

 Dependent variable: Student  Intervening variable: Curriculum

1. Teacher: The Independent variable-As an independent variable the teacher engaged in

organisation, planning and management of teaching in the class.
2. Student: The Dependent variable-The student as an dependent variable engaged in
activities desired as per the teaching in the class.
3. Curriculum: The Intervening variable-The curriculum establishes the instruction
between the teacher and the students as an intervening variable. It also enforces the
teaching methods as per demand of the nature of curriculum.
Functions of Teaching Variables
The teaching variables have carried out the following three functions:
1. Diagnosis
2. Prescription
3. Evaluation

1. Diagnostic Function- Basically the independent variable remains more active in

diagnostic process. The teacher takes the following decisions in this stage:
(i) Analysis of teaching problems
(ii) Entering behaviour of pupils
(iii) Exploration of individual differences
(iv) Task Analysis
(v) Analysis of content in view of types of learning.

2. Prescriptive Function-These functions are related with the common judgemental

process going on between the teacher and students in order to decide the teaching
strategies and tactics.
This leads to bring favourable changes in one's behaviour therefore it gives emphasis
on feed- back devices.

3. Evaluation Function-Evaluation is the most important ingredient of teaching. It

focusses on realization of the objectives of teaching. It also measures the effectiveness of
prescriptive functions.
It has the following two elements:
(i) Construction of criterion test
(ii) Evaluation of changes in behaviour.

Teaching Continuum
Teaching continnum can be break down into its four basic elements as following:

Teaching Continuum
Teaching continuum can be break down into its four basic elements as following:

Teaching

Change in Behaviour Change in belief and Knowledge

Conditioning Training Instruction indoctrination

 Comparative Table of the Four Elements of Teaching
Discrimin Conditioning Training Instruction Indoctrination
ating
points
Aims Behavioural change and Behavioural change Transmission of and Changes in Belief
habit-formation and Development of Development of and Development of
skills knowledge values
Teaching For development of typical For development of For imparting For internalizing
habits typical skills knowledge the abstract
knowledge
Teaching Psychomot or Low Level Psycho-motor Cognitive Affective
Aspect Higher Level
Nature of Signal Learning Chain Learning Multi-Discriminating Laws and Principles
Learning (ory) Learning of Learning
Teaching Memory Level (Mechanical) Memory Level Understanding Level Reflective Level
Level (Mechanical)
Applicatio Training (For Children and Training (childrens Teaching (in schools) Higher Education
n Animals) & Animals) (Advanced
Institutes)
Examples Habit-formation in small Reading, writing and Concepts and Attitudes and
children about Alphabet speaking Training Principles Values
and counting

Phases or Operations of Teaching

The teaching is taking place in the following three phases:
1. Pre-active Phase
2. Intermediate Phase
3. Post-active Phase

1. Pre-active Phase-The teaching plan is being prepared under this phase of teaching. All
the tasks performed by a teacher before entering into the class are governed in this phase
of teaching. The important activities carried out under this phase are as following:
(i) Determining the objectives of teaching.
(ii) To take judgement about the curriculum (content for teaching).
(iii) To make orderly arrangement for presentation.
(iv) To make judgement about teaching strategies and tactics.
(v) To develop the strategies for specific content.

2. Inter-active Phase-All those activities which are performed by a teacher after entering in
a class are clubbed under inter-active phase of teaching. Generally these activities are
concerned with the presentation and delivery of the content in a class. It includes the
following activities:
(i) The insight about the size number and appearance of the class.
(ii) Diagnosis of the students.
(iii) Action-Reaction mechanisms in a class.
(a) Selection of stimuli.
(b) Presentation of stimuli.
(c) Application of tactics.
(d) Extension of tactics.
3. Post-active Phase-It is related with evaluation aspect of teaching. Without evaluation
teaching is an incomplete process. After the stipulated time of teaching the teacher
evaluates student, behaviour in order to judge the realization of the objectives.
This phase comprises of the following steps:
(i) Change in behaviour through teaching.
(ii) Selection of adequate evaluation procedures. process about different
(iii) The decision-making activities on the basis of evaluation. (iv) Attainment of teaching
objectives.

Importance of the Phases or Operations of Teaching

All the teaching activities are carried out in order to bring desirable changes in
student's behaviour. The importance of the phases of teaching can be easily understood
with the help of the following points:
1. The teacher can get the insight into various activities which are being carried out by him
before and after entering into a class.
2. The inservice teachers can be trained in new skills and bring desirable changes in their
teaching behaviour after getting the knowledge of teaching activities.
3. These activities support in designing the instructions because the teaching activities are
completed through instruction.
4. The teaching operations help in accomplishment of teaching activities.
5. The teaching phases or operations gives clarity about teaching variables.
6. The teaching operations lead towards the development of desirable learning conditions in
the class room.

Basic Requirements of Teaching

The basic requirement of teaching is learning. If a learning does not take place, the
teaching remains as an incomplete exercise. This is the reason that these concepts are
used simultaneously.

According to Smith-The teaching is a process which gives birth to learning."

Burton has elaborated the mutual relationship between teaching and learning as following:
1. Teaching and learning are the two basic operations of instruction. Therefore by
developing a coordina- tion between these two elements one can make the effective
teaching.
2. Teaching is a purposive process. Therefore after determining the objectives in a practical
form, such activities of teaching can be organised which may help in bringing desirable
changes in behaviour.
3. The learning theories can led in the development of teaching theories.
4. The psychological elements and forces can be successfully used in teaching.
5. The application of Audio-visual aids can be used in teaching in realizing its objectives.

Bloom’s classification of teaching and instructional objectives

According to this classification, instructional objectives fall under one of the following three
categories:
1. Cognitive domain: It is related to the development of intellectual capability (i.e., thinking or
knowledge) and it is the core learning domain. The other domains (i.e., affective and
 psychomotor) require at least some cognitive components.
It functions at six levels, which are as follows.
a) Knowledge: It is basically about recalling information or
contents.
b) Comprehension: It is the ability to grasp the meaning of
a material.
c) Application: It converts abstract knowledge into
practice.
d) Analysis: It involves breaking down a communication
into its constituent parts in such a manner that relationship of ideas is understood better
e) Synthesis: It is basically about combining the constituent parts to make it a whole. It is
the antonym of analysis.
f) Evaluation: It involves judgment made about the value of methods and materials for
particular purposes. Anderson, a former student of Bloom, and David Krathwohl rearranged
the levels as following:
i) Remembering: Recall or retrieve previous learned information.
ii) Understanding: Comprehending the meaning,
translation, interpolation and interpretation of
instructions and problems. State a problem in one’s
own words.
iii) Applying: Use a concept in a new situation or
unprompted use of an abstraction. Applies what was
learned in the classroom into novel situations in the
work place.
iv) Analysing: It separates a material or concepts into component parts so that its
organizational structure may be understood. It distinguishes between facts and
inferences.
v) Evaluating: Make judgments about the value of ideas or materials.
vi) Creating: Builds a structure or pattern from diverse elements. Put parts together to
form a whole, with emphasis on creating a new meaning or structure.

2. Affective domain: Man is a rational animal being endowed with human qualities of love,
sympathy, tolerance, co-operation, fellow-feeling and similar things. The term ‘affects’ has a
literary meaning of feeling, emotion and having preference for some object, issue, notion and etc.
Affect is also treated as a response to different social, political and economic issues in the form
of attitudes.
An individual has to develop and nurture desirable positive
attitudes and interests for his or her better adjustment in the
society.
Thus, sffective domain deals with attitude, motivation,
willingness to participate, valuing what is being learned and
ultimately incorporating the values of discipline into a way of
life. It asks for better student participation. It includes the
following levels:
 a) Receiving: Willingness to listen.
b) Responding: Willingness to participate.
c) Valuing: Willingness to be involved.
d) Organizing: Willingness to be an advocate of an idea.
e) Characterization: Willingness to change one’s behavior or way of life.
Affective education takes a long time to achieve the objectives. For example, any desirable
change in the learner’s affective behavior cannot be accomplished through a singular learning
situation.
As per one finding, an individual’s emotional and rational components of the brain are
somewhat independent of each other and operate separately. But there are times when both the
components work in harmony with each other.
When the individual is faced with a problem or dilemma and is required to make a decision, the
emotional center of the brain functions first while the rational brain is yet to start functioning.
This implies that the educational process should provide the individual with adequate
knowledge about the situation to enable him or her to use reasoning to mould the emotional
behavior in a desirable form. Daniel Golemann (1995) calls this type of mental functioning
‘Emotional Intelligence’, which enables the individual to deal intelligently with various social
problems that one faces in life situations.
An individual’s affective behavior or learning is influenced by both emotional intelligence and
cognitive learning.
Therefore, the implication for the educational process is that cognitive learning and affective
learning should be planned to go hand in hand.

3. Psychomotor domain: It is mainly concerned with the acquisition of technical skills.

Following are the five different levels of instructional objectives in psychomotor domain.
a) Imitation: It includes demonstration of a skill by
a skilled person and the learner tries to follow the
same.
b) Manipulation: A learner tries to experiment
various aspects, like manipulating machinery,
equipment, etc.
c) Precision: Accuracy in performing various acts
increases with practice.
d) Articulation: Achieving a desired level of
efficiency and effectiveness through practice.
e) Naturalization: Skill is internalized and an individual is able to adapt, modify or design
new techniques, methods or procedures according to the requirements of a situation.

Thus, we can see that learning takes place through three different channels cognitive,
psychomotor and affective, it takes place as one process.
The three types of learning are not mutually exclusive, the differentiation among them is
warranted because of the nature of the behavioral outcomes.
It is clear that cognitive as well as affective learning takes place simultaneously and with the
same content of learning.
Gagne and Briggs classification of teaching and instructional objectives
According to this classification, the learning outcomes fall under one of the following categories.
i) Intellectual skills: These skills are crucial for dealing with the environment. They
include concept learning, rule learning and problem solving.
ii) Cognitive strategies: These include methods and techniques for one’s own learning,
remembering and thinking skills.
iii) Verbal information: It refers to organized bodies of knowledge that an individual
acquires.
iv) Motor skills: They are basically about motions carried out when the brain, nervous
system and muscles work together.
v) Attitudes: They refer to an internal state of an individual.
Objectives can be put in the following forms also:

Cultural context

Philosophy of people

National goals

Aims of education

Objective of content

Translated into behavior

Figure: Hierarchy of Formulation of Objectives

Teacher-centered strategy Mixed strategy Learner-centered strategy
Large group method Small group method Individualized methods
1. Lectures i. Group discussion I. Tutorials
2. Team teaching ii. Seminar II. Assignments
3. TV or video presentation iii. Panel discussion III. Project work
 iv. Brainstorming IV. Case study
v. Project method or work V. Programmed
instruction
vi. Tutorials VI. Computer-assisted
learning
vii. Case study VII. Interactive video
viii. Role play VIII. Open learning
ix. Simulation IX. Personalized system of
instruction (PSI)
x. Demonstration X. Heuristic method

Signal Learning

Stimulus-Response Learning

Chain Learning

Verbal Association

Discrimination Learning

Concept Learning

Principle Learning

Problem-solving Learning

Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction

Appropriately organizing Gagné’s “Events of Instruction” is the second step in his approach.
There are nine instructional events:
1. Gaining attention of the students
2. Informing the learner of the objective
3. Stimulating recall of prior learning
4. Presenting the content
5. Providing learning guidance
6. Eliciting the performance
7. Providing feedback
8. Assessing the performance
9. Enhancing retention and transfer
Different Approaches in Education
Three Basis of Education: The educational process is decided on the basis of three
questions: ‘Why’, ‘How’, and ‘What’. Here, the question of ‘Why’ is most important. This is answered
by philosophy. The ‘How’ is decided by the psychology and ‘What’ is decided by the social needs.
Hence, education is based on the basis of philosophical, psychological, and sociological basis.
The important approaches in education are discussed below:
1. Behaviourism: This assumes that learner is a passive organism who may be conditioned
to learn new behaviors. Therefore, learning could be explained by change in observable
behaviour. E.L. Thorndike postulated the law of exercise and the law of effect.
a) Law of exercise: Repeating a conditioned response would strengthen the bond between
the stimulus and the response. In other words, practice makes a man perfect.
b) Law of effect: Law of effect is the principle of reinforcement and punishment. Any
behaviour followed by pleasure would strengthen the behaviour and any behaviour
followed by pain would decrease the behaviour.

2. Gestalt psychology: It believes that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. For
example, in the human body, there are cells, tissues, bones, etc., yet the sum of all these
components (human body) is greater than the sum of its parts. This is because the parts are
interrelated to each other. Gestalt psychology demonstrated the significance of perception. It
also showed that complex learning need not occur gradually through lengthy practice but
may develop through insight.

3. Constructivism: The learner actively constructs knowledge. Jean Piaget and J. S. Bruner
believed that learning involves an active processing of information and that each individual
activity organizes and constructs knowledge for itself. Educational psychology believes that
there are developmental stages for knowledge organization. According to Jean Piaget,
‘accommodation’ and ‘assimilation’ are basic to learning. A learner developes new ‘schema’
through accommodation. New experiences are assimilated into already existing schemas or
they may be accommodated by creating new schemas.

4. Idealism: The mind is central in understanding the world. The idealists emphasize the
spiritual aspects of learning. God is the source of all creation and knowledge; spirit and mind
constitute reality. Values are absolute, eternal, and unchanging. Man has a superior nature,
and it is expressed in the form of intellectual culture, morality, and religion. The main
thinkers are Froebel, Kant, Plato, Swami Dayanand, Vivekananda, and Sri Aurobindo.

5. Naturalism: It considers nature as the whole of reality. Our senses are the gateway to
knowledge, and nature is the source of all knowledge. Mind is subordinate to nature. The
educative process must be pleasurable and set in natural surroundings. The main
protagonists are Tagore, Rousseau, and Herbert Spencer.

6. Pragmatism: It focuses on activity or doing. According to pragmatists, there are no

absolute values of life. Truth is created during the course of experience. Humans are active
 being and have the ability to solve their problems through the logic of experiments and
scientific methods. The main thinkers are C. S. Pierce and John Dewey.

7. Humanism: It is a reasonable balance in life and regards humans as the centre and
measure of all activities. Humanism believes in the interests and welfare of all human beings.
Thus, the life of a human being should be transformed so that the welfare of all becomes the
goal. The form of learning is on self-actualization. It advocates cooperation, mutual tolerance,
and social understanding.

8. Rationalism: Rationalists claim that there are significant ways in which our concepts and
knowledge are gained independently of sense experience. Empiricists claim that sense
experience is the ultimate source of all our concepts and knowledge.

9. Existentialism: It is a philosophy that emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and

choice. This emphasizes the uniqueness and isolation of the individual experience in a
hostile or in different universe, regards human existence as unexplainable, and stresses
freedom of choice and responsibility for the consequences of one’s acts.

Forms of education

TYPES/FORMS OF EDUCATION
There are three types of education-Formal, Informal and Non-Formal.

Through Family, Press, Radio, Cinema,

INFORMAL Church, playground, Library Etc.
EDUCATION

Through School, Collage And Other

FORMAL Educational Institute.

NON-FORMAL Through Correspondence Course, Summer Institute,

On Job Training, Radio Or Tele- broadcast, Open
University (ignou)
Formal Education
Formal education is consciously and deliberately pre- planned, organized and given for the
modification of behavior with a particular end in view. Formal education is undertaken in
institutions, specifically established and maintained for the purpose such as schools and colleges. It
is limited to a specific period and it has well-defined curriculum. It is given by qualified and trained
teachers. Formal education observes strict discipline. Formal education can primary, middle,
secondary, higher secondary levels in school; and, undergraduate, graduate and post graduate
levels in college and university. It can be in Art, Science, Technical and various other professional
areas. With the growth of civilization and with the advances in the field of science and technology,
the accumulated knowledge and skills have become more and more complex and with it the need
for formal education has also become more pressing and widespread.

Informal Education
Informal education is not pre planned. It is quite incidental. It is the type of education which the
child gets while moving and living in the community with other persons; he/she picks up the ways
and habits of the adult members of his/her community and tries to adopt them. Such an education
is not imparted by any organized agency; it is casual and gained through daily experiences and
activities. Thus, education starts from the very birth of a child and continues till death. In the
primitive times, children were initiated into ways of the group, quite informally. They learnt the
trade of their parents by actual living in the community and participating in activities. Informal
education, therefore, is "that modification of behavior which comes about necessarily and
spontaneously, without any conscious effort for it." It has the following characteristics –
 It is not pre-planned
 It is indirect, incidental and spontaneous
 No specific agencies or institutions are there like schools to impart this type of education
 No formal ends or goals or objectives are there
 Takes place through day to experiences and living in the family or community or even in the
school and colleges incidentally either through informal interaction or by observation of various
things.
 No prescribed time-table or curriculum is there
 No qualified or trained teachers are there
 No examinations or awarding of certificates take place
 It is provided by informal agencies such as home or family or community

Non Formal Education

A new concept which has developed recently after the publication of the report of the international
commission on the development of education, entitles Learning to be non-formal. The commission
feels that in-spite of vast financial resources being spent on education, vast majority of people do
not get the desired education. They may find it difficult, due to their preoccupation in earning, to
join formal educational institutions during specific working hours. The commission therefore
suggests that arrangements should be made for those who cannot attend formal institutions. For
them we may have postal courses or correspondence courses. People desirous of learning should
have an opportunity of studying privately in their leisure hours getting guidance through postal
tuition, contact programs, vacation programs, summer institutes, broadcasting programs television
programs, satellite instructional programs, teaching machines, programmed lessons and the like.
Open universities could be started with country-wide enrolment of the working class, who can
study at leisure and appear at University examination. It is a flexible system; and, falls within the
formal and informal types of education. The characteristics are –
It is intentional, incidental and given outside the formal system, i.e., school. It is consciously and
deliberately planned, organized and systematically implemented. It is an open system of education
without rigid rules, regulations and fixed stages or time schedule.
 It is a life-long process, integrated with life and work. It is life oriented and environment based.
It is intended for all ages.
 It is programmed to serve the needs of identified groups of different categories if and when they
need.
 It necessitates flexibility in designing the curriculum and the scheme of evaluation. Social or
adult education, distance education are the examples of non-formal education

FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION
 To complete the socialization process: The main social objective of education is to complete
the socialization process. With the emergence of nuclear families, the role of school and other
institutions in the socialization process has increased considerably. The school trains the child
to develop honesty, consideration for other and ability to distinguish between right and wrong.
Socialization process also enables the child to co-operate with others and to grow as a good
citizen by respecting the laws framed by the society. Socialization is achieved through textbooks
and learning experiences intended to develop social skills.
 To transmit the cultural heritage: All societies are proud to uphold or highlight their cultural
heritage and ascertain that the culture is preserved and transmitted through social organization
to future generation. All types of education and all agencies of education have to carry out the
function of cultural transmission in an earnest way by teaching the elements of culture like
literature, history, art, philosophy, etc...
 Formation of social personality: Personality of individual members in a society shares some
common features of the culture. Along with the process of transmitting culture, education also
contributes to the formation of social personality. Formation of social personality helps man to
adjust with his environment and flourish himself in co-operation with others.
 Reformation of attitude: In the developmental process, the child may have incorporated some
undesirable attitudes, beliefs and disbeliefs, localities, prejudices, jealousy, hatred, etc. It is the
duty of the education to reform the undesirable attitudes and other negative aspects by means
of removing the wrong beliefs, illogical prejudices and unreasoned localities from the child's
mind. A collective effort by the school and home will bring out spectacular results in the matter
of reforming attitudes.
 Education for occupational placement-an instrument of livelihood: Nowadays, this is
regarded as the first and foremost function of education by a large section of people. This
function is related to the practical aim of education and receiving more attention due to the
diversified needs of the society. Education should prepare students not only to foresee the future
occupational position but also enable them to attain it in an impressive way. The relevance of
this function is evident from the importance we are giving to vocational training.
 Conferring of status: It is understood that an individual's status in the society is determined by
the amount and type or kind of education he has received. In the current situation, the kind of
knowledge one is gaining is important than the amount. For example, a graduate nurse or a
 diploma nurse can flourish anywhere in the world compared to a person holding a PhD in a
traditional subject.
 Education encourages the spirit of competition: Healthy competition is essential for the
growth of a democratic society. Healthy competition can be manifested in the form of quality
products and services. From the school level itself students should realize the need for engaging
in healthy competition in order to lead a better life. Unfortunately, our present education system
is fostering unhealthy competition.
 Education trains in skills that are required by the economy: Economy and education always
enjoy a bilateral relationship for example. The number of well-functioning hospitals is directly
related to the number of qualified and competent nurses passing out from the nursing
institutes. More patients will be admitted to a hospital which is providing quality nursing care.
This will lead to more money transactions and ultimately results in the economical development
of the nearby areas of the hospital.
 Foster participant democracy: In participant democracy, ordinary citizen is aware about his
rights and duties and participates actively in the democratic process. Literacy is essential to
nurture participant democracy and literature is the product of education. Thus, education
fosters participant democracy.
 Education imparts values: Education helps students to realize the role of values in leading a
good life as a social being. Through various activities education imparts values such as co-
operation, team spirit, obedience, etc.
 Education act an integrative force: as Education acts as an integrative force in society by
communicating values that unite different sections of society. By and large, students learn social
skills from the educational institutions. In India, through education we are teaching the concept
of 'unity in diversity' as a part of developing this integrative force.
 Values and orientation which are specific to certain professions are also provided by
education: This function deals mainly with professional education. For example, in nursing
institutes, nursing students are educated in a particular way to meet the health needs of the
society.

Levels of teaching
Teaching is a purposeful activity. Through teaching the teacher
brings a desirable change in the learner. Both the concepts teaching
and learning are interrelated to each other. Development of all-
round personality of the learner is the final goal of teaching and
learning. During teaching an interaction takes place between an
experienced person (teacher) and an inexperienced person (student).
Here the main aim is to bring change in the behavior of the student.
Teachers teach students at three levels. They have to keep in mind
about the developmental stage of the learners so that desired
educational objectives can be achieved. These three levels are:
a) Memory level: Thoughtless teaching (Herbert Teaching Model)
b) Understanding level: Thoughtful teaching (Morrisam Teaching Model)
c) Reflective level: Upper thoughtful level (Hunt’s Teaching Model)
Memory level of teaching
The objective of the Memory Level of teaching is just to impart information or knowledge to the
learner. This knowledge or information is factual in nature, which is acquired through a mechanical
process (i.e. memorization or rote learning).
Memory Level of teaching covers only the knowledge-based objective of Bloom’s taxonomy where the
students learn to identify, recall, or remember the objects, events, ideas, and concepts and retain
them in memory.
Memory level teaching lacks insight. Psychologically, it is cognitive level teaching.
Teaching and learning at memory level are committing factual material to the memory. The learner
learns the material, retain the meaningful material and reproduce the material as and when
required.
It is the first and thoughtless level of teaching. It is concerned with memory or mental ability that
exists in all living beings. Teaching at memory level is considered to be the lowest level of teaching.
At this level,
 The thinking ability does not play any role.
 Students only cram the facts, information, formulas and laws that are taught to them.
 The teaching is nothing but learning the subject matter by rote.[Bigge, Morris L(1967)]
 The role of the teacher is prominent and that of the student is secondary.
 The study material is organized and pre-planned. The teacher presents the study material in
a sequential order.

Important Points of Memory Level of Teaching (MLT)

 It is supported by Herbart Theory of Appreciation, which states that this level of teaching
seeks the learner to acquaint himself with the relationship between the facts and principles.
 It is the first stage of teaching to get factual information.
 Useful for children in the lower classes because of their intellect is under development, and
they have a rote memory.
 MLT aims to get factual information, to train memory, to retrain the learning material in-
memory storage, to reproduce and recognize the learned information when required
 Teacher dominated methods are used- like drill, review, and revision and asking questions.
 The evaluation system mainly includes oral, written, and essay-type examinations.
 Good memory includes rapidity in learning, stability of retention,rapidity in recalling, and
ability to bring only desirable contents to the conscious level.
 Memory level teaching acts as the first step for understanding and reflective levels of
teaching. It is a pre-requisite for understanding level teaching.
Memory level teaching lacks insight. Psychologically, it is cognitive level teaching.

Merits of memory level teaching

1. Useful for children at lower classes. This is because of their intellect us under development
and they have a rote memory.
2. The role of the teacher is important in this level of teaching and he is free to make choices of
subject matter, plan it and can present it at will.
3. The knowledge acquired at memory level teaching forms a basis for the future i.e. when
student’s intelligence and thinking is required.
 4. Memory level teaching acts as the first step for understanding and reflective levels of
teaching. It is pre-requisite for understanding level teaching.

Demerits of memory level teaching

1. This does not contribute to the development of the student’s capabilities.
2. Since at this level student learns by rote, the knowledge gained does not prove helpful in real
life situations as it does not develops the talents of students.
3. The pupils are kept in strict discipline and cramming is insisted on this teaching.
4. Intelligence does not carry any importance in this type of teaching and it lacks motivation.

Objectives of memory level teaching

1. Imparting knowledge and information to the learner.
2. Knowledge or information gained by the learner is factual in nature. It is acquired through
memorization or rote learning.
3. It covers only the knowledge-based objectives of Bloom’s Taxonomy. At this level, the student
learns to identify, recall or remembers the objects, events, ideas and retain them in memory.

Nature of subject matter

1. At this level, teaching is subject centered.
2. Simple things are taught to students that can be memorized easily.
3. The subject matter is well organized and is simple in nature so that it can be acquired
through rote learning.
4. Subject matter includes the information about simple concepts, terms, and elements related
to different things of the world around us.
5. Thus the knowledge delivered to learners is definite, structured and observable.

Method Used
1. We know that at this level of teaching is subject-centered so teacher dominant methods like
drill, review, and revision, and asking questions are often used.
2. Drill means repetition or practice for the purpose of attaining proficiency in memorizing the
material.
3. Review or revision is considered the method of revising the elements to relate them to new
experiences and to form new associations for the development of new skills or learning to
solve new problems.
4. Asking question technique is used to examine whether or not knowledge level objectives of
teaching have been achieved.

Role of the teacher

1. The teacher plays a very dominating and authoritarian role.
2. He is the authority to instruct, deliver, direct, control and evaluate performance. He is the
stage setter, learning resource and manager of every classroom activity.
3. So, in this level of teaching right from the selection of the subject matter to its evaluation, the
key process of teaching and learning remains with the teacher.
Role of Learner
1. In memory level teaching role of the learner is a passive one.
2. This is because contents of the subject matter, teaching tools, and methods employed for
teaching are all decided by the teacher.
3. The characteristics of the learner should be taken care of while framing objectives and
curriculum, and selecting teaching-learning activities and methods of teaching and
evaluation.

Teaching Equipment
1. Teaching equipment work as an assistant in the process of teaching and learning
2. Different kinds of teaching aids like visual, audio and audio-visual aids, e.g. models, charts,
maps, pictures, T.V., radio etc. develop a curiosity of the learners towards the subject-matter.
3. The teacher can use a variety of teaching aids to make students attentive to learning.

Nature of Motivation
1. Motivation is something that drives students to learn. To satisfy his own desire of learning
should be an intrinsic feeling, not a forced one.
2. In memory level of teaching the teacher forces the students to learn the content through the
process of memorization.
3. Hence the nature of motivation at this level of teaching is purely extrinsic.

Evaluation system
1. In the evaluation, the teacher measures the learning outcomes based on predetermined
objectives.
2. Here both oral and written tests are used to test the memory power of students.
3. In the written test, short type, recall type, recognition type, multiple choice, and matching
type test items are used.
4. Students are required to attempt the maximum number of questions.

Psychological Bases of Memory Level of Teaching

According to Jean Piaget, beginner learners in school are at the pre-operational level of cognitive
development and they cannot operate upon abstract concepts. As per their mental development,
they can learn simple concepts without analyzing their true meaning and nature. They should not
be expected to reflect upon them.
The Herbartian theory of apperception supports that the young children’s mind is ready for
perceiving themselves and the world around. Their mind is ready for a great mass of factual
information including concepts, elements, structures, models and theories. They can acquire and
retain information about a large number of things, objects, and material through memorization.
Conditioning theory has been advocated, Pavlov and Skinner. It underlies the idea that correct
response made by the individual is strengthened by reinforcement to retain the learned subject-
matter longer and to facilitate ease in further learning. Classical conditioning of Pavlov involves the
mechanical process as is applied at memory level teaching; and thorough review or retrieval, correct
learning by the student is rewarded and retained for further use.
Overall Thoughts on memory level teaching
In sum, it cannot be said that memory level teaching is totally meaningless and useless. It is useful
for young children when their mental ability is not so welldeveloped and their cognitive development
is at a low level. They are not expected to reason out and reflect upon teaching material and
contents. It is the age when they have to expand and broaden their view by receiving and accepting
more information about concepts, elements, things, objects, and structures.
Suggestions for Memory Level Teaching
1. The teaching material should be meaningful and purposeful.
2. The teaching material should have a definite structure and it should be simple to complex.
3. Adequate and appropriate teaching aids should be used for teaching.
4. All parts of the content should be integrated and well sequenced.
5. The subject-matter should be presented in a systematic and organized way.
6. There must be a continuous evaluation to measure the improve the memory power of
students.
7. The retention of the material in memory of students can be increased by more practice and
exercise.
8. The continuous reinforcement should be provided during the course of instruction.

Understanding level (Morrisam Proponent)

It comes in between the memory level and reflective level. This stage of teaching involves a moderate
level of thoughtful behaviour. It is a pre-requisite for the reflective level teaching-learning, which
requires the use of higher mental processes. The term “understanding” literally means to
comprehend, to grasp, and to have knowledge of, to learn, to interpret and to infer, etc.
Understanding something is to perceive the meaning, grasp the idea and comprehend the meaning.
In the field of Education and Psychology, the meaning of ‘understanding‘ can be classified as
 Seeing the total use of facts
 Seeing relationship
 A generalized insight

The teaching at the understanding level is of a higher quality than the one at the memory level. It is
more useful and thoughtful from the point of view of mental capabilities. At this level of teaching,
the teacher explains the student about the relationship between principles and facts and teach
them how these principles can be applied. Memory level teaching barrier is essential to be crossed
for this level of teaching.

As compared to memory level teaching, the understanding level teaching has greater merit. This
enables students to have complete command over subject material. In the understanding level role
of the teacher is more active. The students at this level are second any. At this level, no cramming is
encouraged. The new knowledge acquired at this level is related to the earlier knowledge gained. A
generalization is made on the basis of facts and the facts are used in the new situations.

Morris, L. Bigge, in his book, ‘Learning theory for Teachers’, defines that understanding level
teaching, “seeks to acquaint students with the relationships between generalizations and
particulars, between principles and solitary facts, and which show- the use to which the principles
may be applied.”
Herbart mentions three forms of mental reality which play an important role in teaching-learning at
the understanding level. They are sense impressions, images, and elective elements of pleasure and
pain. In Herbart’s arrangements, the teacher is conceived as an architect as well as the builder of
the minds of the students by manipulating ideas to construct a student’s circle of thought.

He advocated six steps of teaching:

 Preparation,
 Presentation,
 Comparison,
 Generalization,
 Application, And
 Evaluation

Morrison very clearly stated that understanding is not merely being able to recall something; it is
not mere generalization deduced from specific facts; it is an insight into how it may be used in
future situations. Morrison asserted that the outcome of all teaching is ‘ Mastery’ and not
memorization of facts. He proposed a unit plan, each unit representing an insight which is relatively
complete in itself.

Important points:
 Morrison is the main proponent of understanding level of teaching.
 It is ‘memory plus insight’ as it goes beyond just memorizing facts. It focuses on the mastery
of the subject.
 It makes pupils understand generalizations, principles, and facts.
 It provides more and more opportunities for the students to develop ‘intellectual behaviour’.
 It provides an active role for both the pupil and the teacher for the assimilation of facts. 6.
The evaluation system mainly includes both essay and objective-type questions.

Merits of the understanding level of teaching

1. At this level of teaching students to make use of their thinking abilities.
2. Knowledge acquired at this level forms the basis of the reflective level of teaching.
3. Here the teacher presents subject matter before the students in an organized and sequential
form. The new knowledge acquired is related to the previously acquired knowledge.
4. Here the students do not learn by rote. Here they learn by understanding the facts and
information and their use and purpose.

Demerits of the understanding level of teaching

1. Teaching at this level is subject centered. There is no interaction between the teacher and
students at this level.
2. This type of teaching mastery i.e., emphasized.
3. Ignores higher cognitive abilities
 4. Less emphasis on intrinsic motivation
5. No individualized learning
6. Teacher centred

Reflective level of teaching (Hunt’s Proponent)

This Level of teaching is the highest level of teaching-learning activity. It is the stage of learning
when students do not merely repeat and revise or answer the questions as asked for; nor do they
only understand, learn, interrelate or interpret the concepts but also they ponder upon,
contemplate and pay serious thoughtful consideration to the presented contents.

This level is also known as introspective level. Reflecting on something means giving careful thought
to something over a period of time. It also means thinking deeply about something. Reflective level
of teaching is considered to be the highest level at which teaching is carried out.
 It is highly thoughtful and useful.
 A student can attain this level only after going through memory level and understanding
level.
 Teaching at the reflective level enables the students to solve the real problems of life.
 At this level, the student is made to face a real problematic situation.The student by
understanding the situation and using his critical abilities succeeds in solving the problem.
 At this level emphasis is laid on identifying the problem, defining it and finding a solution to
it. The student’s original thinking and creativeabilities develop at this level.
 The role of the teacher in this level of teaching is democratic. He does not force knowledge on
the students but develops in their talents and capabilities.
 The role of the students is quite active.
 Reflective level of teaching is that which is problem-centered and the student is busy in
original imagination.

The main objectives of Reflective Level of Teaching are:

 To develop insight into the learner to solve problems.
 To develop rational and critical thinking in the students.
 To develop the ability of independent thinking and decision making in the students.

Important Points
 Hunt is the main proponent of reflective level of teaching.
 It is the highest level of teaching and includes both ULT and MLT.
 It is problem-centric approach of teaching.
 The students are assumed to adopt some sort of research approach to solve the problem.
 Classroom environment is to be sufficiently ‘open and independent’. The learners are self-
motivated (intrinsic) and active.
 The aim is to develop the reflective power of learners so that they can solve problems of their
lives by reasoning, logic, and imagination, and lead successful and happy lives.
 The pupil occupies the primary place and teacher assumes thesecondary place.
 Essay-type test is used for evaluation. Attitude, belief, and involvementare also evaluated.
Merits of reflective level teaching
1. The teaching at this level is not teacher-centered or subject-centered, it is leaner-centered.
2. There is an interaction between the teacher and the taught at the reflective level teaching.
3. At this level, teaching is appropriate for the higher class.
4. At this level, teaching is highly thoughtful and useful than the teaching at the memory or
understanding level.

Demerits of reflective level teaching

1. Not suitable for small children at the lower level of teaching. It is suitable only for mentally
matured children
2. At this level, the study material is neither organized nor pre-planned. Therefore students
cannot acquire systematic and organized knowledge of their study courses.

Basic Requirements in Teaching

 Three variables in teaching -Includes the Teacher, Student & Environmental factors.
 Professionalism
 Suitable Environment.
 Teacher Student Relationship
 Students Discipline
 Teacher & Students devotion to teaching & learning

The teaching process involves the following variables:

1. Dependent Variable: The student is a dependent variable. He is subjected to changes
and developments through the efforts of the teacher and teaching process. In the process of
teaching, the dependent variable plays the functional or active part.
2. Independent Variable: The teacher is an independent variable. He is responsible for the
functioning of students, the dependent variables. He is free to act in the process while
students are quite dependent on him. The teacher does plans, organizes, leads and controls
the process of teaching. Like dependent variables, independent variables also play the
functional or active part.
3. Intervening Variables: There is a need for desirable interaction between the dependent
and the independent variable to achieve the goals of teaching. This role is played by the
intervening variables. The content of teaching, methods and techniques, tactics and
strategies management of instructional material and teaching environments, etc., are the
Intervening Variables.

Basic requirements of teaching include,

I. The Teacher: The teacher is an innovator of information and knowledge. He is the
creator and transmitter of knowledge, values and ethos to our youngsters for latter’s
physical, mental, emotional and social development. In the process of teaching-learning,
the teacher is the main vehicle, and he knows what is right and what is wrong in the
society. The teacher masters over his subject and uses an effective language for the
 communication in order to bring a positive change in the behavior of the learner. Since, it
is the age of science and technology, the teacher ought to have a sound knowledge of
science and technology. He should therefore use the latest means of media
communication in the process of teaching.
II. The Learner: The learner is a dependent one and immature. He has to cooperate in the
teaching-learning process with the teacher and try to get as much information and
knowledge as possible from him. He must follow the teacher for understanding and
getting knowledge. The learners may be categorized as the students of primary schools,
elementary schools, secondary schools, senior secondary schools, colleges or universities.
III. The Subject (Topic): The subject is the main concern in the whole endeavor of
teaching and learning process. The topic is generally decided by the teacher but the
learner can also contribute in deciding a topic, so that, a balanced and harmonious
development takes place. It is for the teacher to prepare necessary charts, maps, tables
and models that pertain to the decided topic. Media based technological and scientific
aids may also be made available by the teacher to make the teaching more interesting and
understandable.
IV. The Environment: The leaner’s growth and all round development are the main
objectives of teaching. This is possible only when there is a suitable environment for the
teaching-learning process. The teacher as such creates such environment and nurtures
the’ learner in that environment. Learners are not passive objects. For long, the child or
the learner was viewed as a natural or given category. This undermined the importance of
the fact that the development of the learner is intimately linked to changes in the
sociocultural and historical conditions in a given society.

Nature and Characteristics of Teaching

Nature of teaching refer to those elements of Teaching which are inherent with concept of teaching.
It means that there is no human influence on those elements of teaching. The nature of teaching
can be understood through the following points
1. Teaching is an Art Teaching involves the creativity of the teachers in explaining concepts
to different type of learner. Teachers need to0 form strategies, adjust to various situation and
understand the personality of each student. Therefore, teaching can also be considered as an
art.
2. Teaching is a science Teaching is a systematic activity. It is done with a definite aim
and involves the use of scientific strategies and techniques. Different strategies are tested for
their effectiveness and all observations along with scores of the student in tests are recorded,
Therefore teaching can also be considered as an art.
3. Dynamic, Social and Humane Teaching is not a fundamental concept because it is
greatly influenced by social and human factors which are dynamic in themselves.
4. Diverse Application In application teaching is of diverse nature. It may have various
forms as formal, informal, directional, instructional, formational, training, conditioning,
indoctrination, talking, showing, doing, remedial, etc.
5. An Interactive Process Teaching is highly dominated by the communication skill.
Teaching is an interactive process carried with purpose and objectives.
6. Subjected to Analysis and Assessment Teaching can be analysed and assessed
based on the given task and also provide a feedback for further improvement.
 7. A Professional Activity Teaching is a professional activity involving teacher and student
with a view to the development of students personality. Professionalism helps teachers in
being regular and making harmony with their students along with achievent of goals
8. A Specialized Task Teaching is a specialized task and may be taken as a set of skills for
realization of certain objectives.
9. A Collection of Various Modes Teaching is a collection of various modes of itself. It is
a broader term. Terms like conditioning. Training, instruction, indoctrination denote a kind
of teaching. They are a part of teaching but not a synonym of teaching. These are various
modes of teaching contributing towards teaching
10. A System of Actions Teaching is a system of action varied in form and related with
content and pupil behaniour under the prevailing physical and social conditions.
11. A Continuous Process: Teaching is nota static but an evolving. Continuous and lifelong
process. The concept of continuous learning has become important because it places priority
on acquiring, adapting and learning from change.

PRINCIPLES OF TEACHING
The principles of teaching are closely related to maxim8. Teaching methods are hased on two types
of principles such as general principles and psychological principles.
1. General Principles
i) Principle of Motivation It creates curiosity among students to learn new things.
ii) Principle of Activity (Learning by Doing) It includes both physical and mental
activities. For example, students are asked to make charts and models. Froebel's
Kindergarten (KG) system is based on this principle.
iii) Principle of Interest It means by generation of genuine interest among the learner’s
community , the effectiveness of the teaching-learning process can be increased.
iv) Principle of Linking with Life Life is for continous experience and learning linked
with life can e more enduring.
v) Principle of Definite Aim This is important foroptimum utilization of teaching
resource and making learning more focused.
vi) Principle of RecognisingIdividual Difference Every student is unique in terms of
intelligence, attitude, abilities, potentialities and socio-economic background. The
teaching method should be devised in such a manner to make all students to avail
equal opportunities of life.
vii) Principle of Selection The horizonof knowledge is expanding every single day. The
teacher should be able to pick contents that can be more relevant and updated to the
learner’s objectives.
viii) Principle of Planning Every teacher has certain time bound objectives and hence
teaching should be systematic to make maximum use of resources within the time
limit.
ix) Principle of Division To make learning easier, the subject matter should be divided
into units and there should be link between the units.
x) Principle of Revision To make learning enduring the acquired knowledge should be
revised immediately and repeatedly.
xi) Principle of Creation and recreation This principle is must to make the classroom
environment humorous and creative.
xii) Principle of Democratic Dealing It entails students in planning and executing
different activities. It helps in developing self-confidence and self-respect among the
learners.
Psychological Principles
i) Principle of Motivation and Interest earning Learning may occur awareness A
teacher needs to understand that student is unique psychological entity. a student , can
be motivated after identifying his/her motives and needs.
ii) Principle of RecreationRecreation is necessary to tackle fatigue after attending
lengthy classes. This breaks monotory and prepares students for learning again.
iii) Principle of Repetition and Exercise This principle is applicable in case of small
children
iv) Principle of Expressing Creativity and Self-Expression This is specifically
applicable in subjects mathematics and in learning languages.
v) Principle of Reinforcement Students should be suitable rewarded for their desired
behaviour.
vi) Principle of Sympathy and Cooperation This principle is required for the
motivation of student.
vii) Principle of Imparting Training to Senses The use of multi-media makes many
senses get involved simultaneously, which is crucial for enduring learning.
viii) Principle of Remedial Teaching This principle is necessary for the teacher to
identify mistakes and suggest better answers to the problems.

BASIC TEACHING MODELS

There is no basic model of teaching that augurs well for all the situations. Two contrasting models
are discussed here; these models separately or in combination could be used for different courses.
Pedagogy Model
Pedagogy is a conventional approach. In this method, the instructor, more or less, controls the
material to be learned and the pace of learning while presenting the course content to the students.
The purpose of this method of learning is to acquire and memorize new knowledge or learn new
skills.
Instructor-centered teaching can also be described as ‘pedagogical approach’. Pedagogy is the art
and science of teaching. It determines ‘how the teaching occurs, the approach to teaching and
learning, the way the content is delivered, and what the students learn as a result of the process’.
In pedagogical approach, the learner is dependent upon the instructor for all learning, and the
teacher assumes full responsibility for what is taught and how it is learned. The teacher or
instructor evaluates the learning processes of the students.
Andragogical Model
In this model, the learner is mostly self-directed and is responsible for his or her own learning. The
students learn best not only by receiving knowledge but also by interpreting it, i.e., learning
through discovery and, at the same time, setting the pace of their own learning. In this method, the
instructors facilitate the learning of participants and help them by offering opportunities to learn
themselves and acquire new knowledge and develop new skills. This type of teaching is also referred
to as andragogical approach.
Self-evaluation is also the characteristic of this approach. Andragogical approach is also identified
with ‘adult learning.
EFFECTIVE TEACHING PRACTICES
Maxims of Teaching
A maxim is a ground rule or fundamental principle that has evolved over a period of time. It is a
guide for future action or behaviour. Teaching has also its own set of maxims, which have been
discussed below.
i) From simple to complex: The teacher should start with simple things and ideas,
and these can be done with day-to-day examples, if possible. Then gradually, a teacher
can move towards concepts and technical terms. This creates interest among learners to
acquire new knowledge. This is helpful in better retention.
ii) From known to unknown: This is related to first maxim. Retention is always better
if new knowledge can be linked with the known one.
iii) From seen to unseen: The students should be imparted knowledge about the
present and then they can understand the past and the future better.
iv) From concrete to abstract: The mental development of students happen better
with the concrete objects, they become familiar with and define micro-words for them at a
later stage.
v) From particular to general: The students should be presented with examples first
and then general laws and their derivations can be explained to them. The experiments
and demonstrations serve this purpose.
vi) From whole to part: Gestalt psychologists have proved that we first see the whole
object and then its parts. For example, we first perceive the tree and then its trunk,
branches, leaves, etc. Thus, the introduction or overview of the topics is important.
vii) From indefinite to definite: The teacher should help to transform indefinite
knowledge into definite one and aim to clarify the doubts of students.
viii) From psychological to logical: During initial stages, psychological order is more
important, whereas for grown-up learners, logical order is emphasized more.
ix) From analysis to synthesis: Initially, the students have little or vague knowledge
about the topics. Analysis means dividing problems into its constituent parts, and then,
these are studied. Synthesis means to understand by connecting the knowledge acquired
through analysing the parts. A teacher should use analytic–synthetic method.
x) Follow nature: It means to regulate the education of a pupil according to his nature.
xi) Training of senses: The types of sense, like sight, hearing, taste, smell and touch are
gateways to knowledge. It is better if all or maximum of these senses can be applied in
teaching. Montessori and Froebel are the main proponents of this maxim.
xii) Encouragement to self-study: Dalton’s system is based on self-study

Microteaching
Microteaching is a teacher training technique for learning teaching skills. It employs real teaching
situation for developing teaching skills and helps to get deeper knowledge regarding the art of
teaching. This Stanford technique involves the steps of ‘plan, teach, observe, re-plan, re-teach, and
re-observe’. Most of the pre-service teacher education programs widely use microteaching, and it is
a proven method to attain gross improvement in the instructional experiences. Effective student
teaching should be the prime quality of a teacher. As an innovative method of equipping teachers to
be effective, skills and practices of microteaching have been implemented.

LEARNING
Learning is the process of assimilation of knowledge resulting from the interaction between the
teacher and learner. Learning is a continuous process grounded in experience. Learning is the
process of creating knowledge. Learning is a natural process of growth or change in a person which
is manifested as new modes or patterns of behaviour. The nature and processes involved in learning
are studied in many fields, including educational psychology, neuropsychology, experimental
psychology and pedagogy.

Definitions of Learning
Learning may occur consciously or without conscious awareness. It is a relatively permanent
change in behaviour and is the result of reinforced practice through the process of stimulus and
response.
Some of the well known definitions of learning given by various thinkers are
 According to Skinner, "Learning is a process of progressive behaviour through experience and
training."
 According to Crow and Crow, "Learning involves acquisition of knowledge, habits and
attitudes."
 According to Gardner Murphy, "Learning is the acquisition of new behaviour or the
strengthening or weakening of old behaviour as the result of experience."
 In the words of Blair Jones and Simon, Any change of behaviour which is the result of
experience and which causes people to face later situations differently may be called learning."
 "A process that leads to change, which occurs as a result of experience and increases the
potential of improved performance and future learning/ -How Learning Works: Seven Research-
Based Principles for Smart Teaching by Susan Ambrose, et al
 "Leaming involves strengthening correct responses and weakening incorrect responses. Learning
involves adding new information to your memory. Learning involves making sense of the
presented material by attending to relevant information, mentally reorganizing it, and
connecting it with what you already know." -eLearning and the Science of Instruction by Ruth C.
Clark and Richard E. Mayer
 "Learning is the relatively permanent change in a person's knowledge or behaviour due to
experience. This definition has three components: 1) the duration of the change is long-term
rather than short-term, 2) the locus of the change is the content and structure of knowledge in
memory or the behaviour of the learner; 3) the cause of the change is the learner's experience in
the environment rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or physiologic
intervention"-Encyclopedia of Educational Research by Richard E. Mayer
 "We define learning as the transformative process of taking in information that when
internalized and mixed with what we have experienced changes what we know and builds on
what we do. It's based on input, process, and reflection. It is what changes us." - The New Social
Learning by Tony Bingham and Marcia Conner
Types of Learning Teaching Tactics
Singnal Learning Giving stimuli to students.
Reinforcement of right response.
Exercise of the responses.
Responses treated for mastery learning.
Chain Learning Put the complete range of chain infront of students.
Present the stimuli in a sequence one by one order.
Continuous practice of chain must be carried out.
Multiple
Discrimination
Learning Promote and separate stimuli from that of responses.
Put all the situations simul- taneously so that the students find discrimination
among them.
The students should be given opportunities that they find out the differences.
The practice must be carried out in order to realise the differences.
Concept Learning Discrimination between all the stimuli and responses
The situations are presented to the students in such a fashion that they
realise the differences
The students must be forced to make out generalizations
The situations should be created in the classroom so that the students make
differences between two illusionary conditions
Principle
Learning The principle should be given in brief
To reproduce the chain of concepts before and after teaching
A regular exercise to learn the concepts should be carried out

Teaching Strategies and Learning Objectives

For the selection of strategies, the teacher seeks the help of learning objectives which have been
given as below:

Teaching Strategies Cognitive Affective Psychomotor

Lecture   x
Lesson Demonstration  x 
Group Discussion   x
Tutorials   x
Role Playing   
Brain Storming   x
Programmed Learning   x
Sensitivity Training   
Independent Study  
Leaderless Grouping  
Basic Conditions of Learning
The Behaviourists focus their attention on the external environment for learning. The external
condi- tions which enhance the learning are as following:

CONTIGUITY

Basic Practice
Reinforcement Conditions
of Learning

Generalization
discrimination

 Contiguity It is one of the basic conditions of learning. Contiguity is almost simultaneous

occurrence of the stimuli and of the responses to them. It applies in teaching also.
 Practice It is the repetition of response. Practice of S-R (Stimulus Response) required in
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, skill learning.
 ReinforcementWe can use reinforcement in different ways to produce different effects.
 Feedback It means providing the knowledge that the responses are correct or that they
require amendment.
 Generalization and Discrimination Both generalizations perhaps better defined as
phenomena rather than as conditions of learning. We call them learning conditions because
they are closely related to basic conditions of contiguity practice essential to all learning. and
discrimination are and reinforcement which are essential to all learning.

Principles of Learning
To teach effectively. must the teacher understand the basic principle of learning enumerated below
 Principle of Association A teacher must know the state of learners’ mind and capacity.
As learning is continuous, teacher must start teaching at their level for better learning.
 Principle of Practice Learning should always results in functional understanding of
facts.
 Principle of Rewards It means learning must be challenging and satisfying as well.
 Principle of Clarity The practice must be continuously evaluated and redirected.
Objectives must be clear to the teacher and learner.
 Principle of Multiple Exposure To make someone learn may need set of practices. By
using combination of teaching methods, the teaching will have cumulative effect on the
learners. The percentages of learning and adoption will be higher with multiple experiences.
o Principle of Varying Learning Ability This is linked with the concept of individual
differences also. Some may be slow learners, some could be fast learners. Learning depends
upon communication and learning ability.
 o Principle of Theory and Practice The why' and 'how' of an idea are explained by theory.
So a teacher should balance theory and practice for better learning by the learners.
o Principle of Effective Communication Better learning can be achieved by integrating
suitable audio-visual aids in teaching learning process.

Types of Learners
In the past, many direct and indirect questions have been asked in the NET exam. There are three
main categories of learner characteristics, such as general characteristics, specific entry
competencies and learning styles.

Learner Characteristics
Awareness of learner's characteristics helps the teacher/instructor to determine what approach,
methods and strategies to use in academic instruction. Learner information can be obtained from
surveys, interviews, observations and performance statistics of knowledge and skills. The following
questions guide the instructor about the characteristics and learning preferences of the learners.
What are the personal characteristics of the learners viz. age, gender, family life, cultural
background, profession, and so on?
What is the academic qualification or educational level of the learners?
Is there any barrier to their learning, lack of language or numeracy skills, computer literacy, etc.?
Why have they undertaken to learn the subject in question?
What is their prior knowledge on, or what do they already know about this subject topic? How will
the knowledge gained by them be used by them, consciously or unconsciously?
Is there any prerequisite for the learners to learn this subject/topic? In what manner or method will
they be learning this topic? (Face to face interaction, distance learning, blended methods, etc.)
Are they novice learners or expert learners (particularly in technology aided learning or e-learning)?

1. On the basis of personal and social attributes: They help in planning instructional
objectives as it may reveal physical characteristics that are relevant to training or instructional
decisions. The social factors mainly include thefollowing.
a) Age and maturitylevel
b) Motivation and attitude towards thesubject
c) Expectations and vocationalaspirations
d) Specialtalents
e) Mechanicaldexterity
f) Ability to work under various environmentalconditions.
Some of the differences in learner characteristics between the adolescence and the adults
has been described further.

2. Field independent vs. Field dependent: 'Field' here means context or surroundings.
Some people are more and some less, influenced by the context when performing a skill or
learning.
 Field independent learners tend to rely less on the teacher or other learners tor
support. Field independent learners perceive analytically. They See objects separately
from the surrounding field, they prefer to work in self-structured situation and have
self-defined goals. In the classroom
activities, such as extensive reading
and writing, which learners can carry
out alone are useful tor field
independent learners.
On the other hand, field-dependent
learners often work well in teams as
they tend to be better at interpersonal
relationships. They perceive globally.
They prefer to work in existing
structure or context, they require
externally defined goals and
reinforcements and are more aware of
the irsurroundings.
In the classroom, activities that connect different parts of a lesson are useful tor field-
dependent learners. For example, learners can discuss what they know about a topic,
predict content or look at and listen to related material.

3. Reflectivity and impulsivity: When a question is posed, some students take long time
to respond while others are quick in response. The speed with which the respondents make a
response to the task and the number of errors they make is termed as conceptual tempo.
Those students who respond quickly and make a fair number of mistakes are said to have a
fast conceptual tempo. They are said to possess impulsive style oflearning.
Learners who are slow in response and tend to make fewer mistakes are called
reflective. In problem-solving situations, the impulsive learner collects less data, they
are less systematic and does not look for alternative solutions. Reflective learner
spends more time collecting information and analyzing the data before offering a
response.
4. Cass-room based learning styles: Learning styles are traits that refer to how learners
receive and process information.
a) Visual learners learn easily and better through sight. Brightness, size, colour,
distance, clarity,frame and symmetry are important to visuallearners. Visuall
earner smu stseeso that they may learn easily. Visual learners may be categorized
as verbalists (they see words and letters) or imagists (they see images, i.e.,
pictures).
b) Auditory learners acquire information through sound, i.e., the ear gate. Various
aspects of sound, for example, pitch, volume, tempo, rhythm, resonance are
important tor auditory learners. Auditory learners may be aural (they learn by
listening to others) or oral they learn by talking and hearingthemselves).
 c) Motor learners learn through motor activity. Various aspects of action, for
example, frequency, duration, intensity, pressure, etc. are important for them.
Motor learners may be kinesthetic (they learn through the use of gross motor
muscles) or mechanical (they use fine motor muscles to support their learning).
Apart from above, the classroom style learners can be of the followingtypes.
i) Intuitive: Insights andhunches
ii) Inductive: From facts to generalization
iii) Deductive: From theory to individualfacts
iv) Reflectively:Introspection
5. Learner characteristics on the basis of listening skills: Listening in an
important skill and there are tour types of listening styles, which are asfollows:
a) Active listening: It is listening with apurpose.
b) Empathic listening: It is a form of active listening in which you attempt to understand
the other person.

CHARACTERISTICS OF ADOLESCENT LEARNERS

Learner characteristics can be personal, physical, academic, social, emotional, moral and
cognitive in nature. The young adolescent is going through a distinctive phase of physical,
emotional, intellectual, moral and social changes simultaneously, with the academic development.
All of these changes must be taken into account while directing their learning, and instructional
methods and practices must be remodelled accordingly to optimise learning outcomes. It is
important to know the exact characteristics manifested by all these changes in adolescents.

Personal Characteristics
There relate to demographic elements such as:
1. Age
2. Gender
3. Level of maturity
4. Language
5. Socio-economic status
6. Cultural background
7. Size and influence of family
8. Specific skills or impairments to learning pertinent to the particular group/community/
fraternity/nationality they may be constituents of

Physical/Physiological Characteristics
There include:
1. Restlessness and fatigue due to hormonal changes
2. Sudden outbursts of physical activity to release energy because of spurt in energy levels
3. Growing sexual awareness resulting in sensitivity to touch awareness resulting
4. Concern about physical Changes and appearance
5. Physical vulnerability and poor health resulting from dietary fads and/or engaging in risky
behaviours
6. Awkward, uncoordinated body movements caused by physical changes and consciousness of
those

Academic Characteristics
There pertain to education or the process of systematic instruction, especially at a school or
university. Early adolescence sees a wide range of intellectual development in the individual who
invariably has personal knowledge to relate to what is being taught. Drawing meaningful
connections between core and related subject topics and the experiences students bring to the
classroom, instructors can create springboards for learning academic concepts, reaching certain
goals, and improving learning behaviours and outcomes. Academic characteristics of young
adolescent learners include:

1. Goal and success oriented learning style; fixing learning goals for self
2. Propensity for high achievement when challenged and engaged
3. Preference for active over passive learning experiences
4. Interest in interacting with peers during learning activities
5. Demanding relevance of what is being taught to actual learning
6. Increased capacity for higher levels of humor which may be misunderstood as sarcasm or offence
by adults
7. Applying Prior knowledge to learning processes

Cognitive Characteristics
There relate to thought processes, memory, attention span, rationalization, coordination and
symbolization, which determine how the learner processes, remembers, perceives, solves problems,
organizes and represents information in their brain. Cognitive development in young adolescents
may not be as visible as physical development, but is just as intense. The stage of adolescence
experiences typical patterns of higher-level cognitive functioning particularly in the prefrontal cortex
region of the brain. Brain plasticity is heightened at this stage, as it adapts to new experiences in
structure as well as function. So, educational approaches and materials provided for learning must
be appropriate for the adolescent's range of cognitive abilities. While the concrete thinkers require
more structured learning experiences, the abstract thinkers need more challenging ones. Educative
activities like exploration, experimentation, analysis and synthesis of data woven around real life
concepts are meaningful for young adolescents, as their interests are evolving.

Cognitive characteristics of adolescent learners include:

1. Meta-cognition, (awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes)
2. Independent and rational thought
3. Shift from concrete to abstract thinking
4. Intense curiosity and eagerness to learn about a variety of interesting, useful and personally
relevant topics, a chosen few of which are sustained over the long term
5. Penchant for exploration and experimentation
6. Ability to be self-reflective
7. to analyse, integrate and evaluate concepts and theories about the relationship between
individual and society
Social development and emotional development happen in coordination as adolescents seek
individual identity, gain a heightened sense of self and make personal choices. They seek social
acceptance and peer, relationships in order to conform to group norms. They tend to diminish
family allegiances and strengthens peer allegiances but still strongly dependent upon parental
values. The actions of adolescents are often based on myths and misinformation. In addition, the
influence of the media and the culture affect their perception of men, women and relationships.
Students should be taught to deal with social pressures resulting from competitions. Healthy
attitudes towards competition should be encouraged. Students should be encouraged to strive for
self-improvement. Schools are important sites for social and emotional learning and have developed
policies and programs around student wellness, often with a focus on a strengths-based approach.

Emotional Characteristics
An individual's inward thoughts and feelings about the self and others is the basis of their
emotional characteristics. They are particularly sensitive to criticism and easily get offended. But
because of the rapid changes being experienced, development and manifestation of coping skills
and emotional assets such as resilience, self-esteem is heightened during adolescence.
Emotional/psychological/effective characteristics of young adolescent development include:
1. Unpredictability because of mood swings marked by peaks of intensity and troughs of despair
2. Overpowering desire to discover independence and individual adult identity; and accepting only
specific mediation
3. Deep concern about physical growth maturity
4. Strong beliefs
5. Holding their personal problems, feelings, and experiences unique
6. Extreme consciousness of self-image and its protection
7. Heightened sensitivity and overreaction to criticism, ridicule, embarrassment, and rejection
8. Tendency to rebel against authority
9. Development of specific/personal interests
10. Motivation to know and learn
11. Defined attitude towards learning and subject matter
12. Anxiety
13. Attribution of success (i.e., locus of control)

Social Characteristics
Social characteristics of an individual are manifested in the process of establishing one's
distinct identity, self-image, role and purpose corresponding to the elements and fabric of the group
one is part of. Family and, to a far greater extent, peers are the pillars of support in the adolescents'
quest for achieving adult roles. One's body image is a crucial factor in developing a sense of self
identity.

Examples of social/emotional characteristics are group structure, place of the individual

within a group, sociability, self-image (also feelings of self- efficacy and agency), mood, etc.
Adolescent social development is often described as the process of establishing a sense of identity
and establishing a role and purpose. It is an outward sense of oneself. Body image is a key factor in
developing a sense of self identity, especially for girls, and the family and increasingly peers play an
important role assisting and supporting the adolescent to achieve adult roles. Risk-taking is a
natural part of the adolescent journey.

Social characteristics of young adolescent development include:

1. Craving for social acceptance
2. Seeking approval of peers and others with attention-getting behaviours
3. Modelling behaviour and communication after that of older mates and parents/ other adults to
a much lesser degree
4. Experimenting with ways of talking and acting as part of searching for a social position with
peers
5. Seeking racial and ethnic identity and drawn to peers who share the same background
6. Exploring questions of sexual identity in overt or Covert ways
7. Anxious and intimidated by the initial middle school experience
8. Fondness for popular culture and interest in following fads
9. Seeking approval of peers and others with attention-getting behaviours
10. Vacillating between demand for independence and desire for guidance and protection
corresponding to the growth of interpersonal skills

Moral Characteristics
Characteristics of moral adolescents include: development of young
11. Understanding of moral issues and questioning of values, cultural expressions, religious
teachings, etc.
12. Older adolescents developing awareness of democratic rights and duties and getting interested
in the political processes
13. Impatience with the social issues and pace of change, not realizing social change is neither
easy nor fast
14. Seeking receptive and trustworthy adult role models and being influenced by them
15. Relying on parents and important adults for moral advice, but holding on to their own opinion
16. Judging others quickly, but hesitant and slow in acknowledging one's own faults
17. Compassionate towards the downtrodden/ suffering and concerned about animals and
environmental issues

CHARACTERISTICS OF ADULT LEARNERS

Adults are mature learners with varied characteristics and variegated motivations to learn. So, it
requires a concerted effort to design learning courses that may appeal to the distinct qualities of an
adult learner, spur interest, motivate optimally and prove effective to fulfil their individual learning
needs. Characteristics common to most adult learners can be generalized as under:

Goal-oriented: Adults in general have specific goals to achieve in life; so, they look to learning
courses/ activities that would help them reach those goals.
Wealth of knowledge: By the time one attains adulthood, one has accumulated a unique
storehouse of knowledge and experiences. Adult learners apply his wealth of knowledge to the
learning situation.
Autonomy: Adulthood is a stage of self-discovery and individuality which seeks control and self-
direction. So, adult learners prefer autonomy and look for options to choose from. Even anxious,
hesitant and non-self-starters tend to appreciate the opportunity to choose and self-direction if
given initial support.
Practical Learning by doing: Adults prefer to be active and learn by doing rather than passively
listening to lectures. They seek personal relevance in learning activities and believe that practical
knowledge/experience provide important skills and makes work easier.
Purposeful: Adults want to know the purpose and motive behind any learning activity or workplace
training touted as an initiative to introduce positive change.

Competence and mastery: Adults try to attain competence and mastery in workplace skills to
boost their confidence and raise their self-esteem.
Big Picture orientation: Adulthood awakens a mature understanding of the world/human society
and its themes and issues. So, the adult learner is oriented to view the big picture of what they're
learning and to understand how the smaller parts fit into it.
Result-oriented: Adults are result-oriented, having specific expectations of the benefit(s) from the
learning course/activities; and voluntarily drop out if their expectations aren't met.
Responsible for Self: Adult learners know well to take responsibility for their own success or
failure at learning as it is the outcome of their personal choices, decisions and actions.
Emotional Barriers: Through experience, adults have clearly defined emotions of anger, fear, pride
and anxiety. They may fear or be anxious about a topic/idea; harbour anger on forced/undesirable
changes in responsibilities or policies; or view certain responsibilities as demeaning because of
excessive pride in their abilities and stature. These emotions can interfere with the learning process.
Outside responsibilities: Adults usually have numerous responsibilities, liabilities and commit-
ments to family, friends, community and work. Sparing time for learning activities is more often
than not arduous and stressful for adult learners.
Physical limitations: Advanced age and/or impaired physical prowess of some adult learners may
limit/ hamper/slow them down in acquiring psychomotor skills and make reading small fonts and
seeing small images on the computer screen rather difficult.
Need for Community: Self-directed adult learners generally prefer community learning which
enables interaction and discussion on questions and issues.

Table of comparison: Adult Vs Adolescent learners

s. no. Adult learners Young learners
1 Problem centred Subject oriented; focus on course completion
2 Result oriented Future oriented
3 Self-directed Dependent upon adults for direction
4 Sceptical about new information Likely to accept new information
5 Take responsibility of their own learning Depend upon others

Differences Between the Adolescence and the Adults

Elements Adolescence Learners Adult Learners
Learner  The learner is dependent on he learner is self motivated and self
the teacher for learning directed
Role of  The learner has little  The learners have a tremendous
learners experience. It has to built on amount of life experience
experience more than used as resource  Adults are a rich resource for one
  The experience of the another
instructor is most influential  Experience becomes the source of
self identify
Orientation to  Learning is a process of  Learning must have relevance to
learning acquiring prescribed subject real-life tasks
matter  Learning is organized around
 Content units are sequenced life/work situations rather than
according to the logic of the subject matter units
subject matter
Motivation for  Primarily motivated by external  Motivation by internal incentives:
learning rewards and punishment, recognition, better quality of life,
competition for grades, and the self confidenceself actualization
consequences of failure  The need to know, in order to
perform more effectively in some
aspect of one's life is important
Demand for  Learner must balance life  Learner can devote more time to
learning responsibilities with the the demands of learning because
demands of learning responsibilities are minimal
Permanence of  Learning is self-initiated and  Learning is compulsory and tends
Learning tends to last a long time to disappear shortly after
instruction.
Climate  Tense, low trust  Relaxed, trusting
 Formal, cold, aloof  Mutually respectful
 Authority-oriented  Informal, warm
 Competitive, judg mental  Collaborative, supportive
Diagnosis of  Primarily by teaching system  Mutual assessment by learner and
need and teacher facilitator
Planning of  Primarily by teaching system  Mutually by learners and facilitator
curriculum and teacher
Objectives of  Objectives are set by teaching  Objectives are set by mutual
learning system negotiation
 Objectives are predetermined  Objectives are flexible
and inflexible
Designing  Teachers' content plans  Learning contracts
learning plans  Fixed course syllabus  Learning projects
 Logical sequence  Sequenced by readiness
Learning  Passive teaching methods like  Active training methods are used
activities transmitted techniques,
assigned readings, etc, are
used
Pace of  Teaches' control timing and  Learners influence timing and pace
learning pace of learning of learning
Evaluation  By teacher  By learner-collected evidence
 Norm-referenced (on a curve) validated by peers, facilitators,
with grades experts
 Criterion-referenced
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES
Individual difference stands for the variation or deviation among individuals in regard to a single
characteristic or number of characteristics like height, weight, colour and complexion, strength etc.
difference in intelligence, achievement, interest ,attitude, learning habits, motor abilities and skill. It
is known fact that two individuals are alike, not even the-twins. Each man has an intellectual
capacity through which he gains experience and learning.
According to Drever James, "Variations or deviations from the average of the group, with respect to
the mental or physical characters, occurring in the individual member r of the group are individual
differences.
According to Skinner, "Today we think of individual differences as as including any measurable
aspect of the total personality”.
According to CV Good. ,:The variation or deviation among individual is regard to a sample
characteristics or a number of characteristics those difference which in their totality distinguish one
individual from another"

Types of Individual Difference

1. Physical DifferencesShortness or tallness of stature, darkness or fairness of complexion,
fatness, thinness, or weakness are various physical individual differences.
2. Differences in Intelligence There are differences in intelligence level among different
individuals. We can classify the individuals form super-normal to idiots on the basis of their
intelligence level.
3. Differences in Attitudes Individuals differ in their attitudes towards different people,
objects, institutions and authority.
4. Differences in Motor Ability There are differences in motor ability. These differences are
visible at different ages. Some people can perform mechanical tasks easily, while others, even
though they are at the same level, feel much difficulty in performing these tasks.
5. Differences on Account of Gender
i) Women have greater skill in memory while men have greater motor ability.
ii) Handwriting of women is superior wile men excel in mathematics and logic.
iii) Women show greater skill in making sensory distinctions of taste, touch and smell etc.,
while men show greater reaction and conscious of size-weight illusion.
iv) Women are superior to men in languages, while men are superior in physics and
chemistry.
6. Racial Differences There are different kinds of racial differences. Differences of environment
is a normal factor in causing these differences. Karl Brigham has composed a list on the
basis of differences in levels of intelligence among people who have migrated to United States
from other countries. On the basis of these average differences between the races, the mental
age of a particular individual cannot be calculated since this difference is based on
environment.
7. Differences due to Economic Status Differences in children’s interests, tendencies and
character are caused by economic differences.
8. Differences in Interests Factors such as sex, family background level of development,
differences of race and nationality etc., cause differences in interests.
 9. Personality Differences There are differences in respect of personality. On the basis of
differences in personality, individuals have been classified into many groups.

Reasons of Individual Differences

1. Heredity
2. Age
3. Sex
4. Environment
5. Education
Educational Implications of Individual Differences
 The aims of education. Curriculum method of teaching should e linked with individual
differences considering the different abilities and traits of individual.
 The teacher should adopt types of methods of teaching considering individual differences
related to interest, needs tec.
 Various methods such as playing methods, project method, story telling method are to be
used considering/discovering how different students respond to task or problem.
 Some co-curricular activities like drama, music, literary activities should e assigned to
children according to their interest.
 Curriculum should be modified to suit the need of all types of students.
 Teacher should impart educational guidance to the students while keeping in mind their
individual differences.
 The teacher should assign the home task to the students while keeping in view individual
differences.
 The students should be allowed to follow his own rate of learning in each of the subjects.

Curriculum framework, curriculum and syllabus

The curriculum framework is a plan that interprets educational aims with regard to both individual
and society. This plan leads to an understanding of the kinds of learning experiences that an
educational institute must provide to children.
Curriculum is perhaps best thought of as the sum total of all deliberately planned set of activities,
which facilitate learning and are designed to implement specific educational aims.
It is a plan to explain what concepts are to be transacted, what knowledge, skills and attitudes are
to be deliberately developed among learners. It includes statements of criteria for selection of
content and choice of methods tor transaction of content as well as evaluation. It is concerned with
the following factors.
i) The general objectives of education at a particular stage or class.
ii) Subject-wise learning objectives and content.
iii) Course of studies and time allocation.
iv) Teaching-learning experiences.
v) Teaching-learning instructional facilities and materials.
vi) Evaluation of learning and feedback to learners
In reference to the discussion given above, it would mean that curriculum core and syllabus put
together from the curriculum.
It is a document that gives details of the content of subjects to be transacted and the skills,
knowledge and the attitude which are to be deliberately fostered together with the stage (level)
specific objectives. Syllabus is a descriptive list of subjects to be covered and a summary of their
contents. It describes and Summarizes what should be taught to the students, it may have details,
such as schedule, assessments,
Assignment, project, etc. Thus, it may highlight the schedule of assignments, projects and exams,
etc.

Difference between syllabus and curriculum

Syllabus Curriculam
The syllabus is described as the summary of the Curriculum refers to the overall content, taught
topics covered or units to be taught in the in an educational system or a course.
particular subject.
Syllabus varies from teacher to teacher. Curriculam remains same for all the teachers.
It is descriptive in nature. It is prescriptive in nature.
It is set for a particular subject. It cover a particular course of study or a
program.
It is prepared by teachers. It is decided by the government of the course.
Duration of syllabus is for a year only. Curriculam lasts till the completion of the
course.

Factors Affecting Teaching related to Teacher

If the learner stands on one end of the ongoing teaching-learning process as one of the poles then
the teacher act as the other pole for the desired one of the teaching-learning activities in the
classroom. Hence, factors related to teacher play a significant role in the process of teaching.
The following are the factors affecting teaching related to the teacher in the teaching-learning
process:

 Subject Knowledge: There is a saying that a teacher is only as good as what they
know. If a teacher lacks knowledge in a subject, that dearth of understanding is passed along
to the students. A teacher who knows his subjects well can only play a decisive role in
leading the journey of the teaching-learning process.

 Knowledge of learners: This is a broad category that incorporates knowledge of the

cognitive, social and emotional development of learners. It includes an understanding of how
students learn at a given developmental level; how learning in a specific subject area typically
progresses like learning progressions or trajectories, the awareness that learners have
individual needs and abilities, and an understanding that instruction should be tailored to
meet each learner's needs.

 Teaching Skills: A teacher may know his subject well but for sharing, communicating
and interacting various experience related to the learning of the subject, he needs specific
teaching skills. The proficiency and deficiency possessed by a teacher in this regard are quite
responsible for turning the teacher learning process a big success or failure.

 Friendliness and Approachability: Because it's the teacher's job to help students
learn, they must be easy to approach. Students will have questions that can't be answered if
the teacher isn't friendly and easy to talk to. The unapproachable, mean, arrogant, rude,
teacher can't last long. If the students think of their teacher as their enemy. they certainly
won't learn much. The best teachers are the most open, welcoming. and easy to approach. A
 good teacher possesses good listening skills and takes time out of their busy schedule to
solve all kinds of problems for their students.

 Personality and behaviour: A teacher as a leader has to lead his students in the
teaching-learning process through the magnetic influence and incredible impression left on
the minds of the students on the basis of his personality traits and behaviour. He is a role
model for his students. His actions, behaviour pattern and personality traits carry great
meaning to his students for being imitated and brought into practice

 Level of Adjustment and Mental health: How adjusted a teacher feels in his
personal and professional life and the state and level of mental health maintained by the
teacher carry much weight in influencing his teacher behaviour and teacher effectiveness
needed for the effective control and management of the teaching, learning process. While a
teacher possessing poor mental health and lack of adjustment in his personal and
professional life may prove totally failure in the realization of teaching-learning objective, a
teacher possessing good mental health and adjustment may prove an ideal image to his
students and boon to the effectiveness of the teaching-learning process.

 Discipline: In a classroom, a teacher uses discipline to ensure routine is maintained,

school rules are enforced, and the students are in a safe learning environment. A great
teacher has effective discipline skills and can promote positive behaviours and change in the
classroom. Without discipline, learning cannot be accomplished.

Factors Affecting Teaching related to the Learner

Both physiological and psychological factors of the learner affect learning outcomes. These can
discuss as follow
• Maturation:- Maturation is the process of development of bodily systems and co-ordination in
the functioning of bodily organs and It is the physical readiness of the individual for learning.
Maturation governs not only certain specific motor behaviour such as walking and talking etc., it
also plays an essential role in acquiring other skills such as reading and writing. This readiness
or potentially within the individual determines "what to learn' and 'how to learn'.

• Age: Mental abilities and potentialities develop with age, so learning efficiency increases with age
up to a certain level, and after that, it tends to decrease. As children are in growing and
developing age, their capacity to learn and acquire new things is greater as compared to that of
the older individuals. Grown up children have grater potential to learn than very young children.

• Motivation:Motivation is the core of learning. It is of pivotal importance in affecting an

individual's persistence to learn. Motivation is important in at least three ways,
• It is a condition for eliciting behaviour. In other words, it brings out appropriate behaviour to be
learned,
• Motivation is necessary for reinforcement, which, in turn, is an essential condition for learning,
i.e. motivation permits reinforcement to occur, and
• It increases the variability of behaviour and thus raising the probability of occurrence of correct
responses. For example, curiosity and exploratory drive bring the individual into wider contact
with the environment which increases the possibility of performing correct behaviour/response.
Thus, motivation provides a powerful incentive for the learner to perform.

• Previous learning:-Rate of learning is partially determined by the learner's previous learning

experiences with similar or somewhat similar material. In the same or somewhat similar learned
previous situation, the individual might have "learned how to learn, it at least prepares the
 ground to learn and provides ease in learning in the new set-up. So, the factor or relevant
previous learning is of great.
• Intelligence:- Intelligence, innate mental ability is basic to the cognitive development of an
individual. There is individual difference in the intellectual ability of learners. Intelligence, in
terms of I.Q. score obtained on intelligence tests, is positively related to learning. Generally,
children with higher IQ learn new material more rapidly as compared to the average .Q. children.
However, learning is not always linearly related to IQ. One point of caution is that intelligence
cannot be defined solely in terms of learning ability or the learned material by the learner.
• Mental health: - Good mental health in terms of the absence of anxiety, conflict, worry, and
frustration, etc. provides the learner with a good ground to learn better. All learning, especially
for the beginners, entails a certain amount of anxiety, but anxiety above certain limits hampers
learning and the outcomes in terms of the learned material decreases. Thus, the teacher should
take care that children must not be put in such an emotional state as may prove a hindrance in
learning
• Physical handicaps and dysfunctioning:-Malformation and malfunctioning of physical
organs or some system cause great hindrance in children's proper learning. Defects in vision,
hearing., and other diseases such as epilepsy, paralysis, cardiac problems, etc. affect learning.
Needless to say that poor vision, hearing defects, and physical handicaps have far-reaching
psychological consequences in learning.

• Diet and nutrition: - Good diet and other nutrients are an essential part of good physical
health. These are essential for developing children and for better learning. For example, 90% of
the glucose taken by a person is consumed by brain cells, so naturally, poor diet lacking
adequate nutrients has an adverse effect on learning.

• Attention and interest:-Both are interrelated to each other and are also a part of the
motivation. Interest originates attention, and attention creates interest in the material/subject to
be learned. If a child has an interest in some subject, he will pay more attention to that and if he
pays more attention, he may develop an interest in the learning of that subject.

• Goal-setting and level of aspiration: - Goal-seting and level of aspiration both related to the
psychodynamics of behaviour. Goal set, high or low, by the individual, goes with the expectation
of the individual to achieve. Teachers should take care that learners make a realistic view of their
abilities, set the goal accordingly, and go on increasing it on its achievement.

Factors Affecting Teaching related to the Subject-Matters

Educationists and psychologists set the syllabi according to the physical and mental development of
children, even then, the important material related factors influencing learning can be discussed as
follows:
 The difficulty of the task:the material to be learned should be of appropriate difficulty level.
Whereas a very easy task fails to challenge children, a very difficult task disappoints them and
results in a slow rate of acquisition. The same task varies in difficulty for children of different
developmental levels or capacity and previous experiences.

 Length of the task:A lengthy material poses a big problem for young learners. The longer a
material the more difficult it would be to learn. The difficulty task should also be presented in
small parts.

 Meaningfulness of the task: - Learning outcomes are associated with the meaningfulness of
the learning material. Rapid learning occurs when children have to learn something. So, the kind
 of material to be learned makes a considerable difference in the rate of learning. Some tasks are
hard, others are easy. The tasks that have some meaning make learning easier.

 The similarityof the task:Tasks which have some elements similar to the previously learned
material make learning quick and comfortable. As in life, it is equally applicable in teaching-
learning situations

 Organised Material: - The subject-matter should be logically organized so that we have better
outcomes. The organization of learning material should be from simple to difficult, from concrete
to abstract and from direct to indirect keeping in view the physical and mental development of
learners, otherwise much of teacher's efforts and learner's energy will be wasted.

 Life learning:The task to be learned must be presented in an interrelated manner. No subject-

matter should be taught in an isolated way. Most of the material from different subjects can be
taught keeping in view their interrelationship. If some part of the subject- matter is related tolife
while teaching, its effectiveness increases, and forgetting, in that case, is minimized.

Factors Related to Methods of Teaching (Instructional Facilities) and

Environment
Knowledge of methods of teaching is very essential for effective learning. For better outcomes,
teachers should use the appropriate methods of teaching considering chronological age and mental
development of children. However, a summary of the generally used methods is presented below

 Distribution of practice: - It is also called a method of masses V/s spaced practice. Learning
depends upon the rate at which the individual practices with the task Short periods of practice
inters read with a period of rest permit more efficient learning than does continuous or masses
practice
 Whole V/s part learning:One important question is whether the material should be learned as
a whole or in One may go over the whole learning material several times or take one part at a
time and learn it in the piecemeal method.
 Recitation: - One way to secure the active participation of the learners in teaching-learning is
to use the recitation method. After learning certain material once, the learner recites and tries to
recall it loudly.
 Knowledge of result:- the learner goes on improving his performance if he is given information
about the correctness of his responses or his progress in learning at each stage of mastery. The
learner can sustain his efforts, if, during the course of learning, he may periodically know how
well he has done or how far he is away from the target. Knowledge of result aids learning by
being an incentive Some information about his accomplishment helps in maintaining his interest
and motivation in learning.
 Learning by doing:-Participation of the learner is of central significance. So, the students
should be encouraged to learn things by doing. It will bring more of their involvement in the task.
They would take more interest in learning that task and pay more attention to it. Therefore, the
teacher should devise means and ways to ensure active participation of the students.
 Suitability of Method:Methods of teaching adopted by the teacher and environmental factors
affecting learning are many and varied. These can be elaborated to any extent Learning is
affected by the suitability of methods of teaching like; Discussion method, Demonstration
method, Lecture method, Project method, Heuristic method, Programmed learning method, Plat-
way method, Story-telling method, Field-work, excursion and trips.
 Teacher and Environments related Factors:- These factors also play an important role in
the effectiveness of teaching-learning outcomes. Physical environment, social environment,
 classroom cuilture, curicula, time table, and fatigue and rest very Important for providing a
conducive environment to learn.

Factors affecting Teaching related to Institution

The teaching-learning process depends on many factors and they are interdependent to each other.
Institutions is one of the factors that directly affect teaching.
The following factors can be summarized as Factors affecting Teaching related to Institution .
 Teacher-Student ratio
 Quality of Teachers and Their Commitments
 Infrastructure
 Adopted teaching Methods
 Management
 Institutional Achievements
 Stability
 Environment
 Physical and Material Resource

TEACHING AIDS OR SUPPORT MATERIAL

Support material is very essential which affects teaching-learning process. It is a valuable resource,
It includes textbooks, institutional magazines, journals, periodicals etc. So, it is important to select
such an effective support material which could be useful n transmitting knowledge among learners.
Teaching aids are instrumental materials and devices that help the teacher in carrying out the
teaching-learning process.
Categories of Teaching Aids
Teaching aids can be categorized as following
1. Audio Aids
The aids which involve the sense of hearing are called audio aids. These are the modern teaching
aids.
Types of modern teaching support systems are as follows

i) Gramophone Teachers use it to correct the spoken languages and terms of the students.
ii) Tape Recorder Teachers use it to record some subjet-matter tat is presented according to the
necessities. It is a very useful instrument for special education. It provides assistance to the
student involved in mainstreamed content area classes.
iii) Radio Teachers have explored the use of radio in the classroom almost since radio technology
entered into the mainstream of society. Radio offers teachers a mine of authentic sound
documents to use in the classroom.
iv) Digital Audio Player A digital audio player is sometimes referred to as MP3 player and has the
primary function of storing, organizing and playing audio files. Some digital audio players are
also referred to as portable media players as they have image viewing and video playing support.
An ideal example is iPod (fourth generation audio instructional facilities). Through this, teachers
can store their teachings and later students can listen this repeatedly to learn more effectively.

2. Visual Aids
The traditional aids which involve the sense of vision are called visual aids. Types of visual aids
are as follows
i) GraphsThese are a wonderful teacher aids and can be used for any subject. Teachers can make
their own graphs and use them for comparing population growth, numbers or ratios of objects, or
even use them for charting student growth.
ii) Bulletin BoardIt is a surface intended for the posting of public messages, for example to
advertise items wanted or for sale, announce events, or provide information in the classroom.
iii) NewspapersA teacher can use a newspaper for finding parts of speech, teaching about life
skills, or to keep student up to date by current news events.
iv) Blackboard An efficient teacher always makes use of the blackboard. It focuses on technology
and services to help students learn, not just one way but on their own way.
v) MapsA map is something to use when a teacher is describing where a city, state, country, or
continent is located. Maps are great for social studies and science and give students a great
understanding of spatial relations.
vi) Real Objects These are very important in the teaching of students on the basis of perception of
objects, the students get apparent experience. Objects like rocks, soils, minerals, etc can be
shown in the class.
vii) Three Dimensional Model Real things may not be available all the time and in te desired
form. Three Dimensional Model helps to overcome this problem. A model is a recognizable
representation of real things in three dimensional view such as height, width and depth. This
makes understanding better and easy. They are long lasting and inexpensive, so it is used in
high class teaching institutes.
viii) Charts A chart is a symbolized visualized teaching support system with pictures of
relationships and chares which are used to tabulate a large mass of information or show a
progression. Charts can help communicate different and dull subject matter in an interesting
and effective way. They are also helpful in summarizing information and presenting abstract
ideas in visual form.

ix) Power Point PresentationIt is a computer programme that allows the presenter to create and
show slide to support his presentation. Here, one can combine text, graphics and content to
create professional presentation. Trough power point presentation, one can easily explain the
context by showing a particular slide. It can used for teaching various concepts. It is used for
educational concepts. It is used for educational purposes too. Many teachers take support of PPT
and through this they can deliver their concepts well to students.
x) Magnetic BoardIt can be a sheet of template and simply a type of chalk board, the surface of
which is treated or coated with porcelain like substance. T he base of the board is steel and
pictures and objects can be pasted or mounted wit small magnets and can easily be moved
about. Ere, objects can moved across the board easily to show the movement. Teacher and
student both can get benefitted by using this.

3. Audio-Visual Aids
The aids which involve the sense of hearing as well as the sense of vision are known as audio-visual
aids. This is the most effective and useful than other teaching aids as it used more than one sense
simultaneously. These are ICT based teaching support systems.
i) Films Strips and Films Knowledgeabout various function, discoveries and other information
related to subject can be imparted with the help of film strips and Other Information related to
subject can be imparted with the help of film strips and films. In the films and film strips each
subject is given in systematic sequence and in detail and it gives clear knowledge of the subject.
ii) TelevisionIt is used to communicate information, idea, skills and attitudes. It enhance the
quality of education and reduces the dependency on verbal teaching and teachers. It provides
mass education opportunities.
iii) Pen TabIt is a digital drawing tablet. It is a computer inpur device that enable the user to hand
draw images animation and graphics with special pen like stylus similar to the way person draw
images animations and graphics with special pen like stylus similar to the way person drams
images with pencil. IT is also known as graphic tablet. It is useful in displaying the matter as one
 speaks the words are written on the monitor. Today, many teacher and professors are using this
technique as it gives a feeling of online class.
iv) ComputerIt is a good example of ICT based teaching support system. It can be defined as any
electronic device that allows students to access the internet to research, create and complete the
work. It is greatly used for teaching purposes now a days. Well constructedprogrammes have the
capacity to realistically present material which would not be available by other teaching methods.
v) MultimediaIt is one of the techniques of improving the student to meet the academic needs and
helps them developing language skill. Multimedia classroom provide the students chance for
interacting with diverse texts that give them a soil them a solid background in tasks and content
of mainstream college courses.

Dale’s Cone of Experience

Dale’s cone of Experience is a model that incorporates several theories related to instruction design
and
Learning processes. During 1960s, Edgar Dale theorized that learners retain more information by
what they 'do' as opposed 10 what is 'heard', 'read', or 'observed'. His research led to the
development of the 'Cone of Experience'. Today, this 'learning by doing' has become known as
‘experiential learning' or' action learning'.
How can instructors use the cone of experience? According to Dale's research, the least effective
method at the top involves learning from information presented through verbal symbols, i.e.,
listening to spoken words. The most effective methods at the bottom involve direct, purposeful
learning experiences. such as hands-on or field experience.
Direct purposeful experiences represent reality or the closet things to real, everyday life. The cone
charts the average retention rare for various methods of teaching. The further you progress down
the cone. the greater the learning and the more information are likely to be retained. II also
suggests that when choosing an instructional l method, it is important to remember that involving
students in the process strengthens knowledge retention.
It reveals that 'action-learning' techniques result in up to 90% retention. People learn best when
they use perceptual learning styles and these learning styles are sensory based. The more sensory
channels possible in Interacting with a resource, the better chance that many students can learn
from it. According to Dale. the instructors should design instructional activities that build upon
more real-life experiences. Dales' cone of experience is a tool to help instructors make decisions
about resources and activities.
 People Generally Remember: People Are Able To: (Learning Outcomes)

10% of what they Read Read

20% of what they Hear Define

Hear
List
Describe Explain

View Images
30% of what they See

Watch Video
Demonstrate
50% of what they hear and
Apply Practice
see
Attend Exibit /Sites

Watch A Demonstration

Participate in Hands-on Workshop

Demonstrate
70% of what they Apply
say and write Practice
Desing Collaboratice Lassons

Simulate or Model a Real Experience

90% of what they Design/perform a Presentation – Do the Real Thing

do
Different Types of Memory
Implicit memory known as procedural memory, implicit memory represents a type of memory that
we cannot consciously remember, since it is a more experiential and functional memory. This
memory is used and acquired unconsciously and can affect both thoughts and behaviors. It helps
people to perform specific tasks without being aware of these previous experiences. This memory
also leads to the illusion of the fact that people are more likely to listen to those statements that
they have already heard regardless of concentrating on what is true.

Explicit memory Explicit memory is one of the two main types of long-term memory. It is also
known as declarative memory. This type of memory requires people to think consciously, such as
remembering who came to dinner last night or solving a final paper in which students need to
remember what they have learned so far. Explicit memory belongs to that part of our memory that
is in our mind when we think about a situation, whether it is correct or incorrect. It is often
associated with memory brain links. Explicit memory is often used by people throughout the day,
such as remembering an event or recalling the time of an appointment from years ago.

Basis of Distinction implicit memory explicit memory

Definition Memory that is used without Explicit memory is memory
awareness so that the content that we draw on from personal
of memories cannot be experiences, stored
reported is called implicit knowledge, and memory of
memory. facts.
Process unconscious, automatic conscientious, hard
structures The different shapes depend The hippocampus and medial
on different brain regions like temporal lobe are essential for
the striatum, neocortex, brain structures.
cerebellum, etc.
Types of information Emotional, conditioning, Cognitive, facts, mind, verbal,
bodily, sensory, automatic semantic, description of
skills, automatic procedures operations and description of
procedures
Other name Procedure memory declarative memory
Maturity From birth about 3 years

Teaching Methods According to different Schools of Philosophy:

Methods by idealism:
Buttler is right when he says, "Idealists consider themselves creators and determiners of methods,
not devotees of someone method" They speak of the general nature of teaching methods only. They
do not specify any method to be adopted in the centers of learning. Therefore, the method is the
weakest aspect of the philosophy of idealism. Different idealists have adopted different methods.

Socrates laid adopted the question method. Plato, his disciple, changed the question method into
the conversational method and made it logical. His disciple, Aristotle followed inductive and
deductive methods Hegel adopted a logical method. Pestalozzi adopted the self-activity method.

Herbart on methods says, "I have no conception of education without instruction and do not
acknowledge any instruction which does not educate." He also takes the help of the discussion
method and at times suggests debate as a technique of teaching.

For classroom practice, idealists would encourage the use of the discussion and the lecture
methods. The discussion method of learning which is popularly known as the Socratic method
involves questioning and discussion. It was the method of learning in the Upanishadic period of
Indian education. It is also known as the Informal dialectic' method. Idealists value the use of well-
prepared and presented lectures. The lecture should not be a phonographic recitation on facts but a
scholarly exposition. It should also not be delivered in an autocratic way. It should be participatory.

Methods by Naturalism
Rousseau considers education as a process of living. Being a process, it lasts throughout life or at
least from birth to adult life. It finds its meaning for any particular stage, not on a future state. It is
not artificial, harsh, unsympathetic, repressive of all-natural inclinations, by which "the child as a
"little man" is made into a "big man" through the hands of the teacher.

Development of the child through the natural process is an enjoyable, rational, harmoniously
balanced, useful and hence natural life. The aim of education is achieved not in adult life, but in
each succeeding day, whenever life has its natural activities, it’s appropriate duties, and its
corresponding satisfaction. Thus stress is given on direct experience of things. Rousseau, therefore
says, "Give your scholar no verbal lessons: he should be taught by experience alone.

Pragmatic Methods
The focus of pragmatic methods of teaching is on the 'child-in-society' and his activities therein
rather than the book, the teacher, the subject or exclusively the child-of-nature. Learning always
occurs as a result of an activity. The teacher has to capitalize upon the activities of children to
direct the teaching-learning process. Activity is the basis of all teaching. The child should be
enabled to find out information by himself instead of pouring information on him. Children should
be encouraged to discover and investigate the facts of life. Education must develop a laboratory
habit of mind. The method of teaching should be experimental.

Existentialist Methods
The method of teaching advocated by existentialism is of asking questions, refining answers,
asking more questions and pushing the issue until some acceptable conclusion was reached.
Existentialists favored the Socratic approach to teaching, as it was inductive, proceeding from the
immediate and particular to the abstract and universal. In this method, knowledge and wisdom are
gained through personal relationships between the teacher and the pupil.

They give emphasis on individual attention. Since the emphasis is given on individual attention,
they prefer home education to school education. In an existentialist system, the teacher cannot
impose upon children his own ideas, ideals, ideologies, and values. Religious education may be
imparted, provided there is no scope for indoctrinations. They advocate a method of teaching which
can develop creativity among the pupils.
Teaching Methods as recommended by Secondary Education Commission
(1952-53)
 The commission suggested that methods of teaching should provide ample opportunities for
students to develop clear thinking and clear expression.
 Individual-centered methods and opportunities for practical application of knowledge should
be adopted.
 Activity method and project method should be used in school practice.
 Establishing Experimental and Demonstration schools and training in activities such as
scout movement, N.C.C., first aid should be encouraged.

Some Specific Teaching Methods

Inferential Problem-Solving Technique
Inductive and deductive are two important procedures of systematic approaches to problem-solving.
Steps in Inductive Method:
 Recognition of the problem
 Searching for data
 Organization of data
 Framing tentative solutions
 Elimination
 Verification

Steps in Deductive Method

 Recognition of problem
 Searching for data
 Reviewing
 Formulation of inferences
 Verification

Team-Teaching

Team-teaching is also called co-operative teaching. This is a recent idea in the field of education.
M.B. Naik said, "In a team-teaching method, two or more teachers make a plan of the subjects
cooperatively, carry it out, and always evaluate its effects on the students periodically" In team
teaching, subject teachers give lectures to a big class. On every working, all the members of the
team have a common assembly. Here they discuss the methods used by the fellow-teachers.
 Micro-Teaching
Micro teaching is a teacher training technique. It was first time develop by
Dwight W Allen and his colleagues at Stanford university. According to Allen Micro teaching
is a scaled down teaching encounter in class time.
The objective of Micro teaching is to build up skills and confidence to experience a range of
lecturing style and to learn and practice giving constructive feedback. As a tool for teacher
preparation, micro teaching trains teaching behaviours and skills in small group settings
aided by video-recordings. In small group settings aided by video-recordings. In a protected
environment of friends and colleagues, teachers can try out a short piece of what they
usually do with their students and receive a well-intended collegial feedback. Micro teaching
can be defined wit the help of the following diagram.

1. PLAN 2. TEACH

6 RE-FEEDBACK 3 FEEDBACK

5 RE-TEAC 4 RE-PLAN

METHODS OF TEACHING IN INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING

Methods of teaching refer to general principle. Pedagogy and management strategies used for
classroom instruction. Choice of teaching methods depends on educational demography, subject
areas and organization’s mission. Following are the methods of teaching

Methods of Teaching
A. Teacher-Centered Methods
 Lecture Method
 Demonstration Method
 Biographical Method
 Historical or Banking Teaching Theory Method TEACHER CENTRED TEACHING METHOD
 Team Teaching or Collaborative Teaching Method
B. Learner’s Centered Methods Teacher

 Laboratory Method
students
 Project Method
 Assignment Method
 Discussion Method
 Brainstorming Method
 Seminar Method
A. Teacher-Centered Methods
These methods consider teachers as the main authority figure and students are viewed as empty
vessels who passively receive knowledge form their teachers.
i. Lecture Method
Lecture method is the oldest teaching method applied in educational institution. This method
is one way channel of communication of information. Student's involvement in this teaching
method is just to listen and Sometimes pen down some notes if necessary during the lecture,
combine the information and organize it. Lecture method of teaching serves four basic
purposes-to motivate, to clarify, to review and to expand. Before preparing a lecture. the
teacher must be aware of audience, purpose of lecture, time and content of lecture.
Merits
• This method helps students to learn languages and students develop their learning skills.
• The teacher can control and direct the flow of information with greater precision.
• It stimulates the interest of students by providing advanced knowledge on the topic where up
to date information is not available.
• Teacher delivers the same lecture to both students without recognizing the individual
differences.
Demerits
• Lecture are often forgotten by the students soon after, and attention level is not the same
while student listening the lecture.
• It is highly authoritarian and undemocratic.
• The learner is a silent receiver of information.
• It does not provide scope to learners to ask questions, raise doubts or provide observations.

ii. Lecture Demonstration Method

In the demonstration method, the teacher or an assigned student or group show how a process is
done while the students become observers. The demonstrator is knowledgeable in preparing the
apparatus needed according to the steps to be followed. The rest of the class becomes focused on
the activity and concentration on the subject is assured. Demonstration method is a visual
approach to examining information, ideas and processes. Demonstration method of teaching is
based on following principles
• Learning by doing maxim is followed
• Skills can be developed by imitation
• The perceptions help in imitation

This method is mainly applied in technical or training institutes. In teacher education programs it is
used to develop skills in the student teacher. At school level, a teacher applies it in teaching
science, biology, nature, study, arts and crafts. This method of teaching involves various senses to
make learning permanent.
Merits
• It allows students to see the teacher actively engaged as a learner and aodel rather than
merely telling then what they need to know.
• It focuses to achieve psychomotor and cognitive objectives.
• It develops interests in the learners and motivates them for their active participation.
 • It is economical in terms of efforts, energy, resources and time.

Demerits
• There is scarcity of audio-visual aids due to poor economic conditions of government schools
and teachers are not so creative to produce handmade models for demonstration.
• It is highly controlled and dominating method of instruction.
• It does not provide opportunities to involve learner’s participation.
• It requires precision, practice and accuracy to be really successful.

iii. Biographical Method

In Biographical Method of teaching, some biographies are used to analyse the author’s personal life.
In this teaching method, teacher’s role become significant and learners play their inductive role in
learning process.
Merits
• It is used to tackle pedagogical difficulties associated with the increasing marketisation of
higher education and the depoliticized attitudes of the students.
• It is suitable at higher level of teaching where students are capable to reach at an inference
on their own.

Demerits
• Students can be damaged by engaging openly and publically with curricula that asks them to
draw on their own biographies.
• Students sometimes get diverted into learning criminological theories and end up being
criminal later.

iv. Historical Method

Historical method of teaching is a technique of presenting information, in which a topic, is
considered in terms of its earliest phases and followed in a historical course through its subsequent
evolution and development.
A lending international educator of the 20th century, named this form of teaching a banking
teaching theory. In the banking concept of education, knowledge is a gift bestowed by those who
consider themselves knowledgeable upon those who they consider to know nothing.
Merits
• This method of teaching provides the student with deposits of knowledge like money in a
bank.
• The teacher directs and controls student’s behavior, and provides a model to correct the
responses.
• It evolves students speaking ability.

Demerits
• It is a very confusing method for the weak students to follow.
• This method is more focused on speaking and memorizing skills, therefore it does not
guarantee good writing ability of students.
v. Question Answer Teaching Method
Question answer teaching strategy is an old strategy also known as “Socratic Method of Teaching”.
It was developed by the famous philosopher Socrates.
According to Parke, “the question is the key to all educative activity above the habit-skill level. It
strategy is focused on to achieve the cognitive objectives and bringing knowledge to the conscious
level”.
Merits
• While asking questions, the teacher keeps it mind the abilities, needs and interest of the
learner.
• It involves the learner’s participation towards the subject matter and in teaching acts.
• It helps in achieving cognitive objectives and bringing knowledge at conscious level.
• Classroom verbal interaction is encouraged.
• It is a useful strategy at all the levels of sducation.

Demerits

• It is difficult to prepare good questions, and arrange them logically

• The whole content-matter cannot be taught by this strategy.
• The teacher wants the structured answers from the learners. There is no freedom for
imaginative answers.

vi. TV or Video Presentation

It is an improved presentation of radio or audio presentation of radio or audio presentation and it
can virtually bring the whole world inside the classroom. Screening of video presentation is followed
by discussion or task.
Merits
• Specifically useful for adult learners
• Easily accessible for learners in remote areas
• Specifically useful for subjects. such as geography and astronomy.
• Many important personalities and experts are brought to the classroom through video
presentations.

Demerits
• Less possibility for two-way communication.
• There can be difficult in adjusting to complicate schedules to telecast period.

vii. Team Teaching Method

Team teaching involves group of a instructors working purposefully, and cooperatively to help a
group of students. ln this method of teaching teachers set goals tor course, design a syllabus,
prepare individual lesson plans. teach students and evaluate the results.
The team teaching method allows for more Interaction between teachers and students.
Teachers evaluate student on their achievement of the learning goal, student evaluate teachers on
their teaching proficiency The team teacher's main contribution is that, the pupils can have
maximum opportunities of facing maximum specialists.
Working in teams spreads responsibility. encourages creativity, deepens friendships, and builds
community among teachers Hence, the pupils can gain the advantage of specific knowledge of the
different teachers.
Merits
• It provides stimulus to the ideas of the pupils and teachers.
• It develops the strong will and responsibility of participation among the pupils and teachers.
• It is very economical in terms of time and task. energy

Demerits
• In this method many teachers are required
• It is not useful for all subjects
• It requires much time for planning and scheduling.

B. Learner's Centered Methods

In learner’s centered methods of teaching, teachers and students play an equally active role in the
learning process.
Following are the learner’s centered methods of teaching.
i. Laboratory Method
The laboratory method is a planned learning activity dealing with original or raw data in the
solution of a problem. It is a procedure involving first hand experiences with materials or facts
derived from investigations or experimentation. The primary aim of laboratory method of teaching is
to give firsthand experience to students.
Merits
• It is used to designate a teaching procedure in the physical sciences that use
experimentation with apparatus
• It builds scientific attitude and sense of achievement among learners.

Demerits
• It is not suitable for all the subjects because all knowledge cannot be verified through
experiment.
• It is effective only in a small group.

ii. Project Method

Project method is one of the modern methods of teaching in which, the students point of view is
given importance in designing the curricula and content of studies. This method is based on the
philosophy of pragmatism and the principle of ‘learning by doing’.
In this strategy pupils perform constructive activities in natural condition, realistic and experiential.
Project method of teaching encourages the spirit of scientific enquiry as it involves validation of
hypothesis based on evidence gathered from field through investigation.
Merits
• It takes the student beyond the walls of the classroom and makes learning realistic and
experimental.
• It encourages the spirit of scientific enquiry as it involves validation of hypothesis based on
evidence gathered from field through investigation.
 • It allows the students a great degree of freedom to choose from among the option given to
them, hence it provides a psychological boost.

Demerits
• It is time consuming and can be extended endlessly.
• It requires meticulous planning and execution otherwise it can give unreliable results.
• There can be many uncontrolled social or natural factors which may affect the outcome of
the project.
• In the absence of effective and alert supervision, a student may take the unreliable data.

Project Method of Teaching

Philosophical background from where it has emerged out i.e. 'Pragmatism'..
Philosopher Propounder : John Dewoy
Present Era Supporter : Dr. WH. Kilpatrick

Modifier (Moderation) : J. A. Stevenson

Cardinal Principles 1. Learning by doing 2. Learning by living

CRITERIA OF A GOOD PROJECT

A good project should follow the following criteria:
1. It should be purposeful.
2. It should impart gainful learning experiences.
3. It should cater for the activities of pupils.
4. The students should get full freedom to work according to their own interests and abilities.
5. Project must be selected by the active participation of both pupils and the teacher.
6. It must be economical in term of time and money. constraints controlled.
7. It should keep time
8. It should be challenging.
9. It should be feasible.

iii. Assignment Method

Assignment method of teaching is as instructional technique comprises the guided information,
self-learning, writing skills and report preparation among the learners.
Following precautions should be taken while executing assignment method of teaching.
• The assignment must be lesson concerned and related with the textbook and curriculum.
• The assignment must be explained with the availability of resources.
• The core of the subject or unit must be clarified.
• The tough and difficult portions of the assignment need to e explained well.

Merits
• It provides information analysis as research attitude to the learners.
• It develops the learning experiences from various sources.
• It inculcates the self-learning attitude among the students.
Demerits
• There are always chances of plagiarism increasing chances of copy-paste.
• The slow learner need much more attention from the teacher, again more burden for the
teacher.
• The time limit given threatens the students which makes the substandard work.

iv. Discussion Method

Discussion method of teaching is a group activity involving the teacher and the student to define
the problem and seek its solution. Discussion method is also described as a constructive process
involving listening, thinking as well as the speaking ability of the student. Discussion method of
teaching involves following steps
A) Orientation Provides the discussion topic and explains how students have to prepare for
discussion.
B) Engagement Develops an environment of discussion in which an intensive session of
questioning and answering is conducted.
C) Debrief Allow time to students to make their own notes.
Merits
 It is a learner-centered method
 It allows learners to take responsibility of their own learning thus, making them more mature
and independent learners.
 It facilitates student reflection on what they learnt.
 It provides freedom of decision making and forming judgements.
Demerits
 It is highly time consuming
 It may lead to invalid and illogical interference.
 It encourages the dominance of a few members from the group of learners.

v. Brainstorming Method
It is a group creativity technique by which efforts are made to find a conclusion for a specific
problem by gathering a list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its members. The term was
popularized by AlexFaickneyOsborn in the 1953 book 'Applied Imagination. According to him.
people are able to think more freely and they suggest many spontaneous new ideas as possible. All
the ideas are noted down and are not criticised and after brainstorming session the ideas are
evaluated.
Merits
 It popularises the group method of finding ideas.
 It applies to solve the goal of the group.
 It provides platform for everyone to speak and to create ideas.
 It is very economical.
Demerits
 It may lead to constant arguing due to virtues.
 Team members who have displayed creativity are more likely to succeed.
 It can be over-applied easily.
  It is not a very systematic way of studying a subject

vi. Seminar Method

It is a method in which a group of people come together for discussion and learn specific techniques
and topics.
Usually there are several keynote speakers within each seminar, and these speakers are usually
experts in their own fields or topics.
Merits
 A wealth of knowledge usually, presented by many speakers at one time in one place.
 In this method individuals can meet to others with same interests/problems or concerns.
 A great way for those who do not like to read, or attend classes, to improve their knowledge of
a specific subject
Demerits
 There are chances that the speakers share the incorrect knowledge.
 It is time consuming as well as costly
 There are chances that attendees will expect too much from a seminar and may be
disappointed.

vii. Heuristic Method

This method was proposed by Armstrong. The word Heuristic is derived from the Greek work
Heurisken' which means 'find. The aim of this method is to make students learn curiously by
discovery, Instead of receiving information from teacher principal of activity, logical thinking, known
to unknown purposeful experience, self-thinking, self purposeful experience, self-thinking, self
study etc. are used in Heuristic method.
In this method, the teacher gives a topic or problem to student and they have to find out the
solution, using library, online resources, workshops, seminars etc.
Merit
 It is student centered approach.
 The teacher encourages students to learn on their own.
 It focuses on developing scientific attitude in students for problem solving
 It helps in all round development of students.
Demerits
 It is not meant for students of primary level.
 Not all students possess the same set of skills. So below average students will not be
comfortable with this method.
 It is important here for students to have Access to library. laboratory and internet. Some
institutes might not be able to provide these, so in such circumstances, it will be difficult to use
this method.

viii. Kinesthetic Learning

This is also known as tactile learning or hands on learning. In such learning, there is more
emphasis on physical activities, instead of lectures or demonstration. Students learn by experience,
role playing. drama, sport etc.
Merits
 It involves lesser use of technology.
 Such activities are good in engaging students so that they learn with greater interest and
curiosity.
 It helps students in retaining what they have learnt.
Demerits
 Not all subject can be taught by using this method.
 Students might understand the working easily using this method but they will not have deep
knowledge of concepts.
 To overcome this it should used with lecturing but not as a substitute of lecturing.
ix. Computer Assisted Learning
Computer assisted learning is concerned with the use of a computer to mediate the flow of
information in learning process.
A computer has the ability to process information quickly, accurately and to adopt and respond to
the learner’s need difficulties and progress, which is much greater than that of a book or video tape.
Merits
 It has more flexibility and better control comparison to other methods.
 It can be effectively used for drilling and practicing simulation and modeling.
Demerits
 It is impersonal and costly.

x. Case Study Method

The case study method is a participatory. discussion based way of learning where students gain
skills in critical thinking, communication and group dynamics.
A case study is usually a description of an actual situation, commonly involving a decision, a
challenge and opportunity, a problem, or an issue faced by a person or persons in a social setup
such as an organisation. In learning with case studies, the students must deal with situations
described in the case.
This method has application across disciplines. such as psychology, biology. Management, law.
sociology, history etc.
The case study method becomes an efficient tool for the creation of a learner centered education
rather than a teacher-centered education.
It is an important for bringing real world problems in to a classroom or workshop. This ensure
active participation and may lead to innovative solution to the problems.
Merits
 In enhances decision-making and problem solving skills.
 It provides opportunity to the participants to analysis critically, examine, evaluate and express
reasoned opinions.
 It ensures active participation, which may lead to innovative solution.
Demerits
 It is impersonal and costly.
xi. Personalized System of Instruction (PSI)
It refers to a set of methods, strategies, experiences and techniques which are used to address the
diverse needs, interest and aspirations of the students. It can be used for all subject matters except
where the students are there to select the contents. It is a learner-centered method which consists
of five basic elements that are:
a) Mastery learning
b) Self-pacing
c) Stress on written material
d) Proctors
e) Lectures
Merits
 Learning is self-paced.
 It is based on mastery learning
Demerits
 It cannot be used for primary level students.
 It is not suitable for psychomotor and affective domains.
 It is not valid for rapidly changing course contents.

xii. Flipped Classroom

A modern concept that has become popular Since 2007, here the teacher records their lectures and
share them with students. It is named as flipped classroom as it is the opposite of normal
classroom. In a normal classroom set up, the teacher instructions the students and gives them
assignments as homework.
But in flipped classroom, the teacher share the link for video lectures with students and they watch
these at their own pace at home he students then work on assignments in the classroom.
Merits
 Students can study video lectures and handout at their own pace.
 It helps in better discussion on assignments in the classroom.
Demerits
 In this the teacher as well as the students should be aware of latest technology is which can be
used for recording and sharing lectures.
 There could be problem if teachers and students do not have good internet connection.

Another Model of Teaching Method

Map can be used to explore a multitude of topics and can incorporate visual learning spatial
thinking and quantative kills into lesson
It has two types and they are as follows
1. Mind Mapping
Mind mapping as a method of teaching wan developed by Tony Buzan. A mind map is a diagram
for representing tasks, words, concepts or items inked to and arranged around a central concept
or subject. It uses non-linear graphical layout the user to build an intuitive framework around a
central concept.
 It can turn a long list of monotonous information into a colourful, memorable and highly
organised diagram that works in line with a learner's brain's natural way of doing things.
It is commonly used in presentations, critical thinking. brainstorming and decision-making
Mobile learning as a form of e-learning is helpful for students to access information whenever
and wherever they want.

2. Concept Mapping
Concept mapping is a great way to build upon previous knowledge by connecting now
information back to it. It was started in 1984.
Concept mapping is a visual representations of information. Concept maps are visual display
ideas. images, words, phrases and sentences that connect one another and present complex
concept based on the knowledge of the mapper.
It works very well for classes or content that have visual elements or in times when it is
important to see and understand relationship between different things.

Inherent Psychological Principles Of Heuristic Method

Basis of psychological principles in heuristic method

Freedom Experience Play-way Individual work

Activitiy Logical thinking

Purposefulnes
s

Process of Heuristic Method

Problem Assignments to Class

Free Exploration of the Assignment

An Instruction sheet given to students

Application of Inductive method

Based on Students' Powers of Observation, Experimentation

and Reasoning
Learning Environment
Learning Environment refers to the diverse physical locations, contexts and cultures in which
student learn. It is the sum total of the surrounding which individuals interact to enrich
experiences and thus lead towards learning. It is only in the best environmental setting that the
most effective learning takes place.
The requisitions, request and suggestions by the teacher can improve the learning environment to a
considerable extent. For instance, the teacher can suggest about lightening and ventilation
arrangements which lead, to restlessness and intention in the classroom.
Hence, variations in the learning environment leads to different learning outcomes. A friendly
atmosphere, conducive to learning has to be created in the classroom and freedom to acquire
knowledge at once own pace could be the factors that enhance learning in the schools.

Steps of Creating Positive Learning Environment

There is a need for positive learning environment that foster improved academic performance, with
the ability to promote student's social and emotional well-being and progress inside and outside the
classroom Following are the steps required for positive learning environment:
Step 1. Make Learning Relevant
Adjust teaching methods and strategies to meet the needs of the students on an individual basis as
it will make students more engaged and attentive. On a whole, teacher must find ways to adapt the
lesson or lecture to the interests of the students and to make learning more effective.
Step 2. Develop a code of Conduct
The first step to establish a code of conduct is to ask students how they like being treated. Teacher
should set the stage for appropriate classroom behavior’s.
Step 3. Developing a Positive Action Curriculum
Developing a positive action curriculum is one of the effective ways to teach and instill in students
positive behavior’s. Positive action curriculum should teach students:
 Positive actions leads to a good feeling and positive self-image.
 Positive action such as problem solving, decision-making and thinking skills develop the brain
and make us smarter
 Positive action such as kindness and being respectful allow to get along with others.
 Positive actions such as goal setting lead to personal growth and improvement.
Step 4. Develop Intrinsic Motivation
Helping students learn that by changing a negative thought to a positive they can produce positive
actions, and that positive actions will help them feel good about themselves is a powerful intrinsic
motivator.
Step 5. Reinforce Positive Behavior’s
Certificates, stickers and other reward systems are great ways to recognize students and reinforce
positive behavior’s and achievement in the classroom.
Step 6. Always Respond With Positivity
Regardless of situation or circumstances, there is always a way to respond to and interact with
students in a positive way. Teaching students how to communicate and interact with each other in
a positive manner is also a key to fostering a positive learning environment in the classroom.
Institutional Facilities
Infrastructural resources are pre-requisites for providing proper environment to quality
learning. The presence of institution does not always means that each and every minimum essential
facility is available within the institution to make it running and the teaching-learning process
effective.
Besides, the teachers and learner, the availability of adequate infrastructural facilities and
teaching-learning materials constitute the core around which educational Step activities are
organized.
In view of Grover and Singh. Physical Infrastructure includes adequate buildings with
classrooms that allow instruction to take place without disruption and have enough space for the
learners to activities, participate floors, well-swept well-ventilated spaces, drinking water clean and
enough physical space for learners to engage in physical activities on campus grounds.
Hence, of availability or non-availability of physical facilities affect the quality or education;
provision of sufficient facilities in schools provides a challenging environment for students and
effective teaching by for by teachers; lack of adequate facilities such as textbooks, ill-equiped
classrooms, laboratories, workshops, library are responsible tor poor performance in examination
among the students.

OFFLINE VS ONLINE METHOD

In the pre-technology education context, the teacher is the sender or the source, the educational
material is the information or message, and the student is the receiver of the information. In terms
of the delivery medium, the educator can deliver the message via the "chalk-and-talk" method and
overhead projector (OHP) transparencies. This directed instruction model has Its foundations
embedded in the behavioural learning perspective and it is a popular technique, which has been
used for decades as an educational strategy in all institutions of learning. To get more in-depth
about offline vs online methods of learning, read further below.

Some limitations of Offline method

 Teaching In the classroom using chalk and talk Is "one-way flow of information.
 Teachers often continuously talk for an hour without knowing the student's response and
feedback.
 The material presented is only based on lecturer notes and textbooks.
 Teaching and learning are concentrated on "plug and play· method rather than practical
aspects.
 The handwriting of the lecturer decides the fate of the subject.
 There is insufficient interaction with students In the classroom.
 More emphasis has been given on theory without any practical and real-life situations.
 Learning through memorization but not understanding.
 Marks oriented rather than result-oriented.

Benefits of Offline Method

 More personal face to face interaction with the teacher which makes the subject more
interesting to learn.
  The teacher will be able to understand if they were able to get their point across correctly to
each student by asking them to do activities related to the task.
 It is easier for students to get doubts and misconceptions clarified as and when the subject
matter is being taught.
 The entire class-time in offline classes can be dedicated to teaching and learning.
 Offline classes are accessible to those who do not have a proper internet connection too.

Traditional Methods of Teaching

 Teacher-centric classrooms
 Teachers in the mode of knowledge dispensers rather than facilitators
 Chalk and talk methods
 Regimented classrooms
 Lack of collaboration and group learning
 More emphasis on examinations and results rather than understanding of concepts
 Improper alignment between objectives, activities and assessments

Online Methods
E-Learning:E-Learning is an abbreviation of the term electronic learning. It is the use of electronic
media, educational technology and JCT in education. In includes numerous types of media that
deliver text, audio images, animation and streaming video. It also includes technology applications
and processes such as audio or videotape, satellite, TV. CO-ROM and computer-based learning
information and communication system. E-Learning can occur in or out of the classroom. It suited
to distance learning and flexible learning but can also be used in conjunction with face-to-face
teaching, in which case, in which case, the term 'Blended Learning' is commonly used.

Online Learning
There is no single definition for online learning. It includes learning with the assistance of the
Internet and a personal computer. The term e-learning or electronic learning often is used
interchangeably with online learning.
There are many terms for online education. Some of them are virtual education, interest-based
education, web-based education and education via computer-mediated communication.

Characteristics of Online Teaching-Learning Methods

i) The separation of teachers and learner, which distinguish it from face to face education.
ii) The influence of an educational organization, which distinguishes it from self-study and
private tutoring.
iii) The use of a computer network to present distributes educational content.
iv) The provision of two-way communication via a computer network, so that students may
benefit from communication with each other, teacher and staff.

Advantages of Online Methods

• Extendibility, Accessibility and Suitability: Users can proceed through a training
programme at their own pace and at their own places. They can also access the training at
any time receiving only as much as they need.
 • Easy to content Update: The changes you make to any of your content are Immediately
available to your learning audience across the world.
• Travel Cost and Time Savings: Learning is delivered directly to the learner instead of the
other way around.
• Internet Connections are Widely Available:Most computer users have access to a
browser and are connected to a company's internet and have access to the internet.
• Vast Untapped Market for Training: If you are looking for commercial markets, the
internet also offers a huge audience hungry for material via the net.
• Inexpensive Worldwide Distribution: No separate or distinct distribution mechanism is
needed.
• Direct Access to Many Other Training Resources: The internet gives access to the
largest library in the world Capitalize on the offering that has already been created and use
them to enhance the learning you are distributing.

Disadvantages of Online Learning Methods

• Student assessment and feedback is limited.
• Cannot design and develop robust multi-media courses.
• The net is not right for all types of training.
• It is a highly costly method of learning.
• Limited bandwidth means slower performance.
• Bandwidth/browser limitation may restrict Instructional methodologies.
• Little formatting of content In current browsers.
• There is a lack of personal community and connections.

In all according to Steve Lohr {2009), “an average, students in online leaving conditions performed
better than those receiving face-to-face instruction.”

Online vs. Offline Method

The main difference between online and offline · learning is location. With offline learning,
participants are required to travel to the training location, typically a lecture hall, college or
classroom.
With online learning, on the other hand, the training can be conducted from practically anywhere
1n the world.
Another difference is the flexibility offered. Online learning -usually has a more flexible timescale.
With offline learning, it is typically carried out between office hours and doesn't offer as much
flexibility to the learner or the trainer.
Unlike offline learning method that requires us to shell out a lot of money, the online mode of
learning is absolutely affordable a11d doesn't burn a hole in our pocket.

E-Learning
E-learning 1s the acquisition of knowledge which takes place through electronic technologies and
media. Typically, e-learning is conducted on the internet, where students can access their learning
materials online at any place at any time.
Some examples of e-learning are:
1.SWAYAM
SWAYAM stands for Study Active-Learning for Young Aspiring Minds. It is a Massive Open Online
Course (MOOC). This programme was launched by the Government of India in 2017 which is
designed to achieve the three cardinal principles of Education Policy i.e. access, equity and quality
to all especially to the most disadvantaged groups.
Aims
It aims to bridge the digital divide for students in e-education thus, promotes E-Learning. It is an
instrument for self-actualization which provides opportunities for a life-long learning. Courses
delivered through SWAYAM are available free of cost to the learners of school (from 9 th class),
under-graduate post-graduate, engineering, law and other professional courses.
These programmers are offered by faculties of centrally funded institutions like IITs, IIMs and
Central Universities. These courses can be accessed by anyone, anywhere at any time. The courses
hosted on SWAYAM are in four quadrants.
i) Video lecture.
ii) Specially prepared reading material that can be downloaded or printed.
iii) Self-assessment tests through tests and quizzes.
iv) An online discussion forum for clearing the doubts.

Characteristics of SWAYAM
 SWAYAM is high quality learning experience using multimedia on anytime, anywhere basis.
 One-stop web location from interactivecontent for all courses from school to university level.
 State of the art system that allows easy across, monitoring and certification.
 Peer group interaction and discussion forum to clarify doubts. Hybrid model that adds to be
quality of class room teaching.

2-Swayamprabha
The Swayamprabha is a digital initiative of Government of India which was launched in 2017. It is a
group of 32 DTH channels devoted telecast high-quality programmes on 24 x 7 basis using the
GSAT-15 satellite.

Aims
The programme is designed to provide new content everyday for atleast 4 hours which would be
repeated 5 more times in a day, allowing the students to choose the time of their convenience.
These 32 channels are uplinked form BISAG, Gandhinagar. The study material/contents are
provided by NPTEL,IITs, UGC, CEC, IGNOU, NCERT are NIOS the web portal is maintained by the
INFLIBNET Centre. The 32 DTH Channels are set to cover.
i) Higher Education Curriculum-based course contents at post-graduate and undergraduate
level. All courses would be certified, ready in their detailed offering through SWAYAM.
ii) School Tor Education (9. 12 Levels) Modules teacher's training as well as teaching and
learning aids for children.
iii) Curriculum-based Courses that ca meet the needs of life. long learners o Indian citizens in
India and abroad.
iv) Assist students of (Class 11th and 12th) to prepare for competitive exams.
Characteristics of Swayamprabha
 This technology enables teachers to teach 1arge number of students who are not physically
present in the classes.
 The main advantage of this scheme is that 1t 1s being telecasted on DTH channels which are
cheaper, easily accessible and it gives chance to rural people also to study from good teachers.
 It offers flexibility for people to learn at their own place.
 It also gives opportunities to the teachers to use their teaching abilities in a best way they can
that increases their teaching capacity.
 The DTH e-classes provide curriculum-based course and contents for post-graduate and
undergraduate level learners. Students hailing from disciplines such as arts, science, commerce,
performing arts, social sciences and humanities, engineering. technology. law, medicine.
agriculture, etc will get access through Swayamprabha channels.

3. MOOCs
MOOC stands for Massive Open Online Course. It is a web-based platform which provides
unlimited number of students worldwide with a chance of distance education with the best
institutes in the world. It was set up in 2008 and became more active in 2012 as a popular learning
tool.
Aims
It provides opportunities to its learners such as video lectures, downloading notes, contributing
their own and sharing their point of view by communicating with peers, professors and Teaching
Assistants (TAs).
There are various notable institutions, both non-profit and commercial, that offer these courses
worldwide with the help of MOOC providers such as
• NPTEL (India) Indian Institute of Technology (IITs) and Indian Institute of Science (IISc) offer
online courses through this platform which require no registration and are free of cost.
• WiziQ (India and USA) IIT Delhi, India offers this course through this platform which requires
registration and fees to study courses offered by them.
• Open2Study Based on Australia.
• Coursera Based out of USA
• edX Based on USA.
• Udemy Based on USA.
Characteristics of MOOCs
 Openness is one of the core components of a MOOCs along with self-organisation,
connectedness, complexity, and chaos. Openness of information flow is a vital characteristic
of a self-organisingcoples system and one that implies a system is willing tc transform.
 Barriers to Persistence Both MOOC models have issues of high drop out rates. To
mitigate this issue researchers have examined the barriers to learning in this new
environment.
 Models MOOCs began with a connectives model targeting an adult lifelong learning
audience. The MOOC concept was then applied to postsecondary online education using the
MOOC model, which was designed as a traditional teacher-directed course, yet automated,
massive and online.
E-Pathshala
E-Pathshala is a portal/app developed by the CIET, NCERT. It was initiated jointly by the Ministry
of Human Resource Development and CIET, NCERT and launched in November 2015.
Pathshala hosts educational resources for teachers, students, parents, researchers and educators.
the platform offers a slew of educational resources. including NCERT textbooks for class 1-12,
audio-visual NCERT by periodicals, supplements, teacher training modules and a variety of other
Print and non-print materials. These materials can downloaded by the user for offline use with no
limits on downloads. The app supports flip book format to provide a more realistic experience.
Aims
It provides access to digital textbooks for all classes, graded learning materials and enables
participation in exhibitions, contests, festivals, workshops, etc.
Characteristics .
 Access digital textbooks (e-textbooks) for all classes.
 Access graded learning materials (supplementary books).
 Know about events.
 Accessd-e-resources (audios, videos, interactive images, maps, question banks, etc.).
 Help children achieve expected learning

Bharat Padhe Online

Bharat Padhe Online' is a campaign for crowdsourcing of ideas for improving the online education
system in India.
It was launched by HRD Ministry in April 2020. The Bharat Padhe Online' is a one weekprogramme.
It aims to invite all the best minds of the country to share their suggestions or solutions directly
with the HRD Ministry in order to overcome the problems of online education alongwith promoting
the available digital education platforms.

TEACHING SUPPORT SYSTEM

Teaching Support system is a set of tools that will improve student achievement by building
capacity in teachers.

I. TRADITIONAL TEACHING SUPPORT SYSTEM

In the traditional way of teaching and learning, higher education institutions designed a program
based on the text book and lecture which is framed with time and place for students. In this model,
the main purpose is to satisfy requirement for mastery of a body of knowledge for life long career.
School teaching is supported by textbook and chalk and blackboard in traditional method.

Merits and Demerits of Traditional Teaching Methods

Merits Demerits
Lecture remains one of the most effective teaching
methods when the group of learners is exceptionally
huge. There is less involvement of learners.
Traditional teaching methods are easy to use given There is less emphasis on the understanding
any group of learners. of concepts and/or logical thinking.
They are economic in terms of money as well as Weak learners suffer the most as they don't
time. feel motivated.
The teacher has a lot of authority over how the Evaluation of learners based on traditional
content is delivered and the amount of creativity teaching methods methods can sometimes be
involved. faulty.
There is less incentive among reflection.
teachers for

Nature and Characteristics of Traditional Teaching Support System

 The traditional way that education was delivered was through recitation and memorisation
techniques, whereas the modern way of doing things involves interactive methods.
 The traditional "chalk and talk" method of teaching.
 The teacher was expected to study and memorise the assignments.
 At the end of the module a written test or oral examination would be conducted; this process
was called an Assignment Study Recitation Test.
 The way in which traditional methods were taught ensured that students were rewarded for
their efforts, utilised class periods efficiently and exercised clear rules to manage students'
behaviour.
 They were based on established customs that had been used successfully in schools over many
years.
 The teachers communicated the knowledge and enforced standards of behaviour.
 Because traditional techniques used repetition and memorisation of information to educate
students, it meant that they were not developing their critical thinking, problem solving and
decision-making skills.
 Traditional teaching is concerned with the teacher being the controller of the learning
environment.
 Power and responsibility are held by the teacher and they play the role of instructor (in the form
of lectures) and decision maker (in regards to curriculum content and specific outcomes).
 They regard students as having 'knowledge holes' that need to be filled with information. In
short, the traditional teacher views that it is the teacher that causes learning to occur.
 Learning is chiefly associated within the classroom and is often competitive.
 The lesson's content and delivery are considered to be most important and students master
knowledge through drill and practice (such as rote learning).
 Content need not be learned in context.
 The most common seating arrangement used by the traditionalists is rows.

Traditional Methods of Teaching in a Nutshell

 Teacher-centric classrooms
 Teachers in the mode of knowledge dispensers rather than facilitators
 Chalk and talk methods
 Regimented classrooms
 Lack of collaboration and group learning
 More emphasis on examinations and results rather than understanding of concepts
 Improper alignment between objectives, activities and assessments

II. MODERN TEACHING SUPPORT SYSTEM

The changes in modern teaching methods made necessary by technological, economic, and
cultural forces in the early 21st century have fundamentally altered the very foundation of
traditional educational models. Education reforms mean that learning is taught from a completely
different angle.

Teaching Aptitude Merits and Demerits of Modern Teaching Methods

Merits Demerits
Since teaching becomes more
dynamic, teachers need to learn and
They are learner- centred techniques. relearn new skills.
There is too much reliance which
reduces on technology the authority
More content can be covered in lesser time. of teachers.
Modern teaching methods are fun and interactive way It requires huge investment of
learning. of money, time and effort.
There is more scope for using audio-video teaching aids such
as documentaries, YouTube videos, online lectures, MOOCs, Some modern teaching methods are
educational games, mobile applications etc. exclusionary in nature.
The teacher- student relationship
suffers as there is less time to
Modern teaching methods also help in self-evaluation. develop bonding with the students.
It is not a mechanical way of teaching as students, as well as
teachers, participate in knowledge construction.

Nature and Characteristics of Modern Teaching Support System

 Progressive educational practices focus more on the individual student's needs rather than
assuming all students are at the same level of understanding.
 The modern way of teaching is more activity based, using questioning, explaining,
demonstration and collaboration techniques.
 One modern method is spaced learning, this is when students are encouraged to quickly switch
through activities.
 The aim of spaced learning is to achieve better grades, and it works! It is claimed that this is a
more effective than teaching students by traditional methods for four hours, thus helping the
brain cells to create connections that they need to remember knowledge.
 Modern learning encourages students to collaborate and therefore be more productive.

Modern methods education in a nutshell

 Technology-driven classrooms
 Continuous comprehensive evaluation
 Cross-curricular connections Inquiry-based learning
 Emphasis on understanding of concepts
 Linking curriculum with life
 Emphasis on skill building, life skills and values
 Smart interactive boards
 BYOD - Bring your own device
 Collaborative learning Differential learning
 Activity-based learning and learning labs
 Interdisciplinary learning
 Integrative and social responsibility and civic engagement
 Digitisation in teaching, learning assessment and feedback
 Collaborative learning
 Differentiated instruction
 Flipped classroom
 Problem-based learning

Traditional Teaching Support system vs.Modern Teaching Support system

 Traditional method relies mainly on textbooks while the modern method relies on hands-on
materials approach.
 In traditional method, presentation of materials starts with the parts, then moves on to the
whole while in the modern approach, presentation of materials starts with the whole, then
moves to the parts.
 Traditional method emphasizes on basis skills while modern method emphasizes on big ideas.
 With traditional method of teaching, assessment is seen as a separate activity and occurs
through testing while with modern method of teaching, assessment is seen as an activity
integrated with teaching and learning, and occurs through portfolios and observation.

III. ICT BASED TEACHING SUPPORT SYSTEM

Computer technology has become a service provider, teaching partner, and learning tool; and
Indian are now using Information Communication Technologies (ICT) for various purposes. This has
created a new scenario of modes of education which can be classified as follows:

1. Formal Education
 Classroom / campus based education imparted by traditional universities.
2. Non- formal- Open and Distance Education:
 Offered by single mode open universities.
3. Mixed Mode Education
 Offered by Distance Education Institutions (DEI) of traditional universities by using both
formal and non- formal components of the two modes.
4. ICT Based Convergent Mode
 Uses Web Based Education (WBE), Computer Based Education, Center/Classroom Based
Education. Some universities are using ICT and Internet extensively in education to
supplement the print based /classroom based mode in formal and/or non- formal
education.
5. Entirely WBE - E-Education
 Uses Internet and WBE extensively so that teaching and learning is almost distributed.

Nature and Characteristics of ICT Based Teaching Support System

 Information and Communication Technology can lead to improved student learning and better
teaching methods with often larger classes, more diverse students, demands from government
and employers who want more accountability.
 Conventionally, materials to support teaching learning were of two types; visuals in the form of
charts, posters, photographs and models or actual objects.
 With the advent of projection devices like the overhead projectors and audio-visual devices like
radio, television, tape recorders, the range of support materials grew.
 While this led to a richer fare, it also led to a decline in the use of actual objects, models and
even experiments. This latter phenomenon has had an adverse effect on teaching-learning
thereby pushing students into more passive roles and teaching into an activity of show and tell.
 With the advent of computers with superior graphic capabilities and adequate computing power
to play back audio and video, a diverse set of devices have become integrated. Computers
connected to a projector have emerged as a convenient device to help students visualise
concepts.
 A large number of audiovisual support in the form of graphics, animation, models, drawings,
photographs, audio and video have been developed.
 At the same time, computers are equipped with enormous possibilities for computing and
manipulative; the potential of transforming classrooms and teaching-learning practices is
brighter.
 It is appropriate for teachers to recognise this potential and bring about the necessary changes
to evolve their teaching into more interactive and student centric, learning towards
constructivist method While compact disks and digital versatile disks have made it convenient
and cost effective to store large amounts of data, including audio- visual materials, the process
of making available this CD/DVD across large numbers of schools is still an expensive
proposition.
 With broadband internet becoming more and more common, the isolation of individual schools
can be easily overcome.
 It also facilitates a supply on demand interface, which enables teachers and students to access
resources when they need it and actively select or reject them.
 The range of possibilities for transforming classrooms is immense.
 Simultaneously, internet enables the development of large networks, which can cater to a
diverse set of needs of the school system.

Advantages of ICT Tools for Education

 Through ICT, images can easily be used in teaching to improve the retentive memory of
students.
 Through ICT, teachers can easily explain complex instructions and ensure students'
comprehension.
 Through ICT, teachers can create interactive classes and make the lessons more enjoyable,
which could improve student attendance and concentration.

Mega Paradigm Shifts in Education

There are mainly two mega paradigm shifts in education.
 The first is from traditional university to open and distance education (ODE), and the second is
from ODE to E-Education.
 Both the traditional and ODE universities are essentially based on industrial models of
education-offering mass education.
 The new paradigm of e-education is however of a non-industrial form and should offer
 personalized education on a mass scale (Mass Personalization). The first transformation - the
first paradigm shift - is from institution centric localized education to education at the doorstep
of a learner offering a lot of flexibility in place and pace of learning and choice of courses.
 The open universities developed well-structured pedagogically designed instructional materials,
packaged them in the conventional form of courses and programs, and delivered them through
study centers/workshops with local instructor support; and gave certification after course-end
examinations.

Five main processes must be focussed on:

 Educating: Teaching, Learning, Evaluation,
 Creating Knowledge Resources
 Developing Infrastructure Facilities
 Creating Educational Environment
 Managing Education

e-Education
 e-Education is essentially the same education with the same basic processes of educating,
creating, developing and managing which are carried out by individuals, institutions and
communities for achieving the goals of education.
 In the information age it is supported by IT enabled and IT driven processes made accessible
through IT tools and techniques to make education globalised, localized and personalized.
 The outcome of this application of technologies would be in a form of organizations and
institutions, which may be quite distinct and different from the existing institutions.
 Networked society will require educational system that will be able to offer educational
opportunities to all anywhere, anytime.
 The IT developments and emerging technologies are ensuring such communication.
 The development processes and activities now supported by IT are driven by market forces and
wealth they create.
 India can become Knowledge Super Power, if it succeeds in offering learning opportunities and
necessary education and support of tools and technologies to all people of India.
 E-Education is expected to fulfil that role of education for all and simultaneously enable people
to address many of the issues and concerns faced by the nation.
 Education can now use the networking technologies for developing educational system (e-
Education).

Framework and Infrastructure of e-Education System

 Network with latest hardware and technologies along with broadband connectivity and grid
architecture giving network access to anyone, anywhere, anytime.
 Software tools and techniques that enable creation of databases and information flows, offer
facilities to learners, teachers and institutions to receive / give personalized education on a
mass scale.
 Content in e-formats on a knowledge grid that enables teachers and students get personalized
curriculum of high quality, relevance and utility.
 Educational delivery system that ensures quality and developmental relevance of educational
offerings (Developmental Education) for individual, institutions and community.
 Quality Assurance and Certification Mechanism to maintain competitively high and acceptable
standards at national and international levels.
The Framework given above can serve as a national and regional infrastructure to support
educational processes of any provider institution, individual and organization in India. The five
basic educational processes identified above could find their delivery channels through the e-
Education Framework for any educational offerings and their management.

Meaning of Teaching Support System

A teaching Support System (also called Teaching Aids) is something teachers use in their class to
help students improve reading and other skills, reinforce an ability, or to make learning fun.
 In the realm of the teaching-learning process, there is a system that teaches, trains, coaches,
guides and instructs teachers on how to maximize academic achievement of students.
 This system of tools and resources is called a teaching support system. A teaching support
system caters to the teachers with an ultimate goal to improve students’ achievement.
 In other words, teaching support system is the capacity building of teachers using resources
and guides on ‘how to teach’.
 A good teaching support system provides teachers with a set of instructional strategies for the
standards and skills that students are not proficient in. Along with that, it helps teachers
acquire the knowledge and skills to deliver those strategies in the classroom.
Teaching Support System (Teaching Aids) are instructional aids (book, chalk & board, picture),
objects (such as a globe, or map, or a specimen) or devices (such as a DVD or Computer) used by a
teacher to enhance or enliven classroom instruction.
 Teaching Aids are instructional materials and devices that help the teacher in carrying out the
teaching-learning process. Teaching aids are aids available to the teacher. They cannot replace
the teacher by any means.
Teaching aids can be used in any of the core classes. There are several types of teaching aids to be
utilized in a classroom.

Need of the Teaching Support System

 In present times, life skills are more important than memorizing concepts and theories. This
makes it very challenging for the teacher to approach his or her subject merely using traditional
methods.
 Given this scenario, it is important for the teacher to go beyond traditional teaching styles and
be more creative and engaging in terms of enhancing students’ participation.
 Secondly, information is abundantly available over the internet which is accessible to teachers
and learners alike. This somewhat reduces the role of teachers as the ultimate source of
information, more so in case of middle and higher education. Now, the goal of teachers should
also be to keep themselves updated with the trends of technology and information.
 Every individual has a tendency to forget. Proper use of teaching aids helps to retain more
concepts
 Students can learn better when they are motivated properly through different teaching
 Teaching aids develop the proper image when the students see, hear, taste, and smell
 Teaching aids provide a complete example of conceptual
 The teaching aids create an environment of interest for the
 Teaching aids helps to increase the vocabulary of the
 Teaching aids helps the teacher to get some time and make learning permanent.
 Teaching aids provide direct experience to the

Traditional and Modern Methods

Let's first differentiate between tradition and modern approaches:
1. Traditional is basically teacher instruction that reflects educational essentialism and education
perennialism.
Modern is students' centric approach that reflect- educational progressivism.
2. In traditional approach, memorization of facts. objective information; correct knowledge is
paramount.
In modern approach, understanding the facts, Application of facts, Analysis, Evaluation,
Innovation; Critical thinking is paramount
3. Traditional approach aims at high test scores, grades and ultimately degrees. Subjects are
individual and independent.
Modern approach aims at Learning, retention, accumulation of valuable knowledge & skills.
Subjects are integrated and multidisciplinary.
4. In traditional methods, students matched by age, ability etc., while modern and possibly also by
ability.
In modern approach, students match by interest or ability for each project or subject. It can
be multiage also.
5. Traditional method has direct instruction and lectures, seatwork. Here, students learn through
listening and observation. The teacher relies on textbooks, lectures, and individual written
assignments etc.
In modern teaching, practicality, discoveries, group activities are the main pillars. Focus is
on Internet, library and outside experts.
6. In traditional approach, presentation and testing methods favor students who have prior
exposure to the material or exposure in multiple contexts.
In Modern approach, context learning integrates personal knowledge within the school
environment.

EVALUATION SYSTEM
Evaluation is a wider concept than testing and measurement and is supposed to judge the
worth of all the educational outcomes brought about as a result of teaching learning process. It is a
continuous appraisal of the achievement of the aims of education as well as the methods of
teaching and learning with a view to continuous improvements so that education becomes dynamic
and self-developing. It also involves the self- appraisal by the students of their success and failure.

Thus it gives a feed-back to students for improving their performances. On the other hand, it
helps students in diagnosing their difficulties. Evaluation is a continuous assessment of the pupils
day-to-day progress in all spheres. It helps in determining the potentialities, and interests of the
students. On the basis of the day-to-day records of the pupils, it becomes easy to know the present
status of a student and his growth towards the desirable goal. In this way, evaluation provides
infor- mation essential for an effective guidance programme.
Definitions of Evaluation-Evaluation is the combination of quantitative estimation + Qualitative
judgement of one's behaviour. Different educationists have given the different definitions as
following:

According to Dandekar-'Evaluation may be defined as a systematic process of determining

the extent to which educational objectives are achieved by pupils is: According to Quillen and
Hanna-"Evaluation is the process of gathering and interpreting evidence on changes in the
behaviour of the students as they progress through school."

Interdependence of Teaching, Learning, and Evaluation

Teaching has been defined as the process of facilitating learning and the term learning is broadly
defined as the process of acquiring knowledge, attitude, skills, habits and abilities. To determine
whether teaching has facilitated learning and if yes, upto what an extent, evaluation is carried out.
In other words, teaching, learning and evaluation are the three inter-dependent aspects of the
educative process. This interdependence is clearly seen when the main purpose of instruction is
conceived in terms of helping students achieve a set of learning outcomes that include changes in
the cognitive, psychomotor and affective domains.
There is a direct relationship among the four important factors of the educational system, such as
objective, curriculum, method and evaluation. As Indian Education Commission (1944–1966) has
remarked, ‘It is now agreed that evaluation is a continuous process, it forms an integral part of the
total system of education, and is intimately related to educational objectives. It exercises a great
influence on pupil’s study habits and the teacher’s method of instruction and this helps not only to
measure educational achievement but also to improve it’.

Evaluation
Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting, analysing and interpreting information to determine
the extent to which instructional objectives are being achieved.
Perhaps the most comprehensive definition of evaluation has been given by Beeby, ‘Evaluation is
the systematic collection and interpretation of evidence leading as a part of process to a judgment of
value with a view to action’.
From this definition, it is clear that the following four key elements constitute the process of
evaluation.
i) Systematic collection of evidence (Example: score)
ii) Its interpretation
iii) Judgment of value
iv) With a view to action

Difference between Measurement, Assessment and Evaluation

Measurement is the quantitative description of one’s performance. For example, a student scored 92
in Mathematics, 75 in Science, 65 in Social Science, 64 in Hindi and 68 in English

Gathering Information Measurement

Assessment is the second step of evaluating student’s performance. The description that a student
stood first in the class represents the concept of assessment. It makes student’s performance more
meaningful. Unless we interpret, analyse, rank-order and compare one’s individual score with the
average score of the group, we cannot find out one’s relative position in a group.

Comparison of two or more Assessment

sets of information

If in case of a student, the case of a student, we find that she has ‘improved significantly in half-
yearly examination’ in comparison to her performance in the earlier examinations. What does it
mean? We can conclude that this type of judgment carry certain value and add to the performance
of student to make it more meaningful. While forming the judgment like ‘improved significantly’, the
earlier performance of student in the previous examinations has been taken into consideration by
the teacher. When we add value to the assessment of student performance, we carry out evaluation
of their performance.

Comparison of two += Placement Evaluation

sets of information of value
(Assessment)

The comparison can be depicted with the help of following diagrams as well.

Scope of Evaluation
Evaluation covers a wider purpose than the testing. The testing only aims at knowing the
achievement of the pupils in a particular subject during a specified period. Again, testing confines
to the memorisation of knowledge only and does not test the application, skills, abilities, interests
and other objectives of teaching of a subject. On the other hand, evaluation not only aims at
knowing the achievements but helps in improving curriculum and methods also. It in never static
but is dynamic and its methods and materials changes according to the changes in needs of the
individual and society. Because education is a process of growth and development and its aims are
changing from time to time it is essential that own evaluation techniques should also change. So
evaluation aims at improving the whole educational process in the following way:

1. Evaluation tests the genuineness of objectives and helps in their modification. It does not test
the content learnt but the objectives. If the objectives are not achieved, it tries to find out the
 reason for that. It may be that the objectives are ambitious or below the standard. It is,
therefore, necessary to modify the objectives in the light of the needs of the individual and of the
society.
2. Evluation helps in judging the effectiveness of the methods of teaching in terms of the objectives
of teaching. The methods of teaching are also modified if they do not help in achieving the
objectives.
3. Evaluation also helps in finding out the psycholo- gical and logical soundness of the material.
Because curriculum is the base for success of the education process, it is essential that it
should be dynamic and broad based and should be modified according to changing objectives.
4. It test the allround development of the child and helps in predicting the future success of the
student in a particular field. So it serves the diagnostic and prognostic purpose and thus serves
as a basis for guidance to the teacher and the taught.
5. Evaluation helps in the improvement and modi- fication of the evluation tools and techniques
which should not be static but should change from time to time.

Scope of Evaluation
The scope and interrelation of evaluation with objectives, methods and curriculum can be
shown in the following diagram :

Method

objectives

Evaluation tool &

CURRICULUM techniques

Purpose of Evaluation
In broad sense, the purpose of evaluation can be classified into two categories:
1. Educational Purpose
2. Administrative Purpose
1. The Educational Purpose of Evaluation
The educational purpose of evaluation is basically with Quality Control in relation to:

LEARNING

TEACHING CURRICULUM
2. The Administrative Purpose of Evaluation
The administrative purpose of evaluation is con- cerned with the accountability to:

Functions of Evaluation
Evaluation does not end with the summarization of results. It has direct bearing on the
improvement of the system as a whole. The functions of evaluation are as follows.
i) Feedback: To assess strengths and weaknesses.
ii) Motivation: The mere realization that you would be evaluated propels a student to work
hard.
iii) Better guidance: Crucial for the growth of pupils.
iv) Remediation: It helps in locating the areas that require remedial measures.
v) Facilitates planning: It helps the teacher in planning, organizing and implementing
learning activities.
vi) Revision of curriculum.
vii) Inter-institutional comparison.
viii) Educational decision-making: It relates to selection, classification, placement,
promotion, etc.
ix) Submission of progress report to parents.
Importance of Evaluation
i) Ensuring Learning Takes PlaceAssessment should provide information about the
levels of understanding that students are reaching upto. Frequent feedback to learners is
required so that learners monitor their learning and actively evaluate their strategies and
their current levels of understanding.
ii) Ensuring Teacher EffectivenessTeaching can be effective if teachers start by setting
learning objectives, instead of about what the teacher will do. Teachers must assess their
students based on these primary learning objectives rather than on arbitrary standards.
iii) For Creating a Quality LearningA quality learning environment is ensured through
evaluation.
a) Learner-Centred It pays attention to the knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs that
learners bring to the educational setting.
b) Knowledge-CentredIt takes seriously the need to help students become
knowledgeable by learning in ways that lead to understanding.
c) Assessment-CentredIt provides opportunities for feedback and revision, and also
about the fact that the assessment matches the students learning goals.
d) Community-CentredThis refers to several aspects of the community , including the
classroom as community, the school as a community, and the administrators feel
connected to the large community of homes, business, states, the nation and even the
world.

Elements of Evaluation
 Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting, analysing and interpreting evidences of
students' progress and achievement both in cognitive and non-cognitive areas of learning for the
purpose of taking a variety of decisions.
Evaluation, thus, involves gathering and processing of information and decision-making.
Evaluation is a continuous process not a periodic exercise.
It helps teachers and learners to improve teaching and learning. It helps in forming the
values of judgement, educational status, or achievement of students. Evaluation in one form or the
other is inevitable in teaching-learning, as in all fields of activity of education judgements need to be
made. Hence, it is desirable that teachers must acquire knowledge and understanding about the
various aspects of evaluation and its application in classrooms.
Teaching for successful learning cannot occur without high quality evaluation. Evaluation,
needs to be integrated with the process of teaching and learning.
The greater the integration the better the outcomes of learning. Hence, evaluation has to be
so designed that it can be used as a powerful means of influencing the quality of what teachers
teach and what students learn.
Evaluation must provide constant feedback regarding the effectiveness of course contents,
classroom processes and the growth of individual learners besides the appropriateness of the
evaluation procedures.
It must, however, be flexible enough to the extent that it can be experimented with and
adapted according to the specific situations and needs of the learner groups.

Goals of Evaluation
To clarify objectives of education
To provide guidance
To provide remedial work
To diagnose the problems of students
To identify students needs and levels To improve the skills of learning in students
To identify students aspects of development
To bring improvements in instructional strategies
To assess the educational value and utility of the educational programe To provide useful feedback
To influence decision making or policy formulation by provision of empirically driven feedback
To bring improvement in teaching-learning process
To assess personality of the students
To analyze teacher student behavior
To analyze effectiveness of Audio Visual aids

Types of techniques
Evaluation technique is not the end of teaching-learning process, although it is a valid theory that
change the thinking and understanding behaviour of the students.
Thus, a standard evaluation indicates the qualitative change in the behaviour of the students.
The evaluation techniques are divided into two i.e. qualitative and quantitative techniques.
i) Quantitative Techniques
The quantitative techniques can be categorised into three elements.
 a) Written Examination This technique or method is also known as paper-pencil test. It is one
of the popular technique of evaluation in these days. Further, It has four basic components
i.e very short, short, long and essay type question-answers.
b) Oral Examination This technique is supplementary to the written examination. Test of
reading ability and pronunciation is the example of oral examination.
c) Practical Examination This technique is used for testing the experimental activities of the
students as well as manipulative skills of students. It is done in subjects like science,
agricultural craft, music and technology.

ii) Qualitative Techniques

Qualitative techniques is focused on understanding how students make meaning and experience
their environment or world.

Tools and Techniques of Evaluation

Testing Procedures Self-Reporting Techniques Observational Methods Projective Measures

Written Test Questionnaire Anecdotal Record Association Test

Verbal Tests Autobiography Ceck-List Sentence completion Test-

SCT

Practical Tests Interview Rating Scale Word Association Test-WAT

Performance Tests Interview Sociometry Thematic Apperception

Test-TAT

Rorschach Ink-Blot Test-

RIBT

These techniques can be categorized into following

a. Interview It comprises a number of open-ended, questions that result in responses that yield
information. It is common to engage in face-to-face verbal interviews with one individual or
wit a group of students. It is because of the fact that students are usually more willing to talk
than write.
b. Observation It does not require direct contact with the students, rather this type of data
collection involves a teacher providing information-rich descriptions otbehaviour,
conversations, interactions of the students for outcomes of the students' behaviour.
c. Checklist It does not only give the observer a set of criteria to observe, but tallows the
observer to show student progress over time an to correlate a number with a qualitative
process.
d. Rating Scale It is used for applying the expression of opinion or judgement regarding some
situation, object, or character.
e. Cumulative Records It is used for knowing the details about studentsbehaviour. Cumulative
records include anecdotal records, cumulative record cards and diaries of students.
Assessment of Evaluation
 o Assessment is the process of objectively understanding the state or condition of a thing by
observation and measurement. Thus, assessment of teaching means measurement of its
effectiveness.
o Evaluation is the process of observing and measuring a thing for the purpose of judging it
and of determining its value, either by comparison to similar things, or to a standard.
Evaluation of teaching means passing judgement on the teaching as part of an
administrative process.

Type of Evaluation on the Basis of Phase of Instruction

In the various phases of instruction, evaluation is integrated. The four types of evaluation are
placement, formative, diagnostic and summative.

Placement evaluation: The key word which is used for placement assessment is the ‘entry
behaviour’. It determines the knowledge and skills the students possess, which are necessary at the
beginning of instruction in a given subject area. Evaluation of entry behaviour is done just before
teaching starts, a teacher should know the previous knowledge of students. This helps teacher to
organise teaching-learning activities according to the previous knowledge of learners. Various
entrance exams can also be conducted for the same purpose. This is also done to see the knowledge
base of students and a teacher can start discussion keeping that in view.

Formative Evaluation
Formative evaluation includes any form of classroom interaction that generates information on
student learning. which is then used by faculty (teacher) and students to fine-tune their teaching
and learning strategies. respectively. during the teaching learning process.
Michael Scriven coined the term formative evaluation in 1967, But, in 1968, Benjamin Bloom
popularised the term through his book “Learning for Mastery” and considers it as a tool for
improving the teaching-learning process for students.
It can be rated on scales that produce a qualitative rather than quantitative description of teaching
and generally utilised a three-to-five point scale.
than quantitative
These scales are called quality scales by Barr (1980) and required rater judgment with regard to the
presence or absence of traits or the degree to which they were present.
Purpose of Formative Evaluation
 To provide feedback for teachers to modify subsequent learning activities and experiences.
 To identify and remediate group or individual deficiencies.
 To move focus away from achieving grades and onto learning processes, in order to increase
self-effiency and reduce the negative impact of extrinsic motivation.
 To improve students metacognitive awareness of how they learn.
 To provide immediate feedback to both student und teacher regarding the success and
failures.
 To provide information to the teacher for modifying instruction and use this instruction for
improving learning and instruction.
 Frequent ongoing assessment allows both for fine-tuning of instruction and student focus on
progress.
  It encourages teacher and peer dialogue around learning, and also encourages positive
motivational beliefs and self-esteem.
 It provides opportunities to close the gap between current and desired performance.

i) Summative Evaluation
Summative evaluation refers to the assessment of participants where the focus is on the outcome of
a program. This contrasts with formative assessment. which summarises the participants'
development at a particular time.
It is also coined by Michael Seriven in 1967.Questionnaires. Surveys, Interviews, Observations,
Testing, Projects ( a culminating project that synthesizes knowledge ) are the most common method
of summative assessment which aim to summariseovera;; learning at the completion of course or
unit.
Summative assessment usually takes place after students have completed units of works or
modules at the end of each term and/ or year.
The information it gives indicates progress and achievement usually in grade-related or numerical
terms. It’s the more formal summing-up of a student’s progress.
Therefore, summative assessment gives pupils, parents and teachers valuable information about a
pupil’s overall performance at a specific point in their learning.

ii) Diagnostic Evaluation

Diagnostic evaluation is concerned with finding out reasons for student’s persistent or recurring
learning difficulties that cannot e resolved by standard corrective measures or formative evaluation.
The aim of diagnostic evaluation is to find out the causes of learning problem and plan to take
remedial action. Observational techniques or specially prepared diagnostic
Techniques can be used to diagnose the problem. It determines the level of competence of the
students.
Diagnostic evaluation includes, pretest results, an evaluation of your child’s reading strengths and
reading needs, an instructional plan, a description of the tutoring that was conducted, post-test
results, a summary of outcomes and recommendations for future instruction.
Significance of Evaluation
• Evaluation aids in devising more etfective instructional materials and procedures of
instruction.
• Evaluation is important to the classroom teachers. supervisors and administrators in
directing as well as guiding teaching and learning.
• Evaluation helps to measure the validity and reliability of instruction
• Evaluation helps teachers to discover the needs of the learners.
• Evaluation helps to provide objective evidences for effective cooperation between parents and
teachers.
• Evaluation can be used to enforce external standards upon the individual class or school.
• Evaluation helps parents to understand learners growth, interest and potentials.

Types of evaluation and their functions

1. According to nature of reference: Here, norm-referenced testing and criterion-referenced
testing can be termed as the two alternative approaches to educational testing. Though there
 are some similarities between these two approaches to testing, there are also fundamental
differences between the two. These are termed as complementary approaches.

2. Criterion-referenced evaluation:Glasar (1963) first used this term, ‘Criterion-reference test’ to

describe the learner’s achievement on a performance continuum.
Consider the following statements:
(a) Amit scored 95 or 95% marks in Mathematics.
(b) The typing speed of Davinder is 58 words per minute.
A criterion-referenced test is used to ascertain an individual’s status with respect to a defined
achievement domain. In the above statements, there is no reference to the performance of other
members of the group. Thus, criterion-referenced evaluation determines an individual’s status with
reference to well-defined criterion behavior. There are clearly defined learning outcomes which serve
as referents (criteria). Success of criterion-reference test lies in the delineation of all defined levels of
achievement which are usually specified in terms of behaviorally stated instructional objectives. The
purpose of criterion-referenced evaluation or test is to assess the objectives and that’s why it is
termed as objective based test. The objectives are assessed, in terms of behavioral changes among
the students. Hively and Millman (1974) suggested a new term, domain-referenced that has a wider
connotation. A criterion referenced test can measure one or more assessment domains.
3. Norm referenced evaluation: A norm-referenced test is used to ascertain an individual’s status
with respect to the performance of other individuals on that test. It is normally used in
competitive exams.
Consider the following statements:
(i) Amit stood third in Mathematics test.
(ii) Rajesh scored 98 percentile that means only 2% candidates scored better than him. This is used
in CAT for admission into IIMs and some other top notch institutes in India.
In the above statements, the person’s performance is compared to others of their group and the
relative standing position of the person in his/her group is mentioned. We compare an individual’s
performance with similar information about the performance of others. Norm-referenced tests are
mostly easy but can be tough as well.

Reflective prompts
Reflective prompts is a technique in which the teacher provides a set of flexible questions to the
students that prompt them to reflect on their own learning. In this technique, each student answers
some questions such as given below after completion of a lesson/unit by the teacher. If the test
scores are interpreted in terms of an individual, then they are known as self-referenced.

Types of evaluation tests of the basis of purpose

Though there is some overlapping with the evaluation techniques as discussed earlier, purpose-
specific category includes tests designed to achieve a specific purpose of evaluation. Generally four
test-types are identified in this category. Let us briefly present the features of each of these.
Diagnostic test
These tests help us in identifying ‘area of learning’ in which a learner may need a remedial course
and they provide us a profile of what the learner knows and does not know. A diagnostic test may
consist of a battery of a number of sub-tests to cover sub areas.
Aptitude test
Aptitude tests basically serve a predictive function, they help us in identifying potential talents and
desirable characteristics which are essential for one to be competent to perform a specific task.
These tests are generally used while selecting people for special courses.
Achievement test
As the name indicates, such tests aim to measure the extent to which the objectives of a course
have been achieved. The usual end-of-course exam may be taken as a typical example of an
achievement test.
Proficiency tests
These tests aim to assess the general ability of a person at a given time.
Their scope is governed by a reasonable exception of what abilities learners of a given status (say,
matriculates or graduates) should possess.
Grading System of Evaluation
The word ‘grade’ is derived from the Latin word Gradus which means ‘step.’ In educational
measurement, grading involves the use of a set of symbols to communicate the level of achievement
of the students.

Types of grading
1. Direct grading: In direct grading, the performance exhibited by an individual is assessed in
qualitative terms and the impression so obtained by the examiner is directly expressed in terms of
letter grades. The advantage of direct grading is that it minimizes the inter-examiner variability.
Moreover, it is easier to use in comparison to indirect grading. Direct grading lacks transparency.
2. Indirect grading: In this method, the performance of an examinee is first assessed in terms of
marks and subsequently transformed into letter grades by using different modes. This
transformation may be carried out in terms of both ‘absolute grading’ and ‘relative grading’ as
discussed below.
(a) Absolute grading: Absolute grading is a conventional technique of evaluation. It is based on a
pre-determined standard that becomes a reference point for assessment of students’ performance. It
involves direct conversion of marks into grades, irrespective of the distribution of marks in a
subject. For example, the categorization of students into five groups, namely, distinction (75% and
above), first division (60% and less than 75%), second division (45% and less than 60%), third
division (33% and less than 45%) and unsatisfactory (Below 33%).
 (b) Relative grading: Relative grading is generally used in public examination. In this system,
grade of a student is decided not by her performance alone rather than performance of the group.
This type of grading is popularly known as ‘grading on the curve.’

Classification of Evaluation Techniques

Quantitative Techniques Qualitative Techniques

Oral Examination Cumulative Records

Practical Examination Anecdotal Records

Observation
Written Examination
Check-list

Rating scale

Innovations in Evaluation Systems

With advancement in technology, newer means of evaluating the progress made by students are
also being developed. Earlier, only oral and written tests were used for evaluation. Teachers had to
check the answer sheets manually which led to delays in the declaration of results. Students could
copy answers from chits or from other students as the paper was same for everyone. It was not
possible for the teacher to set different paper for each student. Now, these shortcomings have been
taken care in the new methods of evaluation such as computer- assisted evaluation and computer-
based evaluation. In computer-based evaluation, the test is conducted on computer and the test
can be programmed in such a way that each student will either get a question paper with different
questions or with questions in a different order. Since the test is conducted online, the recorded
responses will also be saved in the computer. Hence. these can be evaluated in much lesser time
than manual checking. For instance, the recent NTA UGC-NET exam was held on 22 December
2018, and the result was declared on 5 January 2019. The result was announced in less than 15
days' time. Online tests or quizzes can be conducted on Google forms.

Other than the changes in the mode of conducting the exam, there have been changes in the
type of questions. Earlier, a question like 'Define evaluation' will check the memory and retaining
power of the student. Students have to answer the question based on what they had memorized
earlier, for which they used to get marks. But nowadays, the questions are more of conceptual
nature such as 'Define evaluation in your own words.' A person having sound conceptual clarity can
answer it correctly. Multiple choice questions, fill in the blanks, assertion-reason questions,
statement- conclusions, statement-argument, statement-assumption type questions figure in most
question papers.
 The teacher can also evaluate students even without conducting tests, through observation.
The teacher can observe students, their behaviour, values, etc. Students can be given assignments,
one-minute paper, assigned roles, practical performance, etc. At the end of the topic or lecture, the
teacher can tell students to rewrite the content covered in the class in a few words. Students can
also be required to analyse their performance themselves, or get it reviewed by their peer group. The
results of the evaluation can be declared online as well.

Choice Based Credit System

EVALUATION IN CHOICE BASED CREDIT SYSTEM (CBCS) IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Majority of Indian higher education institutions have been following marks or percentage based
evaluation system, which obstructs the flexibility for the students to study the subjects/courses of
their choice and their mobility to different institutions. There is need to allow the flexibility in
education system, so that students depending upon their interests and aims can choose
interdisciplinary, intra-disciplinary and skill-based courses. This can only be possible when choice
based credit system (CBCS), an internationally acknowledged system, is adopted.
 The choice based credit system not only offers opportunities and avenues to learn core subjects
but also exploring additional avenues of learning beyond the core subjects for holistic
development of an individual. The CBCS will undoubtedly facilitate us bench mark our courses
with best international academic practices.
 The CBCS provides an opportunity for the students to choose courses from the prescribed
courses comprising core, elective/minor or skill based courses.
 The courses can be evaluated following the grading system, which is considered to be better
than the conventional marks system.
 Therefore, it is necessary to introduce uniform grading system in the entire higher education in
India.
 This will benefit the students to move across institutions within India to begin with and across
countries.
 The uniform grading system will also enable potential employers in assessing the performance of
the candidates.
 In order to bring uniformity in evaluation system and computation of the Cumulative Grade
Point Average (CGPA) based on student's performance in examinations, the UGC has formulated
the guidelines to be followed.

Advantages of CBCS
 Shift in focus from the teacher-centric to student- centric education.
 Student may undertake as many credits as they can cope with (without repeating all courses in
a given semester if they fail in one/more courses).
 CBCS allows students to choose inter- disciplinary, intra-disciplinary courses, skill oriented
papers (even from other disciplines according to their learning needs, interests and aptitude)
and more flexibility for students).
 CBCS makes education broad-based and at par with global standards. One can take credits by
combining unique combinations. For example, Physics with Economics, Microbiology with
Chemistry or Environment Science etc.
 CBCS offers flexibility for students to study at different times and at different institutions to
complete one course (ease mobility of students). Credits earned at one institution can be
transferred.

Disadvantages OF CBCS
 Difficult to estimate the exact marks
 Workload of teachers may fluctuate
 Demand good infrastructure for dissemination of education

Outline of Choice Based Credit System

1. Core Course: A course, which should compulsorily be studied by a candidate as a core
requirement is termed as a Core course.
2. Elective Course: Generally a course which can be chosen from a pool of courses and which may
be very specific or specialized or advanced or supportive to the discipline/ subject of study or which
provides an extended scope or which enables an exposure to some other discipline/ subject/domain
or nurtures the candidate's proficiency/skill is called an Elective Course.

 Discipline Specific Elective (DSE) Course: Elective courses may be offered by the main
discipline/subject of study is referred to as Specific Elective. The University/ Institute may also
offer discipline related Elective courses of interdisciplinary nature (to be offered by main
discipline/subject of study).
 Dissertation/Project: An elective course designed to acquire special/advanced knowledge, such
as supplement study/support study to a project work, and a candidate studies such a course on
his own with an advisory support by a teacher/faculty member is called dissertation/ project.
 Generic Elective (GE) Course: An elective course chosen generally from an unrelated
discipline/subject, with an intention to seek exposure is called a Generic Elective. P.S.: A core
course offered in a discipline/subject may be treated as an elective by other discipline/ subject
and vice versa and such electives may also be referred to as Generic Elective.
 Ability Enhancement Courses (AEC): The Ability Enhancement (AE) Courses may be of two
kinds: Ability Enhancement Compulsory Courses (AECC) and Skill Enhancement Courses (SEC).
"AECC" courses are the courses based upon the content that leads to Knowledge enhancement;
i. Environmental Science and ii. English/MIL Communication. These are mandatory for all
disciplines. SEC courses are value-based and/or skill-based and are aimed at providing hands-
on-training, competencies, skills, etc.
 Ability Enhancement Compulsory Courses (AECC): Environmental Science, English
Communication/MIL Communication. Skill Enhancement Courses (SEC): These courses may be
chosen from a pool of courses designed to provide value-based and/or skill- based knowledge.

Types of Courses
Courses in a programme may be of three kinds: Core, Elective and Foundation.
i) Core Course: There may be a Core Course in every semester. This is the course which is to be
compulsorily studied by a student as a core requirement to complete the requirement of a
programme in a said discipline of study
ii) Elective Course: Elective course is a course which can be chosen from a pool of papers. It
may be
 • Supportive to the discipline of study
• Providing an expanded scope
• Enabling an exposure to some other discipline/domain
• Nurturing student's proficiency/skill.

An elective may be "Generic Elective" focusing on those courses which add generic proficiency to the
students. An elective may be "Discipline centric" or may be chosen from an unrelated discipline. It
may be called an Open Elective.

iii) Foundation Course: The Foundation Courses may be of two kinds Compulsory Foundation
and Elective foundation. "Compulsory Foundation' courses are the courses based upon the content
that leads to Knowledge enhancement They are mandatory for all disciplines. Elective Foundation
courses are value-based and are aimed at man-making education.

Examination and Assessment

The Higher Educational Institutions (HEls) are currently following various methods for examination
and assessment suitable for the courses and programmes as approved by their respective statutory
bodies. In assessing the performance of the students in examinations, the usual approach is to
award marks based on the examinations conducted at various stages (sessional, mid-term, end-
semester etc.) in a semester.
Some of the HEls convert these marks to letter grades based on absolute or relative grading system
and award the grades. There is a marked variation across the colleges and universities in the
number of grades, grade points, letter grades used, which creates difficulties in comparing students
across the institutions. The UGC recommends the following system to be implemented in awarding
the grades and CGPA under the credit based semester system.

Letter Grades and Grade Points

a) Two methods -relative grading or absolute grading- have been in vogue for
awarding grades in a course The relative grading is based on the distribution (usually normal
distribution) of marks obtained by al the students of the course and the grades are awarded
based on a cut-off marks or percentile. Under the absolute grading, the marks are converted
to grades based on pre-determined class intervals. To implement the following grading
system, the colleges and universities can use any one of the above methods.
b) The UGC recommends a 10-point grading system with the following letter grades as given
below:
Grades and Grade Points
Letter Grade Grade Point
O (Outstanding) 10
A+(Excellent) 9
A (Very Good) 8
B+(Good) 7
B(Above Average) 6
C(Average) 5
P (Pass) 4
F(Fail) 0
 Ab (Absent) 0

c) A student obtaining Grade F shall be considered failed and will be required to reappear in the
examination
d) For non-credit courses 'Satisfactory' or "Unsatisfactory' shall be indicated instead of the letter
grade and this will not be counted for the computation of SGPA/CGPA.
e) The Universities can decide on the grade or percentage of marks required to pass in a course
and also the CGPA required to qualify for a degree taking into consideration the
recommendations of the statutory professional councils such as AICTE, MCI, BCI, NCTE etc.
f) The statutory requirement for eligibility to enter as assistant professor in colleges and
universities in the disciplines of arts, science, commerce etc., is a minimum average mark of
S0% and 55% in relevant postgraduate degree respectively for reserved and general category
Hence, it is recommended that the cut-off marks for grade B shall not be less than 50% and
for grade B+, it should not be less than 55% under the absolute grading system. Similarly
cut-off marks shall be fixed for grade Band B+ based on the recommendation of the statutory
bodies(AICTE, NCTE etc.,) of the relevant disciplines

Fairness in Assessment
Assessment is an integral part of system of education as it is instrumental in identifying and
certifying the academic standards accomplished by a student end projecting them far and wide as
an objective and impartial indicator of a student's performance.
Thus, it becomes bounden duty of a University to ensure that it is carried out in fair manner. In
this regard, UGC recommends the following system of checks and balances which would enable
Universities effectively and fairly carry out the process of assessment and examination.
• In case of at least 50% of core courses offered in different programmes across the disciplines,
the assessment of the theoretical component towards the end of the semester should be
undertaken by external examiners from outside the university conducting examination, who
may be appointed by the competent authority. In such courses, the question papers will be
set as well as assessed by external examiners.
• In case of the assessment of practical component of such core courses, the team of
examiners should be constituted on 50 - 50 % basis. i.e. half of the examiners in the team
should be invited from outside the university conducting examination.
• In case of the assessment of project reports / thesis / dissertation etc. the work should be
undertaken by internal as well as external examiners.

Key Words under CBCS

Academic Year: Two consecutive (one odd + one even) semesters constitute one academic year
Choice Based Credit System (CBCS): The CBCS provides choice for students to select from
the prescribed courses (core, elective or minor or soft skill courses).
Course: Usually referred to, as papers' is a component of a programme. All courses need not carry
the same weight. The courses should define learning objectives and learning outcomes. A course
may be designed to comprise lectures/ tutorials/laboratory work/ field work/ outreach activities/
project work/ vocational training/viva/ seminars/ term papers/assignments/ presentations/ self-
study etc. or a combination of some of these.
Credit Based Semester System (CBSS); Under the CBSS, the requirement for awarding a
degree or diploma or certificate is prescribed in terms of number of credits to be completed by the
students
Credit Point: It is the product of grade point and number of credits for a course.
Credit: A unit by which the course work is measured. It determines the number of hours of
instructions required per week. One credit is equivalent to one hour of teaching (lecture or tutorial)
or two hours of practical work/field work per week.
Cumulative Grade Point Average (CGPA): It is a measure of overall cumulative
performance of a student over all semesters. The CGPA is the ratio of total credit points secured by
a student in various courses in al semesters and the sum of the total credits of all courses in ll the
semesters. It is expressed up to two decimal places.
Grade Point: It is a numerical weight allotted to each letter grade on a 10-point scale.
Letter Grade: It is an index of the performance of students in a said course. Grades are denoted
by letters O, At, A, B+, B, C, P and F.
Programme: An educational programme leading to award of a Degree, diploma or certificate.
Semester Grade Point Average (SGPA): It is a measure of performance of work done in a
semester. It is ratio of total credit points secured by a student in various courses registered in a
semester and the total course credits taken during that semester. It shall be expressed up to two
decimal places
Semester Each semester will consist of 15-18 weeks of academic work equivalent to 90 actual
teaching days The odd semester may be scheduled from July to December and even semester from
January to June.
Transcript or Grade Card or Certificate: Based on the grades earned, a grade certificate
shall be issued to all the registered students after every semester. The grade certificate will display
the course details (code, title, number of credits, grade secured) along with SGPA of that semester
and CGPA earned till that semester

Computer Based Testing (CBT)

CBT seems to be catalyst for changes in pedagogical methods. It brings about a transformation in
learning, pedagogy and curricula in educational institutions. The setting is the basis of both
computer-based and paper-based testing.

COMPUTER BASED TESTING (CBT)

Computer-based testing (CBT) has emerged as one of the recent "innovative" approaches to
assessments most pursued by states. CBT is lauded as the answer to having cheaper and speedier
test delivery for state and district-wise assessments.
 A Computer-Based Assessment, also known as Computer-Based Testing, e-exam, computerized
testing and computer-administered testing, is a method of administering tests in which the
responses are electronically recorded, assessed, or both.
 As the name implies, Computer-Based Assessment makes use of a computer or an equivalent
electronic device (i.e. handheld computer).
  Computer-Based Assessment enables educators and trainers to author, schedule, deliver, and
report on surveys, quizzes, tests and exams. Computer-Based Testing may be a standalone
system or a part of a virtual learning environment, possibly accessed via the World Wide Web.
 The use of computers for testing purposes has a history spanning more than 20 years.
As computer-assisted instruction (CAI) has grown in popularity, computer-based testing has
become more and more appropriate for assessing students' CAI learning achievement.
When administering tests, computers can be used to provide individualized testing environments,
that is, allowing students to take tests when they are ready. Moreover, test contents can be
customized for students by providing different difficulty levels and emphases. Computer-based
testing can also be designed to provide test-takers with immediate feedback and scoring.

Factors Contributing in CBT

Computer-based testing has come a long way in India and a number of factors are contributing to
this trend:

1. Growth in number of internet users

 A recent study found that India led Asia Pacific nations in annual Internet user growth, which is
in the region of 28 per cent.
 Moreover, the initial level of discomfort with computers has now largely been overcome in
smaller towns and cities.
 In fact, computer-based tests are correctly perceived to be fairer, more convenient and reliable
and of course user-friendly.
 Though some tests like the GRE have been computer-based since the 1990's, the focus has now
shifted from mere standardization and certification to building a complete delivery model that
encompasses preparation, testing and assessment.

2. Elimination of human error and bias

 Computer-based testing is the best way to eliminate the scope for human error or bias in
grading answers and, hence, improves the quality and reliability of the test.
 Apart from this, it also allows large number of tests and student data to be securely stored and
analyzed so that the quality of future tests can be improved.

3. Scheduling flexibility and accessibility

 Greater flexibility for scheduling and growing numbers of test centers across India has improved
accessibility.
 This accessibility in turn has opened new opportunities for populations previously unaccounted
for in competitive admissions and job selections.

4. Cost effectiveness
 Affordability was considered as one of the major drawbacks of computer based testing, but over
time, institutes and employers realised that eventually they incurred the same expenditure but
longer time frames in conducting paper based exams.
 Also, the scores obtained in case of paper based exams are far less reliable when you consider
the vulnerability of paper exams to cheating, theft and fraud.
  Computerization of tests is cost-effective for host organisations and provides them the best
option to ensure fair scoring across many candidates.
 High-stakes examinations can be life-changing experiences for test-takers. A reliable testing
agency must invest in security systems, people and procedures and implement safeguards that
provide Indian students fair and accurate scores, free from scores gained by cheating, which
unfairly comprises the diligent work of honest candidates and removes prejudice from the
process.

5. Good management
 A good testing agency must rely on managers who will ensure fair and secure exam questions
and answers at the item-writing level and also ensure that all content and data are accurately
and securely accessed, stored and transferred.

Computer Based Testing (CBT)

CBT seems to be catalyst for changes in pedagogical methods. It brings about a
transformation in learning, pedagogy and curricula in educational institutions. The
setting is the basis of both computer- based and paper-based testing.

Benefits of Computer-Based Testing (CBT)

1. More frequent testingopportunities
2. Data richresults
3. Increasing candidatereach
4. Streamlinedlogistics
There are two types of CBT which include:
1. Linear test: This involves a full-length examination in which the computer selects different
questions for individuals without considering their performancelevel.
2. Adaptive test: Here the computer selects the range of questions based on individuals
performance level. These questions are taken from a very large pool of possible questions
categorized by content and difficulty.
Using the waterfall model, the CBTS SDLC was split up into a number of independent
steps. Each step was carried out in sequence and accordance to one after the other.
The previous stage is always completed before moving to the next stage of the life
cycle.

Blended learning
 It is a combination of offline (face-to-face, traditional learning)
and online learning in a way that the one compliments the
other.
 Blended learning is also known as hybrid learning, is an
approach to education that combine online educational
materials and opportunities for interaction online with
traditional place – based classroom methods.
 Positive Interdependence Theory(DAVID JOHNSON)
 In a collaborative setting, the success of one person is
dependent on the success of the group; this is
referred to as positive interdependence.
 All members should rely on one another to achieve the
goal and need to believe that they are linked together to
succeed.
 Positive interdependence is the belief of anyone in the
group that there is value in working together and that
the results of both individual learning and working products would be better when they
are done in collaboration.

Advance Organizer Model

 Advance Organizer Model is given by David Ausubel who is one of the educational
psychologists.
 In this model teacher plays the role of organizer of subject matter and presents
information through lectures, readings and providing tasks to the learner to integrate
what has been learned.
 This model is designed to strengthen student’s cognitive structure.
 In this approach, teacher is responsible for organizing and presenting what is to be
learned. The learner’s primary role is to master ideas and information.
 The Advance Organizers provide concepts and principles to the students directly.
 In this model: -
1. Teacher gives verbal instruction.
2. Teacher first recalls the previous knowledge, then gives new knowledge on the basis of
previous one.
3. Whole subject is presented in a chain order.
4. Students grasp the subject matter wholly and a chain is made in student’s mind.
 Focus/Aim:
o To give the knowledge of concepts and facts of subjects.
o To develop cognitive structure.
o To enable the students to arrange the knowledge in a social order.
o To present the pre-knowledge, explain facts and then present new knowledge so that
the new concepts are correlated to pre-knowledge.
 This theory of meaningful verbal learning deals with three concerns:
A. How knowledge (curriculum content) is organized;
B. How the mind works to process new information (learning)
C. How teacher can apply these ideas about curriculum and learning when they present
new material to students (instruction).
 Activities of Phase I: -(Presentation of Advanced Organizer)
 1. Clarity of aims of the lesson.
2. Presentation of organizer — Giving examples, Providing
context, Reporting
3. Prompting awareness of learner’s relevant
knowledge and experience.
 Activities of Phase II: - (Presentation of Learning
Task)
1. Presentation of the subject matter in the form of
lectures, discussion, reading, experiments, films etc.
2. Maintaining attention.
3. Making organization explicit. 4.Making logical order of
learning material explicit.
 Activities of Phase III: - (Strengthening the Cognitive Structure)
1. Using the principles of integrated reconciliation.
2. Promoting ‘active reception’ of learning.
3. Elicit critical approach to subject matter.
4. Clarifying

The Thinking Hats System

 The six thinking hats were first published in 1985 by the respected psychologist Dr.
Edward de Bono.
 Six Thinking Hats is the perfect technique to look at decisionmaking from different
perspectives. It introduces an organized parallel thinking process and it helps
participants to be more mindfully involved and focused during discussion.
 This technique can be applied in many ways, both in groups and as individuals. After
deciding on the problem or situation you need to discuss, try these approaches.
 The six hats are:
1. The white hat: This is the objective hat, which focuses on facts and logic
2. The red hat: This is the intuitive hat, focusing on emotion and instinct
3. The black hat: This is the cautious hat, used to predict negative outcomes
4. The yellow hat: This is the optimistic hat, used to look for positive outcomes
5. The green hat: This is the creative hat, where ideas are abundant and criticism spare
6. The blue hat: This is the hat of control, used for management and organization

Decision Traps Theory

 Edward Russo and Paul J.H. Shoemaker In the book, Russo and shoemaker listed the
ten most common barriers that we often encounter in making good decisions. They are
as follows: -
1. Plunging in.
  Beginning to gather information and reach conclusion without first taking a few
minutes to think about the crux of issue you’re facing or to think through how we
believe decisions like this one should be made.
2. Frame blindness
 Setting out to solve the wrong problem because you have created a mental framework
for your decision, with little thought, that causes you to overlook the best options or
lose sight of important objectives.
3. Lack of frame control
 Failing to consciously define the problem in more ways than one or being unduly
influenced by others.
4. Overconfidence in our judgment.
 Failing to collect key factual information because you are too sure of our assumptions
and opinions.
5. Short-sighted shortcuts
 Relying inappropriately on “rules of thumb” such as implicitly trusting the most readily
available information or anchoring too much on convenient facts.
6. Shooting from the hip
 Believing you can keep straight in our heads all the information you’ve discovered, and
therefore “winging it” rather than following a systematic procedure when making the
final choice.
7. Group Failure
 Assuming that with many smart people involved, good choices will follow automatically
and therefore failing to manage the group decision making process.
8. Fooling ourselves about feedback
 Failing to interpret the evidence from past outcomes for what it really says, either
because we are protecting our ego or because you are tricked by hindsight.
9. Not keeping track
 Assuming that experience will make its lessons available automatically, and therefore
failing to keep systematic records to track the results of your decisions and failing to
analyze these results in ways that reveal their key lessons.
10. Failure to audit our decision process
 Failing to create an organized approach to understanding our own decision making, so
we remain constantly exposed to all the above
mistakes.