HIGHER INSTITUTE OF SCIENCES AND DISTANCE EDUCATION

Bachelor's Degree in Public Administration

Negotiation

Clara Salvador Good

Xai-Xai, March 25, 2020

 HIGHER INSTITUTE OF DISTANCE SCIENCES AND EDUCATION
Bachelor's Degree in Public Administration

Negotiation

Practical work submitted to the resource center of Xai-Xai, as a requirement for evaluation.
from the Chair of Communication Techniques, Leadership, and Conflict Resolution

Xai-Xai, March 25, 2020

Index page

1. Introductiono .

2. Objectives: ..............................................................................................................................4
2.1. General Objectivel ....................................................................................................................4
2.2. Specific Objectives .........................................................................................................4
3. Methodologya .
4. Negotiation Concepts.........................................................................................................4
5. Stages of a Negotiation
6. Negotiation Strategies .......................................................................................................8
7. Types of negotiation ................................................................................................................9
7.1. Interactive Negotiation .........................................................................................................9
7.2. Competitive Negotiation
7.3. Distributive Negotiation
7.4. Cooperative Negotiationa .12
8. Communication Processes Within Negotiations .............................................................12
9. Conflicts of Negotiation........................................................................................................14
10. Conclusion
Bibliographya .17
1. Introduction
It is indisputable that the act of negotiating is a reality in our daily lives, although some
often negotiations occur unconsciously. The negotiation context in your
existence is the same in personal negotiations as in complex negotiations at a higher level
organizational. Negotiation is a voluntary process in which the parties exchange resources.
with the ultimate goal of reaching a satisfactory substantial agreement for both parties

This work aims to understand the processes of negotiation and their complexities.
the concept of negotiation and the tactics and strategies of negotiation, including
the types of negotiation and the conflicts of negotiation.

To carry out this work, bibliographic consultation was used in order to cross the
ideas of different authors, whose works cited are included in the bibliography reference

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objectives

2.1. General Objective

Understanding the processes of negotiation and their complexities

2.2. Specific Objectives

Define the concept of negotiation
Describe the tactics and strategies of negotiation
Identify the types of negotiations
Characterize negotiation conflicts

3. Methodology
In carrying out this work, a bibliographic method was used, which consisted of consulting
different bibliographic works aimed at the intersection of the ideas of different authors in the face of
theme under study

4. Negotiation Concepts
The new Aurélio dictionary of the Portuguese language defines: negotiate as: "to carry out operations

"commercial" and "to treat, discuss to reach an agreement." Negotiation is present in our
daily, from personal life to professional. Negotiation happens all the time, with family, friends and
work colleagues, it can be said that we negotiate at any moment in any situation.
For a good negotiation, it is necessary to understand the subject and to know how to communicate, preserving the

ethics and values. (Mello, 2003).

The act of negotiating is not a random process that has a predictable sequence, it is like a
"game" with clear and defined objectives, as long as the players make plans with
strategies and tactics respecting the established rules. (Lewicki E Hia, 2003) The negotiation
basically consists of getting what you want from another party involved. It is a
bilateral communication, which consists of reaching an agreement based on common interests and
other opposites. (Fisher; Ury and Patton, 2005).

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In this way, negotiation is a form of communication between two or more parties whose objective is
reach a mutual agreement regarding opposing opinions, where at its end both parties
they are satisfied. (Acuff, 2004).

The negotiation process is based on admitting ideas and interests in the pursuit of excellence.
results in such a way that both parties conclude the negotiation aware that they participated and
they presented justifications for the final product to be greater than the sum of the contributions
individuals, where without communication there is no negotiation, much less administration. (Junqueira,

1994). Thus, when negotiating rationally, better decisions are made and the interests
are maximized. (Bazerman and Neale, 2007).

In this way, the negotiation deals with the possibility of reconciling interests and objectives by
a means of a common resolution, at no time means to confront or yield.
Red, 2006). Therefore, negotiating is an interpersonal process in decision-making, necessary
when one does not achieve objectives on their own, it is an essential management skill.
For executives, leaders, and managers, negotiation skills are becoming increasingly important.
important. The main reasons that justify the importance of these skills are:
the dynamic nature of business; the interdependence of collaborators in organizations; the
competition; the information age and globalization. (Thompson, 2008).

5. Stages of a Negotiation
The parties involved in the negotiation process must understand each interest and together
generate mutually advantageous options, seeking to agree, reconcile opposing interests and
allow an effective relationship, different from a position-based negotiation more
known as positional bargaining, which creates incentives that paralyze the negotiation, as one of the
sides take a position, defend it, and make concessions putting at risk the maintenance of
relationship. Each person interacts differently in a negotiation, as they have different points of view.

different, emphasizing different subjects.

In this aspect, there are three variables that influence a negotiation: power, time, and the
information; it is important to have at least two of the three variables to finalize the negotiation.
(Fisher; Ury and Patton, 2005). The focus of a negotiation is to clearly identify your objective,
separate the people from the problem; focus on the interests; seek options for gains

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mutual and create objective criteria. From the moment negotiations begin until the
the moment a agreement is reached, three stages stand out:

• Analysis: where the aim is to diagnose the situation, gather information, organizing it and
pondering about them. One must separate personal issues, identify the interests of
involved parties and check the criteria to reach an agreement.

Planning: the aim is to create ideas and decide what to do, checking how to deal with
the problems, what interests need to be met, what objectives are realistic, how to generate
additional options and how to define the criteria to decide between them.

Discussion: it is when the parties communicate with each other to define a possible agreement.
differences in perceptions, frustrations, anger, and the difficulty of communicating can be
recognized and addressed. (Fisher; Ury and Patton, 2005).

The preparation stage is the key to a successful negotiation, about 80% of the efforts
In a negotiation, they should be channeled for preparation, while 20 percent represents the
true negotiation work. Great preparation comprises three abilities:
self-assessment, evaluation of the other party involved, and the assessment of the situation. (Thompson, 2008).

Competitive negotiation is a game of forces that involves a very emotional process.

tension where it can escalate to aggression, and possibly lead to an impasse. This type of
negotiation means that one party decides to negotiate by extracting the maximum concessions,
using all competence, talent, tactics, ability, and power. This type of negotiation
involves the stages of preparation, opening, testing, conviction, closing, and implementation of
agreement.

The preparation process involves gathering information, setting goals, and creating
strategies. In the opening phase, a favorable environment is created by establishing a relationship of
trust and harmony. The testing phase is considered to be transitional where the other party is analyzed.
involved. The stage of conviction is defined as a central stage where concessions are made and obtained,
at this stage emotional control is fundamental. The final stage of negotiation is the step of
closure and implementation of the agreement. (Mello, 2003).

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In cooperative negotiation, where the parties reach an agreement, it includes the phases of
opening, cooperation cycle and closing. The opening aims for knowledge and the
beginning of a harmonious relationship, having affinity as the main rule. In the cycle of
cooperation, the legitimate exchange of information in an atmosphere of empathy increases
trust, leading to an understanding of the problems, at this stage one should observe the control
emotional and the sense of justice. In the closing phase, the cycle of cooperation must be worked on
until a solution to the problem is found, this should occur naturally. (Mello, 2003).

The decision-making of mixed motivation is highlighted as an accurate model for the

negotiation, where cooperation and competition between the parties involved are involved.
Whatever the form of negotiation, the goal of negotiation, its
importance and opportunity, three elements that influence this process are highlighted: time, the
power and information. Knowing how to use these variables can become strategies in the process
in negotiation. In a negotiation, time must be analyzed carefully, being a key point.
support for the negotiation projection and the satisfaction of the parties involved.

According to Martinelli and Almeida (2006), the word power conveys the idea of authority.
superiority, opportunity, control and right, which when used within reasonable limits becomes
be positive in the negotiation process, enabling satisfactory agreements to be made for
both parties; powers are subdivided into personal powers (which are the powers of the
morality, attitude, persistence, and the ability to persuade) and circumstantial powers (which are the
powers of the specialist, of investment, of position, of legitimacy, of competition, of
precedent, the risks of commitment, of understanding needs, of reward and punishment,
of identification and bargaining.

Information is the act of informing oneself, of having a broad and well-founded knowledge.
making it fundamental to the negotiation process.

Therefore, whatever type of negotiation is to be used and considering that the people involved
In a negotiation process, there are human beings, with emotions, entrenched values, and points of view.

different viewpoints, the negotiator must prepare well, plan ahead, execute and review.
(Martinelli and Almeida, 2006).

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6. Negotiation Strategies
In literature, it becomes common to confuse the concepts of strategy and tactics, as they appear as
synonyms, however, they are analytically very distinct. The strategy is related to the mission,
while the tactics (maneuvers) are related to putting the plans and objectives into practice
Determined. The effectiveness of the strategies is related to the level of trust between the parties.

In the competitiveness strategy, the specific objectives stand out and focus on the attempt
to weaken the other party involved. In interactive negotiation, it is important to establish
cooperative behaviors from which benefits can be shared making them
multidimensional nature, since the exchanges involved are complex and multifaceted,
It is perceived that in interactive negotiation the possibility of reaching an agreement increases. The strategies

interactive negotiations are summarized in trust and sharing of information, in

multiple proposal presentations and bring complementary subjects to light. (Moreira, 2010).

Negotiation strategy is the ability to anticipate the variables that may interfere in the
course of negotiation through exhausting means of reflection on a problem, styles of
negotiation, interdependence relationships and possible objections that will be present in
each round of negotiation.

Elaborating a good strategy fundamentally depends on understanding the other party involved.
For this, it is important to consider the following points: prioritize objectives flexibly;
measure feelings; create alternatives; conduct a self-assessment to plan an action to
each reaction occurring during the negotiation; define the true interests; make
questioning; to inform oneself; to put oneself in the other party's place in order to understand them;
acquire skills and apply emotional intelligence, thus obtaining real-time insights,
acquiring the ability to adjust to the plan and management of the negotiation of the other party.
(Lewicki E Hiam, 2003). In this way, Acuff (2004) highlights ten strategies that can be
effective anywhere in the world, although there may be some changes in the way they are used,
considering the various existing cultures:

Plan the negotiation.

Adopt the method of mutual and reciprocal gains.
Maintain high expectations.

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Use clear and accessible language.
Ask several questions and listen very carefully afterward.
Build consistent interpersonal relationships.
Maintain personal integrity.
Do not make unnecessary concessions.
Make patience an obsession.
Be culturally tuned, adapting the negotiation process to the environment of each scenario.

Finally, the ability to conduct a negotiation is directly linked to the way of

communicate expressively and effectively, where communication must be clear and objective
generating understanding and quick feedback on what is being conveyed, achieving persuasion of
another involved party. Techniques such as negotiation skills stand out among the factors.
personal, planning, training, determination, creativity, alliances, and flexibility, being
It is necessary to have an appropriate posture, maintaining eye contact, taking care of your expression and

aimed at empathy which will lead to reliability and understanding. Preparation is

very important, as this is the only way to gain self-confidence and naturalness, to focus on
position and the real interest of its opponent. (Brito, 2011).

7. Types of negotiation

7.1. Interactive Negotiation

The mutual gains approach theory is based on decades of research and studies.
experimental and real cases, which includes good preparation, the creation of value,
value distribution and effective monitoring during and post-negotiation.
Susskind, 2010).

In interactive negotiation, the focus is on finding a solution and a better agreement for both parties.
involved parties. Rational strategies can create interactive agreements that range from
building trust through the sharing of information in which multiple proposals are presented.
Transform a misunderstanding or conflict into an opportunity, respecting the
Divergences and adding creativity lead to strategic sources of great value. (Bazerman)
E Neale, 2007).

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Therefore, to achieve a win-win agreement, it is important to plan actions that
promote opportunities for the development of the parties' relationship. One should cultivate the
mutual trust, kindness, friendliness, sociability, and honesty, make it possible to
each party involved must propose viable and creative solutions for partnership agreements,
aiming for long-term relationships, thus enabling competitive advantages in
terms of globalization. (Martinelli E Almeida, 2006).

In standardized strategies, the roughness and cordiality stand out, which involve attempts to
bargaining, leaving people dissatisfied, as the harsh negotiator imposes their decisions, creates
a climate of competition in which the stronger party comes out victorious. On the other hand, the cordial negotiator, does

concessions, avoids conflicts and seeks an acceptable way for the agreement.

In principled negotiations, it shows how to achieve your objective without having to compromise.
concessions or impose a decision. This method advocates for a lasting relationship that can
lead to future negotiations and allows both parties to leave satisfied achieving their goals
goals with ethics. The fundamental steps are: separate the people from the problem; focus on
in our interests and not in positions; create a variety of possibilities before deciding what
to create and develop criteria based on objective standards. (Fisher; Ury and Patton, 2005).

The negotiator must identify the opponent's tactic, in this case it is important to acquire a
set of skills and observe the following basic points: focus on the ideas (let
set aside personal aspects); discuss the propositions (question ideas and proposals and not
people and cases); provide alternatives to the other party; be objective in the analysis of
problems (to seek appropriate solutions); present concrete proposals (to explain oneself with
conviction avoiding misunderstandings); knowing how to speak and listen; putting oneself in the other party's place

(to know the other side, their needs, and their problems); to be aware that one negotiates the
all the time; know how to interpret human behavior and people's reactions; separate the
personal relationships of interests and avoid structuring a relationship based on one
agreement. (Martinelli and Almeida, 2006).

By striving to reach a win-win agreement, a false impression may occur

interactive negotiation. Adopting a cooperative direction can be confused as a
strategy of dividing amounts and making concessions, leading to a negotiation of the type

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curtains. Table 5 presents nine strategies that can contribute to a negotiation
interactive, where the amount is increased. These strategies can be used in both
cooperative negotiations as in problematic negotiations or with rigid negotiators.
(Thompson, 2008).

7.2. Competitive Negotiation

In a competitive negotiation, the important thing is to maximize all intentions in the outcome.
expected, disregarding relationship issues, however it is important to relate
civilly to continue the negotiation. It uses tactics and strategies, without the
concern of a later relationship, the so-called win to lose strategy. (Lewicki
E Hiam, 2003).

Thus, competitive negotiation is based on the great need to obtain

advantages, ignoring the possibility of a future relationship. In this type of negotiation,
a power struggle arises and the side with more authority wins. The strategies and tactics
are used solely to obtain concessions, advantages, and power, (Mello, 2003).

7.3. Distributive Negotiation

A distributive negotiation is characterized by a scenario where the profitable outcome for one of
side corresponds to a loss, that is, a lower profit for the other side. It is defined as a
mission which clearly consists of dividing a certain value, not necessarily to
half. (Leite, 2006). Thus, distributive negotiation involves only one issue: the pie
fixed, where one person gains at the expense of another, (Bazerman and Neale, 2007). This type of

negotiation is also known as win-lose, where the focus is on the division of an asset
unique. (Balverde, 2006).

Thus, distributive negotiation is exclusively related to dividing the amount,

(Thompson, 2008). Since this is a result where the whole is already predefined and has no
the perspective of expansion, it is only up to the parties to understand regarding the division of the value,

(Leite, 2006). Therefore, concessions are simple and fair ways to resolve disputes, this
the approach does not require intentional efforts like in other strategies, however points
important issues must be analyzed.

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Therefore, in distributive negotiation, it is required that each party re-evaluate their priorities.
regarding the relationship and the expected results, it is important to highlight that the
preparation and the use of strategies become the differential in the results, even when it comes to
of a negotiation where concessions are made and the amount is divided. (Lewicki E Hiam, 2003).

7.4. Cooperative Negotiation

According to Mello (2003), in cooperative negotiation the parties are interested in reaching a
Agreement. The legitimate exchange of information is essential for a full understanding of both.
sides; building a relationship of trust; having a correct perception of the facts and the
attention to the different and fair conceptions, thus arriving at a shared solution that
meet the interests of all. In this negotiation, strategies are used in the creation of a
a favorable environment for negotiation, where the tactics used serve to know and understand the
needs of the parties. Below are significant topics:

Listen more than speak.

Separate the people from the problem.
Put yourself in the other party's shoes.
Understand the interests of the other.
Establish work standards.

Cooperatively used competitive tactics (limited budget, hypothesis, prior agenda,

intimacy). (Mello, 2003).

Finally, in cooperative negotiations, negotiators are willing to obtain gains.

financial, but above all are concerned with the maintenance and strengthening of the
relationship between the parties, what matters is achieving a clear, evident negotiation
associated with risk sharing and mutual conviction. The cooperative strategy consists
in the legitimate exchange of information; in understanding the needs of the other party involved; in
fundamental variables for a sustainable and trusting relationship. (Tamashiro, 2004).

8. Communication Processes Within Negotiations

Communication aims for understanding, to inform oneself about a certain subject.
what must be transmitted from person to person is of great importance for activities

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organizational, where it needs to be well structured, thus ensuring security to the processes.
of decision making. (Sanchez, 2006)

Communication is defined as a process of information that is exchanged and

understood by two or more people with the intention of influencing behavior
human. Normally, the elements present in a communicative process are: transmitter
transmits the message through a channel using some type of communication
receiver (receives the message by decoding it), message (is the concrete formulation of a
idea to be sent to the receiver), channel (is the vehicle used to transmit the message) and feedback
(it is the receiver's response to the transmitter's message). Feedback is of utmost importance in a
negotiation process, as it allows evaluating and reviewing what has been transmitted and received, assisting
in the negotiation, thus being able to reach a better agreement between the real interests involved.
(Martinelli and Almeida, 2006).

Communication is one of the extremely important processes in negotiation, it is observed that the
communication is vital for activities inside and outside organizations, no matter what
form either verbal or non-verbal, formal or informal, involving two or more people. The
the communication process presents itself in four basic aspects:

• Target: it is important to have a clearly defined target and keep it in mind, as the purpose of
communication must be clear and objective.

Method: one must choose the most suitable channel to reach the previously defined target.
Some methods used in organizations can be mentioned: memorandum, report, conversation.
people, circular, emails, meeting, bulletin board, informal conversation in the hallway, between
others.

Structure: the way it is structured is important for achieving success.

Feedback: to ensure that the messages are well understood, it is important to receive signals of
feedback from the receiver. (Martinelli E Almeida, 2006).

In a communication process, the present elements are the transmitter, the receiver, the
message, the channel, and the feedback. In the art of negotiation, the ability to listen well stands out,
allows for the correct understanding of the problems and the possible alternatives, which involves the

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aspects of listening (being attentive to hear), understanding (interpreting, grasping the meaning of the idea) and

absorb (apply). This skill is also relevant in communication, due to dangers that
may occur in the process, where the most frequent ones are highlighted below, (Martinelli E Almeida,
2006):

Listening only to what strengthens the viewpoint, distorting the presentation.

To reach boredom.

The apathy that occurs in difficult subjects where the speaker is unable to express themselves. (Martinelli E
Almeida, 2006). One cannot negotiate without understanding and interpreting the information received.
When one truly listens, it becomes possible to verify the information, to separate what is truly it.
beneficial to be used in the future, acquire new information, be flexible, listen
intensely, using the speed of thought to mentally anticipate what the other
the involved party will think and say. (Martinelli E Almeida, 2006). Therefore, prioritizing the art of
knowing how to listen allows one to understand and gather information, where the important thing is to be a natural listener.

(Acuff, 2004).

In a negotiation, communication is considered of utmost importance in the process. A failure in

communication makes it difficult to reach a possible agreement. Without communication, the
Negotiation would only be bids and offers, there wouldn't be additional information, in summary no.
there would be a negotiation. (Martinelli E Almeida, 2006).

Therefore, there is no negotiation without communication, as it is a bilateral process with the

objective of reaching a joint decision. To express oneself adequately with objectivity
(be specific) avoiding misunderstandings and listening attentively to what the other party has to say are
relevant aspects that must be considered. (Fisher; Ury and Patton, 2005)

9. Negotiation Conflicts
In a negotiation, some outcomes are presented such as: the victory of one of the parties; the
commitment (agreement between the parties); interactive agreement that is a victory for both parties and
a situation in which understanding or agreement becomes impossible. (Moreira, 2010)

In this same line of reasoning, Lewicki and Hiam (2003) highlight three types of conflicts:
where both parties win, the one where one wins and the other loses, and where everyone

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sides end up losing. In the dictionary of the Portuguese Language, conflict is defined as: struggle,

combat, war, confrontation, opposition between two or more parties, disagreement between people
groups, divergence, disagreement of ideas, of opinions. There are two alternatives for analysis
a conflict: in a negative way, facing it in a harmful, detrimental manner, it should be
avoided, otherwise it must minimize its effects. The second way is the positive, which is
seeks to gain benefits in relation to different opinions and viewpoints.

Conflict can take various forms such as: between a group and an organization, a group and
one person, with two groups and many others. The causes of a conflict can originate
regarding differences in personalities, and interpretation and perception. (Martinelli and Almeida,
2006).

Thus, the conflict is a situation of competition, where the desire of one of the parties is
differs in relation to the other's view, involving them in a struggle for power, which may present itself
explicitly, openly or secretly, which is manifested through acts. Conflict resolutions are
characterized by the opponents (judiciary and arbitration), where the parties confront each other, a third party
decide is focused on the past. On the other hand, non-adversarial resolution (negotiation, conciliation, and

mediation), there is cooperation between the parties, they control and decide the process, it is focused on

current events. (Venezuela, 2001).

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10. Conclusion
Taking into account the objectives of the work, it can be concluded that since the negotiation
a communication process that involves one or more parties with common interests and/or
antagonistic, who sit down to confront and discuss explicit proposals with the aim of
to reach an agreement.

Since this is a process, it is essential in any negotiation to define the objectives that
we want to see discussed and, above all, know how to gather the information for the preparation of a
adequate planning and conduct of one's own negotiation, as personal success is
closely related to the way a negotiation is conducted. A good strategy
Negotiation is an excellent tool to assist in the process of closing an agreement.

In conclusion, it can be said that interactive negotiation is the form of negotiation that brings the most

benefits and completes both parts, as it builds a lasting relationship and everyone comes out
satisfied with its conclusion. It is necessary to know and consider the profile of each negotiator to
achieving the objectives in a negotiation, where the negotiator's flexibility is significant.
Knowing and understanding the stages and strategies of negotiation proved to be a requirement
indispensable, highlighting technical ability and emotional skills.

Communication in the negotiation process is an essential factor, where it must be clear and objective.
enabling understanding by generating significant returns. The conflict arises from scenarios where
both parties seek to achieve the same objectives without understanding, it was possible to observe
that through negotiations that satisfy the parties involved, the conflict transforms into
creative and cooperative solutions.

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