PHILOSOPHY

Analyze a text

1.

Everyday thinking Philosophical thought Scientific thought

It offers explanations of how it is very critical. Organize objective facts
what happens daily
It shows some criticisms It is the subject of study It is accessible a various
necessary philosophy observers
It is product of Search for scientific answers Organize the structure of
daily experience various events

2.
Why did philosophy emerge? Myth provided answers to the questions of man's...
antiquity, for all phenomena there was always an explanation, however, this was not
it satisfied the curiosity of man.
The new class of merchants became an economic power that opposed the
nobility. An important change occurred in the relationships between social classes, this gave
place to a democratic system of government.
This new path to approach the truth of beings created a distancing from the myth, or
demystification of wisdom, and gave rise to philosophical activity.
Do you think that philosophy today has the same mission it had when it originated?
Mythical world? Nowadays we could say that philosophy is still maintaining its
permanent mission of the search for truth just as it arose in the world
mythical.

What situations in social life and the private sphere require thought?
philosophical and why? When going through a moment of sadness whether due to illness, for
economic or family problems or for any other reason philosophy can be of help to us
utility to face and overcome these problematic situations. According to Heraclitus' theory
"Everything flows" means that nothing is permanent.
3.

What is the human being?

Man is the only animal that possesses speech (...). Speech, on the other hand, is made of
to express what is pleasurable and what is harmful and, consequently, what is just and what is unjust.
This is something that differentiates man from the rest of animals, as he is the only one who possesses the
perception of good and evil, of what is just and unjust, and of other values. Possession
"The common element of all this is the family and the city." (Aristotle)

What is truth?
consists of saying what is and what is not. While the false will consist of
perform the inverse operation.
4.
We are always in situations. Situations change, opportunities arise. If we do not
they take advantage, they never come back. I can work to change the situation. but there is
situations that are, by their essence, permanent even when their appearance is altered
momentary: I can do nothing but die, nor suffer, nor fight; I am subjected to chance;
I inevitably drown in guilt. In these fundamental situations our existence
we call them limiting situations. It means that they are situations from which we cannot
to leave and that we cannot alter. The awareness of these extreme situations is, after the
wonder and doubt, the origin, even deeper still, of philosophy.

In relation to the questions raised earlier, it can be said that being is

a human is a rational animal capable of distinguishing the just from the unjust.
decisions according to the different situations that arise.

5.
Does feminism seek the superiority of women over men?
Is machismo already overcome?
Feminists always complain that women suffer from harassment, what does it consist of?
Does machismo have anything to do with homophobia?
I am a gentleman with women, does that make me a feminist?
6.
Concluding the responses that my family gave, they agree that machismo has been
implanted by child-rearing, meaning it is a thought that comes from a long time ago
a while ago and that must change, it does not mean that women are superior to
men, but that their rights and obligations are equal, there are still men who
he has the belief that a woman was made for domestic chores and to take care of children.
These answers are based on a reflection.

1.

Philosophers of the 19th and 20th centuries

GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH HEGEL: Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (27 of

August 1770 - November 14, 1831), philosopher. Hegel was born in Stuttgart, present-day
Germany. He completed his basic studies at a small institute in his hometown.
Later in 1793, he continued studying at the Protestant Church Seminary in
Württemberg, called the Tübingen seminary, studied theology in this place.
He also had the opportunity to meet the poet Hölderlin and the philosopher Schelling.
In his free time, he dedicated himself to carefully reading the works of Aristotle, Descartes, Plato,
Spinoza, Kant and Rousseau.
The starting point and the general schematism of Hegel's conception coincide with the
from Schelling. Like the philosopher from Leomberg, Hegel considers the absolute, the Idea, the
thought, as the beginning, the essence, and the end of reality, that is, of all the
things, which are nothing more than various determinations of the Idea. Like Schelling as well,
the philosopher of Stuttgart explains the origin and nature of beings, or, if one prefers, of
Universe, through progressive and determined evolutions of the Idea or the absolute.
the Idea,—which, in essence, is the totality of being (das Ganze), the all-being, the absolute being,
—considered in itself and as a real rational notion, constitutes the object and the content
of logic.
Hegel's thought is that the idea is the thought of being and that logic is the science.
from the pure Idea, from the Idea considered in the sphere of abstract thought.
Hegel is related to the philosophical branch of ontology, which is dedicated to investigating about
of the existence of the phenomena.

Karl Heinrich Marx was born on May 5, 1818, in Trier, a city in the Rhenish Prussia.
which also included Bonn and Cologne). Although her family was of Jewish origin, they had
converted to Protestantism in 1824. His father, Heinrich Marx, was a lawyer in Trier. In
that city completed its high school studies, then starting its university studies
in Bonn, which would continue in Berlin, where he dedicated himself to the study of history and philosophy, in
a time when the influence of Hegelian thought was predominant. Marx
he would finish his studies in 1841, with a doctoral thesis on the philosophy of Epicurus. In Berlin
he came into contact with the so-called "Young Hegelians", becoming a member of the Club of
Doctors (Doctor Club). From that time dates their friendship with Bruno Bauer, one of the members
club highlights.
Their ideology is based on the common interest, solidarity among the working class (the one that does not
has means of production (such as the aforementioned factories, machines, etc.) and thus put an end to
the plundering of a few in their eagerness to control the wealth and resources of an entire country.
This way of understanding social relationships was first embodied in the Manifesto of
Communist Party, in other books by the same author later on, and especially in his work The
Capital.
He was a scholar who broke all the standards of political-economic doctrines, whose
hegemony was held by industrial capitalism and pseudo-feudalism, due to the exploitation that
workers suffered. Marx made a strong criticism of the capitalist system, which he understood as
a dynamic of relationships and appropriations that had the effect that power and wealth
it concentrated in a few hands through the generations, and denounced the irregularities
of this system.
It belongs to the branch of political philosophy.
Auguste Comte, father of positivism. He was born on January 19, 1798, in Montpellier and since
small was always interested in matters related to philosophy. After finishing his
studies in 1817, began to work as secretary to Count Henri de Saint-Simon. With
he, Count expanded his knowledge about philosophy and about the world around him, but
After seven years, he decided it was time to definitively break away from the influence of the
French thinker and start a personal stage.
Comte argued that only the positive spirit represented a true mutation of the spirit,
both in the object of the research and in the method. The theories proposed by Auguste
Comte thus created a social physics, which he named 'sociology' and which was classified among
experimental sciences.
The center of gravity of his doctrine is the law of the three stages, already formulated in the works
of youth. It contains his criticism of religion and metaphysics, and the declaration of
its positivism. This theoretical position is, paradoxically, an 'anti-philosophical philosophy',
only scientific-experimental knowledge is considered authentic knowledge,
declaring the sapiential claim of philosophy vain and useless. Comtian positivism, when
Less in its scientistic instance, it was the dominant philosophy in much of the 19th century.
Jeremy Bentham (February 15, 1748 – June 6, 1832) philosopher, economist,
thinker and writer, father of theutilitarianism. He was born in London, Great Britain. He grew up in a
wealthy and highly cultured family of jurists, which is why, at the age of seven, he was reading the classics of the
French literature. Since childhood, his intelligence was overwhelming, he wrote texts about the
History of England, read treaties, played the violin, learned Latin and French; at thirteen
he entered Oxford, and after finishing his secondary studies, he studied Law. When he started
In exercising his profession, he was critical of the education of his time and the legal practice.
dedicating himself entirely to intellectual tasks. He was the author of several writings where he proposed
ambitious ideas for social reforms.
Jeremy Bentham asserts in his fundamental work that the basis of moral science is thus 'the
"principle of utility" of the individual or of the community. Now, Bentham acknowledges the
the fact that individual interest sometimes conflicts with that of others
men, where the need for sanctions arises. His disciples, specifically John
Stuart Mill completed Bentham's utilitarianism by proclaiming the unconditional
subordination of private happiness to public happiness.

Bentham is related to the branch of political philosophy.

John Stuart Mill (London, May 20, 1806 - Avignon, France; May 8, 1873) was
a philosopher, politician, and economist of Scottish origin, representative of the school
classical economics and theoretical utilitarianism, ethical proposal put forward by his mentor
Jeremy Bentham, who would be collected and disseminated profusely by Mill.
Member of the Liberal Party, Mill was a defender of individual freedom in opposition to the
unlimited state and social control, to the investigation of the scientific methodology, and of the
women's suffrage. He was also a secular godfather of the philosopher and mathematician Bertrand Russell.
the decision of his father John Russell, and despite Mill dying before his birth, his
writings had a great influence on his life.
He was regarded by many as a utilitarian, but this philosopher transcended that current.
of thought trying to diminish its influence by making it more manageable.
Mill, who represented the pinnacle of utilitarianism and political liberalism, dedicated his life and his
work to defend freedom and parliamentary democracy; balancing its utilitarian logic
and his pessimistic perspective on human nature and the ambivalence of civilization,
with his philanthropy and his tendency towards ethics.

Arthur Schopenhauer (Gdansk, currently Gdansk, Poland, 1788 - Frankfurt, Germany, 1860)
German philosopher. He was the son of a wealthy merchant who moved with his family to Hamburg.
when Danzig fell into the hands of the Prussians in 1793. His mother was a writer who became
to enjoy a certain fame, and although the mature Schopenhauer did not have a good relationship with her,
the literary salon he founded in Weimar provided the philosopher with the opportunity to enter into
contact with personalities like Goethe.
Schopenhauer took from Kant the difference between what we perceive (phenomenon) and the thing in itself.
(noumenon). The world we perceive is nothing but the result of our representations.
"Everything that exists, exists for thought." But, unlike Kant, Schopenhauer
understand that we have a way to access the noumenon, the thing in itself. "We ourselves
we are the thing in itself." If through the intellect we access the phenomenon, through the body we can
to get closer to the thing in itself. Through our body we know what the world is in itself,
will, need, desire. The individual's instinct for self-preservation (defense) and the instinct
of species conservation (reproduction) are the main ways of this will to
to live. In the end, the world is nothing but will, unsatisfied desire, insatiable longing. It is
linked to the ethical and political branches of philosophy.
Søren Kierkegaard, father of existentialism: He was born in Copenhagen on May 5th
1813 in the bosom of an affluent family with deep religious convictions; in their
In university years, his inclination towards philosophy and literature became evident;
during that time he met the one who would be his muse and great love of his life, Regine Olsen; his
history is part of the quietest and darkest aspects of Kierkegaard's life, they came to be
committed but he broke such commitment and she embarked on another marriage; her
encounters were limited to casual bumps in Copenhagen until she left behind the
city in exchange for a destination in the Danish West Indies, by the time he returned
Kierkegaard had died. They always loved each other and never understood each other.

Kierkegaard has been considered a philosopher, theologian, father of existentialism, critic.

literary, humorous, psychologist, and poet. Two of his most well-known ideas are 'subjectivity'
and the 'leap of faith'.

Kierkegaard's philosophy is a philosophy of faith, as it considers that this is the one that
saves man from despair, being this a risky 'leap' towards God, in whom
everything is possible. Man alone, before God, being nothing more than a relationship that is
relates to himself, contrasts with the concept of Marx and Feuerbach in which man
It is conceived as a set of social relationships.
All of Kierkegaard's thought is a reaction against idealism and religiosity.
formalist of the official Danish Church and its theology strongly dominated by
Hegelianism. Kierkegaard does so in the name of the value of the individual and of a personal faith.
tragic.
Wilhelm Dilthey (Biebrich, now Germany, 1833 - Seis am Schlern, now Austria, 1911)
German philosopher. He studied theology in Heidelberg and held the chair of philosophy at the
University of Berlin between 1882 and 1905. Wilhelm Dilthey attempted to establish the status of the
"sciences of the spirit" versus "sciences of nature", considering that the methods
of these were inapplicable to fields like history, law, or art.
For Dilthey, the central concept was that of living spirit, which develops in forms.
historical. He rejected the knowledge of the laws of historical process; philosophy cannot
being a knowledge of suprasensory essences, can only be a "science of the
sciences," that is, "doctrine of science." Dilthey divides the world of sciences into
natural sciences and spiritual sciences; the object of the latter is social reality.
Philosophy must begin with the analysis of consciousness, since only this analysis–
according to him - provides the means to capture the essence of natural life and spirit starting
of the immediate experiences of the 'I'. The basis of all the sciences of the spirit is one
psychology, but not the explanatory psychology, based on causality, but the descriptive.
In characterizing artistic creation, Dilthey emphasized the importance of the
imagination: thanks to it, the poet elevates the causal to the level of the meaningful and represents
the typical as a basis for the individual. The link between philosophy and the sciences
historical forms, according to Dilthey the "theory of interpretation" or "hermeneutics."

Friedrich Nietzsche was born on October 15, 1844 inRöcken,a small village
ofSaxony-AnhaltaboutLeipzig.His name comes from the kingFrederick William IV of
Prussiaon whose forty-ninth birthday he was born. His parents were Carl Ludwig
Nietzsche (1813-1849), Lutheran pastor and private tutor in the German duchy ofSaxony -
AltenburginThuringiaand Franziska Oehler (1826-1897). Her sister Elisabeth Förster-
Nietzscheborn in1846followed by his brother Ludwig Joseph in1848After the death of
his father in 1849 and the younger brother in 1850 the family moved toNaumburgwhere
lived with her maternal grandmother and her father's single sisters under the protection of Bemhard
Dächsel, a local magistrate.
Nietzsche's philosophy is essentially permeated by the inheritance of cosmology.
classical, particularly due to the concepts of Greek cosmogony. That is, the identification of
the more human character of man in relation to the bond he has with his gods.
We talk about the duality of the Apollonian against the Dionysian. Nietzsche, although he does not dismiss
completely the regency of the Apollonian in life as it has been inherited, particularly
since modernity, it tends to highlight and adopt a stance in this line of
dionysian. This is precisely where his critique of contemporary society lies and this will be
the common thread that constantly permeates his work and his life.
One of the main foundations of Nietzsche's philosophy is the denial that Being
Human is a rational being. For him, on the contrary, irrationality is his characteristic.
principal, which is why I disregard almost all previous philosophers
Nietzsche is one of the most influential figures in history. His thought
it transcended the realm of philosophy to filter into music, literature, cinema, politics and
practically in any other field. The novelty of their proposal, combined with their nihilism
and his piercing phrases have caught the attention of a good part of the world for the last two
centuries and today their ideas are still fully relevant.

Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (Prossnitz, April 8, 1859 - Freiburg, April 27,
1938) was a German philosopher and mathematician, disciple of Franz Brentano and Carl Stumpf,
founder of transcendental phenomenology and, through it, of the movement
phenomenological, one of the most influential philosophical movements of the 20th century and still
full of vitality in the 21st century.
The original motivation of Husserlian thought is found in a situation of
dissatisfaction, critique, and discontent regarding the philosophical and scientific horizon of its
time: "The more I delved into the fundamental problems of logic, the greater
it was the feeling I had that our science, our knowledge, lacked solidity and was
was staggering.
MAX SCHELER (1874–1928) was born in Munich, studied Philosophy at the university of
Jena, having as teachers Rudolf Eucken and Otto Liebmann. It was, later,
teacher, starting in the year 1900, at this university. That year—1900—the appeared the
"Logical Investigations" by Edmund Husserl, which excited him to such an extent that
Phenomenology, which professed this philosophical thought at the University of Munich, where
He was a professor, and he also taught it as a Privatdozent until the year 1910. That year he left.
the university chair and lived on as a free writer ('I am a philosophical animal that
she needed to write," she used to define herself). During the First World War, she carried out missions
diplomatic mission in Geneva and The Hague. At the end of the conflict, in 1919, he took charge of a
chair in Cologne, where he taught until 1928. At this university, he was a colleague of Nicolai
Hartmann. In 1928 he accepted a teaching position at the University of Frankfurt am Main,
city where he passed away at 54 years old from a heart attack, two days after taking
possession of his chair.
Max Scheler was, throughout his life, a restless questioner, a true revolutionary.
intellectual, a sensitive antenna of the spirit of his time, a brilliant writer, a
fervent preacher of an ideology, repeatedly converted, an uncontainable enjoyer of
life in all its aspects and, at the same time, a rigorous ascetic, politician and mystic, religious and
pantheist, rich in multiple stimuli, innovative in various fields, charming and
multifaceted, without maturing in any system. Probably, for that reason, he did not leave a school.

Martin Heidegger was born in Messkirch, Baden district, on September 26, 1889, son
of Friedrich Heidegger, cooper and sacristan, and of Johanna Heidegger (Johanna Kemp of
(single). She studied Catholic theology, natural sciences, and philosophy. She developed a philosophy that
influenced fields as diverse as literary, social and political theory, art and aesthetics,
architecture, cultural anthropology, design, ecology, psychoanalysis and
psychotherapy.
Philosophical thought: why of the world and of being? Philosophy is based on establishing full
and completely the sense of being, not of the entities, understanding by 'being', in general, that which
that installs and maintains the entities fixed in their essence differs from Aristotle, who says
what we must study about being as being.
Jean Paul Sartre was a philosopher, playwright, novelist, and political journalist.
French, one of the main representatives of existentialism. Sartre was born in Paris on the 21st
born in June 1905 and passed away on April 15, 1980. Philosophy attracted him since his adolescence.
In the twenties, he was a conscript soldier in the French Army from 1929 to 1931.
In an initial stage, he developed an existentialist philosophy, to which works correspond.
like Being and Nothingness (1943) and Existentialism is a Humanism (1946). Sartre considers
that the human being is 'condemned to be free', that is, thrown into action and responsible
fully of their life, without excuses. Although it admits some conditioning (cultural,
for example), does not allow for determinisms. It conceives human existence as existence
conscious. The being of man is distinguished from the being of the thing because it is conscious. The
Human existence is a subjective phenomenon, in the sense that it is awareness of the world.
and self-awareness (hence the subjective). Sartre is shaped by Husserl's phenomenology and
the philosophy of Heidegger, of whom he was a disciple.
Miguel de Unamuno was born in Bilbao in 1864, he was the son of a merchant from America. He studied the
high school in Bilbao and in 1880 he moved to Madrid to study at the Faculty of Philosophy
and Letters, where he obtained his doctorate with a thesis on the Basque people. Upon returning to Bilbao,
he devoted himself to giving private lessons, until in 1891 he obtained the chair of Greek and history
of the language in Salamanca. That same year he married Concepción Lizárraga.
He lived for a few years as a socialist activist and was affiliated with the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party.
(PSOE) between 1894 and 1897. In 1914 he was stripped of his position as rector of the university.
for declaring himself a supporter of the allies. Six years later, Unamuno was prosecuted for
to write a defamatory article against King Alfonso XIII. And in 1924, Unamuno was dismissed
from his position as rector of the University of Salamanca by the dictator Miguel Primo de
Rivera. He was exiled to one of the Canary Islands, but he took refuge in France. The Republic
he returned to him, in 1931, his chair of Spanish language history and the rectorship, in which
he stayed on despite having retired in 1934, until the beginning of the Civil War, but
he was dispossessed again for having joined the uprising of General Franco. Without
embargo, when Francisco Franco's nationalist troops took over Salamanca
At the beginning of the Civil War, Unamuno had a serious confrontation with General Millán.
Astral in response to this cry at the university: "Death to intelligence!" to which he replied
Unamuno with his famous: 'You will win because you have plenty of brute strength; but not
you will convince, because to convince means to persuade”. He died suddenly on the 31st of
December 1936.
His thought consists of a meditation on three fundamental themes: the doctrine
of the man of flesh and bone, the doctrine of immortality, and the doctrine of the Word. The
First, what is perhaps your capital problem and the foundation of all your thought
José Ortega y Gasset was born in Madrid in 1883, into an enlightened family.
upper bourgeoisie. He studied at the University of Deusto and at the University of Madrid. His three
trips to Germany (1905, 1907 and 1911), where he came into contact with idealism, resulted in
determinants for its formation. He was a professor of Metaphysics and Ethics. Founder of the
magazines "Spain" and "Magazine of the West", many of their works and essays appeared
like press articles. His book 'The Invertebrate Spain' (1921) is a diagnosis and
analysis of the situation in Spain at that time. In 1930 he publishes 'The Revolt of the Masses',
which had a great international impact. He was one of the promoters of the Association to
Service of the Republic. In 1936 he is forced to go into exile, moving from Paris to Argentina.
to finally arrive in Lisbon. He gave lectures all over the world, returning
occasionally to Spain. He passed away in Madrid, in 1955.
The philosophy of José Ortega y Gasset is based on human life and its realization. It founds the
knowledge of human life as radical reality, one of whose components
essentials is the very reason.
Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege (Wismar, November 8, 1848 - Bad Kleinen, 26
July 1925) was a German mathematician, logician, and philosopher. He is considered the father of the
mathematical logic and analytical philosophy, focusing on the philosophy of language and
mathematics. Frege developed his career in relative obscurity as a professor of
mathematics of the University of Jena, long ignored by the philosophical community and
mathematics. It is mainly thanks to Giuseppe Peano (1858-1932) and Bertrand Russell
(1872-1970), who did a great job of popularizing Frege's work, that Frege reached
to be known by later generations of philosophers and mathematicians.
In 1879, Frege published his revolutionary work titled Ideography or Writing of Concepts
(Concept-script), in which he laid the foundations of modern mathematical logic, initiating a
new era in this discipline that had remained practically unchanged since
Aristotle. Through the introduction of a new syntax, with the inclusion of the so-called
quantifiers ('for all' or 'for at least one') allowed the formalization of an enormous amount
new arguments. He was also the first to distinguish the formal characterization of the
logical laws of its semantic content.

Bertrand Arthur William RussellTrellech, May 18, 1872-Penrhyndeudraeth, 2 of

February 1970) was a British philosopher, mathematician, logician, and writer who won in 1950 the
Nobel Prize in Literature. He is known for his influence on analytical philosophy along
Gottlob Frege, his companion G. E. Moore, and his student Ludwig Wittgenstein and A. N.
Whitehead, co-author of his work Principia Mathematica. His work has had an influence
considerable in mathematics, logic, set theory, philosophy of language,
epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, and politics. Russell was a prominent pacifist social activist
against the war.
In the opinion of many, Bertrand Russell may have been the most influential philosopher of
20th century, at least in the English-speaking countries, considered along with Gottlob Frege as
one of the founders of analytical philosophy. He is also considered one of the logicians
most important of the 20th century. He wrote about a wide range of topics, from the
fundamentals of mathematics and the theory of relativity to marriage, the rights of
women and pacifism. She also debated about birth control, the rights of
women, the immorality of nuclear weapons, and about deficiencies in the arguments
and reasons put forward in favor of the existence of God. In his writings, he boasted of a
magnificent literary style filled with ironies, sarcasms, and metaphors that led him to win the
Nobel Prize in Literature.
Ludwig Josef Johann Wittgenstein (Vienna, April 26, 1889 - Cambridge, April 29,
1951) was a great Austrian philosopher, mathematician, linguist, and logician, subsequently
British naturalized. He published the Tractatus logico-philosophicus, which had a great influence.
measure to the logical positivists of the Vienna Circle, a movement from which one never
considered a member. Some time later, the Tractatus was severely criticized by the author himself.
Wittgenstein in the blue and brown notebooks and in his Philosophical Investigations, both
posthumous works. He was a disciple of Bertrand Russell at Trinity College of the University
from Cambridge, where he later also became a professor.

Wittgenstein's philosophical thought is usually divided into two periods: the first period
it revolves around his first important work, published in 1923: the Tractatus Logico-
philosophicus. After its publication, Wittgenstein left philosophy, believing he had
resolved all philosophical problems. Several years later, after some setbacks,
Wittgenstein returned to teaching and philosophizing, but with a spirit very different from that which guided his.
previous work. This second period resulted in the Philosophical Investigations,
posthumously published in 1953. These two works are so different that sometimes they
talks about a 'first Wittgenstein' or 'Wittgenstein of the Tractatus', and a 'second
Wittgenstein" or "Wittgenstein of the Investigations."

Charles Sanders Peirce (1839-1914), scientist, logician, and philosopher, is one of the
most relevant figures of North American thought and has been characterized as the
the most original and versatile intellect that America has produced in all its history. Peirce is
considered as the founder of the school of thought called 'pragmatism' and
also as the "father" of contemporary semiotics understood as a philosophical theory of the
meaning and representation. The legacy of Charles S. Peirce is one of the richest and
profound in the last centuries. Although his figure has remained forgotten for decades,
Currently, there is a growing interest in his work in various fields:
philosophy, astronomy, mathematics, logic, semiotics, theory and history of science
linguistics, econometrics and psychology
The independence and creativity of Peirce's thought is marked primarily by
a new philosophical current of which he is considered the founder: pragmatism. The
pragmatism, which originated as a logical method to clarify concepts, came to become
perhaps in the most important philosophical current in North America during the last third of
19th century and the first of the 20th. Its origin can be placed in the meetings of Cambridge.
Metaphysical Club, which Peirce had created along with other intellectuals between 1871 and 1872,
while the first written texts related to pragmatism were published in 1878 under
the generic title of 'Illustrations of the Logic of Science'. The very William James,
a member of that Metaphysical Club, would later point out Peirce as the father of
that current of thought.
William James (New York, January 11, 1842 - New Hampshire, August 26, 1910)
He was an American philosopher and psychologist with a long and brilliant career at the University.
from Harvard, where he was a professor of psychology, as well as the founder of functional psychology.
He was the older brother of the writer Henry James.

The truth for James is not an inherent and immutable property of the idea, but rather it is a
happening in the idea according to its verifiability. Verifiability consists for James in a
pleasant feeling of harmony and progress in the succession of ideas and events, that is,
By having such ideas, they follow one another and also adapt to each occurrence of the
experienced reality. These true ideas fulfill a fundamental function: they are
useful tools for the individual that guide them in their choices to address reality
satisfactory and not harmful. Its possession is a practical good; far from being an end in
itself, is a means to satisfy other vital needs. In summary, for William
James believes that the true is the useful, understanding utility as that which introduces a vital benefit.
which deserves to be preserved.

John Dewey (Burlington, Vermont, October 20, 1859 - New York, United States, 1
June 1952) was an American educator, psychologist, and philosopher.
In the words of the historian Robert B. Westbrook, Dewey was 'the philosopher
"most important American of the first half of the 20th century," and, along with Charles
Sanders Peirce and William James, one of the founders of the philosophy of pragmatism.
Likewise, during the first half of the 20th century, he was the most representative figure of the
progressive pedagogy in the United States. Although it is more known for its writings about
education, Dewey also wrote influential treatises on art, logic, ethics and
democracy, where his stance was based on the belief that full democracy could only be achieved
through education and civil society. In this sense, he advocated for public opinion
fully informed through effective communication between citizens, experts and
politicians, with the latter being fully accountable to the citizenry for the
adopted policies.
Dewey's political philosophy is rooted in idealism, including that of Thomas Hill.
Green and the new liberalism of Leonard Trelawny Hobhouse and in his theory of
investigation. For them, unlike traditional liberalism, the individual is not just a
entity that competes with others.
Karl Popper (1902-1994) was an Austrian-British philosopher, regarded as one of the
most important and influential thinkers of 20th-century philosophy. Made significant contributions.
to natural philosophy and that of social sciences. Popper's ideas revolved around the
thought that knowledge evolves from the experiences of the mind.
He denied the idea that each person's decisions were linked to previous events.
predetermined. Therefore, he is considered a metaphysician subscribed to the ideas of
antideterminism.
In addition, he managed to make significant contributions to various areas of political knowledge.
He sought to reconcile certain ideas that shared basic principles, but were not similar.
everything, like socialism and social democracy.

Thomas Samuel Kuhn (Cincinnati, July 18, 1922 - Cambridge, June 17, 1996)
He was an American physicist, philosophy of science, and historian, known for his
contribution to the shift in the orientation of philosophy and scientific sociology in the decade
from 1960.
Kuhn earned his PhD in physics from Harvard University in 1949 and was responsible for a course
academic on the History of Science at that university from 1948 to 1956. After
leaving the position, Kuhn taught at the University of California, Berkeley until 1964, at the
Princeton University until 1979 and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology until
1991.
The American philosopher proposes the analysis of science from a historicist approach,
within a successive process that is constantly evolving. To this end, it establishes five phases of
development, in which the existence of a paradigm and its normal study enter a stage
of crisis, unleashing a revolution that results in a new paradigm. This process
It repeats again in each historical period, which is the reason for the name of Kuhn's approach.

Sigmund Freud was born in Moravia in 1856, and was a student at the medical school in the
University of Vienna for eight years (1873–1881). His interest in neurology made him
to specialize in the treatment of mental and neurological disorders. He was a disciple in the area
of hypnosis, from the French psychiatrist Jean Martin Charcot for approximately one year.

He treated his patients with hypnosis and for about forty years he dedicated himself to studying the
unconscious mind developing his theory about personality. Sigmund Freud became
famous in the field of psychology for practicing psychoanalysis with his patients with
much success.
Freud's theory of personality development is centered on the effects of
sexual pleasure that we humans experience. The areas of our body such as
the mouth, the anus, and the genital areas affect our character and personality at some point
of our lives.
Jacques Lacan (Paris, 1901 - 1981) French psychiatrist, philosopher, and psychoanalyst. He based his work
in a review of Freud's theories and was one of the most important figures of
contemporary French structuralism. As a theorist and doctor, he almost always provoked
radical adhesions and rejections. Its relationship with the Freudian movement contrasted with
its strong tensions with the IPA, the International Psychoanalytic Association (its style
didactic and the brevity of its sessions triggered a rejection that has deeper roots
profound), and with the progressive distancing from his French colleagues over a
series of splits.
he developed a personal and unorthodox thought. An elliptical and difficult-to-interpret author,
it placed a structural linguistics at the center of its system, related to Jakobson and
Saussure. But for Lacan, it is not the subconscious that determines language, but the
On the contrary. The meaning of the phallic symbol that structures the function itself is fundamental.
symbolic. In The Meaning of the Phallus (1958), published in the Writings, it deals with the
paternal authority, the prohibition, and the phallus as the object of maternal desire, a desire that arises from
the lack.
Herbert Marcuse was born in Berlin on July 19, 1898, into a good Jewish family.
economic position. He served in the German army in World War I. After
he studied at the University of Freiburg, where he obtained his doctorate in Literature in 1922. Six years later
later returned to the University, this time to study Philosophy with Martin Heidegger, who
he directed his thesis on Hegel. In addition to the philosophy of Hegel and Heidegger, also Marx
Freud had an important presence in the formation of his thought.
Marcuse states that in 'late' capitalist societies, instrumental rationality is
it develops more in a repressive sense than an emancipatory one. If we accept with Freud that in everything
society there is a permanent contradiction between Eros and Thanatos, it can be assumed that the
instrumental reason represses both Eros and Thanatos, while determining a
dispute between both.
These ideas lead Marcuse to consider that there is a dialectical core within the
Freudian thought that can be assimilated to Marxism, which allows for diagnosing and
to transform (in a progressive sense) the 'late' capitalist societies. In this way,
from the dialectic between a traditional theory and a critical theory, a dialectic of
delayed knowledge that has its germ in the Enlightenment.
Jürgen Habermas (Düsseldorf, June 18, 1929) is a German philosopher and sociologist.
recognized worldwide for his work in political philosophy, ethics, and legal theory,
just like in philosophy of language. Thanks to regular activity as a teacher in
foreign universities, especially in the United States, as well as for the translation of
his most important works in more than forty languages, his theories are known, studied
and discussed worldwide. Habermas is the most eminent member of the second
generation of the Frankfurt School and one of the exponents of Critical Theory
developed at the Institute of Social Research. Among its contributions, the construction stands out
from the theory of communicative action, the ethics of discourse, and the theory of democracy
deliberative.
Although his thought is connected to the Critical Theory of the Frankfurt School, his work
adopts their own profiles that lead to deep divergences with their teachers and
predecessors. Their work is aimed at laying the foundations of social theory with the
that seeks to analyze the societies of advanced capitalism.
Ferdinand de Saussure (Geneva, November 26, 1857 – Morges, February 22,
1913) was a Swiss linguist, whose ideas served for the beginning and later development of
study of modern linguistics in the 20th century.1234 He is known as the father of the
"structural linguistics" of the 20th century. It also initiated the Geneva School within the
called 'Structuralist Schools'. A linguistic group continued its work. Despite this,
Many linguists and philosophers consider their ideas as anachronistic.
Considered the father of the theoretical development of modern linguistics (structuralism,
semiology, etc.), Saussure establishes a distinction between 'language', 'langue' and 'parole' and sets
as the central study objective the language from the point of view of its structure, of its
internal organization. The language is composed of basic units related to each other. The
A linguistic unit or sign is formed by two elements - the concept and the mental trace of
concept, its 'acoustic image'-, which are joined in a psychic association in the brain of the
individual.
Claude Lévi-Strauss (Brussels, November 28, 1908 - Paris, October 31, 2009)
he was a French anthropologist, philosopher, and ethnologist, one of the great figures of his discipline
in the second half of the 20th century. By introducing the structuralist approach in the sciences
social sciences, was in fact the founder of structural anthropology, a method based on the
homonymous linguistics created by Saussure and developed by Russian formalism. Given the
the weight of his work, both inside and outside of anthropology, was one of the most influential intellectuals
of the 20th century.

Along with André Martinet, Roman Jakobson, and Morris Swadesh, he was one of the founders of
the International Linguistics Association.
His thinking is influenced by Durkheim's sociological frameworks and theories.
Jakobson's linguistics, which lead him to structuralist ethnographic analysis. Levi-Strauss
surpasses the individual dimension of the object of study and describes the plane of the structure
in which the logic of a social environment is inscribed. Family relationships, myths, the
customs, transactional modes, alliances, communication, etc., describe a
structural reality.
2. Schools of Philosophy
DIALECTIC: it is the art of discovering the truth by revealing contradictions
in the opponent's argumentation and overcoming these contradictions. Subsequently, the
dialectics became the theory of universal connections and development. Dialectics
consider that all phenomena are subject to perpetual motion and change, and that the
The development of Nature is the result of the development and struggle of its contradictions.
POSITIVISM: it is a scientific thought that asserts that authentic knowledge is
scientific knowledge and that such knowledge can only arise from assertion
from hypotheses through the scientific method. Positivism derives from epistemology.
which emerged in France at the beginning of the 19th century with the French thinker Saint-Simon,
of Auguste Comte, and of the British John Stuart Mill and extends and develops throughout the rest of
Europe in the second half of the 19th century. It is taken into account that it also has certain
kinship with Empiricism. One of its main precursors in the 16th and 17th centuries
he was the philosopher, politician, lawyer, writer, and chancellor of England Francis Bacon.
UTILITARIANISM: it is a theory founded in the late 18th century by Jeremy Bentham, which
it states that the best action is the one that produces the greatest utility for the greatest number of
involved individuals, maximizes utility. Another philosopher who developed this concept was
John Stuart Mill in his book 'Utilitarianism' in 1863. He starts from the premise that every human being acts
always, whether at the individual, collective, private, public level, or in political legislation,
according to the principle of the greatest happiness, with a view to the benefit of the greatest number of
individuals.
Other utilitarians such as John Stuart Mill, William Godwin, James Mill, and Henry stand out.
Sidgwick.
VITALISM: consists on one hand of the philosophical doctrine that would posit that organisms
The living are characterized by possessing a vital force or impulse that distinguishes them.
fundamental of inanimate things. Traditionally described as a force
immaterial specific, different from the energy studied by physics and other types of sciences that,
acting on organized matter would result in life and without it, there would be
impossible its existence. This physical foundation in its purest sense is found
currently rejected, nevertheless, it also finds basis in fundamentals
anthropocentric or rationalist, among others.
HISTORICISM: it is a philosophical trend, inspired by the ideas of Benedetto Croce and
Leopold von Ranke, who considers all reality as the product of a historical becoming.
Conceive the being essentially as a becoming, a temporal process, that cannot be
captured by reason. It conceives becoming as history and makes more use of the science of the spirit.
According to historicism, philosophy is a complement to history. Its task consists of
carry out a theory of history. This aims to conduct a systematic exploration
of historical facts. Wilhelm Dilthey (1833-1911), the most important thinker of
German historicism expressed it by stating: "What man is, he only experiences in
throughout its history.
PHENOMENOLOGY: it is a subjective idealist current within philosophy that
it proposes the study and description of the phenomena of consciousness or, in other words,
of things as they manifest and show themselves in this. It asserts that the world is that
that is perceived through the individual's consciousness, and it is proposed to interpret it according to their
experiences. In this sense, it values empiricism and intuition as instruments of
phenomenological knowledge.
Phenomenology is broad and has developed different branches throughout history.
being some of its greatest representatives Edmund Husserl, Max Scheler, Martin
Heidegger, Maurice Merleau-Ponty or Jean Paul Sartre.
EXISTENTIALISM: it is a philosophical current that seeks the knowledge of the
reality through the immediate experience of one's own existence. In any case, it does not
It has developed a precise or exact theory that clearly defines this concept.
This current can be divided into various schools; among them, we can highlight:
theistic existentialism (reflects on the existence of God and the Spirit), existentialism
atheist (denies the divine) and agnostic existentialism (considers that the existence of God is
irrelevant to human existence.
HISPANIC SPEAKING PHILOSOPHY: It understands both the varied forms of
thoughts cultivated in the extensive and complex Hispanic cultural traditions such as
the reflection on Hispanicity itself and the place of philosophy within it. The discussion around
to the criteria that allow defining the existence of a Hispanic philosophy, whether in its
Spanish perspective or in its Hispanic American aspect, symptomatically reflects the problem.
general to define the identity of the Hispanic and its historical tradition.
ANALYTICAL PHILOSOPHY: is based on natural sciences, logic
mathematics and the analysis of language, that is, the logical analysis of scientific language or the
linguistic analysis of common language; with the purpose of clarifying the concepts
philosophical and scientific

For analytical philosophy, the object of philosophy, instead of being metaphysics, is analysis.
of language from the different schools or currents of thought.
The most relevant representatives of analytic philosophy are mathematical scientists and
physicists, like Russell, one of its founders, Wittgenstein, and Moore; from the two main schools
important aspects of Logical Positivism and Linguistics, from Cambridge and Oxford.

PRAGMATISM: It is a philosophical movement that emerged in the late 19th century.

United States. William James and Charles S. Peirce were the main proponents of the
doctrine, characterized by the search for the practical consequences of thought.
Pragmatism places the criterion of truth in the effectiveness and value of thought for life.
It opposes, therefore, the philosophy that holds that human concepts represent the
real meaning of things.
PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE: it is the branch of philosophy that aims to study the
scientific knowledge from a general and human perspective; in the sense of how it affects
people and how they compose the accumulated knowledge, both historically and in the
socio-cultural set of humanity. Subsidiarily, it deals with the methods of
research and obtaining scientific data; thus, it is often used as
synonym of epistemology.
PSYCHOANALYSIS: it is a method created by the Austrian physician and neurologist Sigmund
Freud (1856–1939) whose objective is the research and treatment of the
mental illnesses. It is based on the analysis of unconscious sexual conflicts that
originate in childhood.
FRANKFURT SCHOOL: It is known as the Frankfurt School to a group of
researchers who adhered to the theories of Hegel, Marx, and Freud and whose center was
established at the Institute of Social Research, inaugurated in 1923 in Frankfurt am Main
(Germany). They are also considered representatives of the critical theory that was founded there.
The core of the critical theory of the Frankfurt School is the ideological critical discussion of
the social and historical conditions in which the construction of theory occurs and the
critical mediation of those social conditions. The relationship results from the pretension of
theoretically conceptualize the totality of social conditions and the necessity of their
Change. In the conception of the Frankfurt School, theory is understood as a form.
STRUCTURALISM: it is a research approach in the social sciences that grew
until it became one of the most used methods for analyzing language, culture and
society in the second half of the 20th century.