Main styles of sculpture through

the story

Theartto model, carve, or sculpt in clay, stone, wood, or another material. It is one of
theFine Artsin which the artist expresses themselves through volumes and spaces. The
sculpture is thevisual artproperly speaking it is theartof modeling figures and
reproduce bulky objects. It previously included all theartspotters, the
of carving and chisel along with those of casting and molding

Types of sculpture

Thesculptureit is divided into two main branches, sculpture andsculptureornamental, according to

that represents the human form and expresses the suprasensible concepts of man or
it focuses on artistically reproducing the other beings of nature, animals or
vegetables. The first rightfully bears the name of sculpture and has its own ideal,
performing a secondary role by serving as an aid to the first and to
theArchitecture.

Sculpture, in turn, includes various types: round and relief.

Of round bulk

It is also referred to as exempt. It is one that can be viewed from any point.
from the view around him. If the human figure is represented, it is called a statue. If the
statue represents a divine character or is made for religious worship is called
image. Depending on the part of the body represented, its position or other characteristics
the round sculptures are classified into:

Bust: It only represents the head.

Torso: It lacks the head, legs, arms.
Sitting: Seated.
Lying down.
•Orante: On knees.
Equestrian: On horseback.
•Group: What its name indicates.
Of relief

It is that which is made or adhered to a wall or any other surface, by the

that has a unique point of view which is frontal. According to what stands out from the plane, it
classify into:

Bas-relief: the figure protrudes more than half of its thickness.

Medium relief: half stands out.
Bas-relief: projects less than half.
Hollow relief: does not stand out from the background plane.

Functions

The functions that sculpture can fulfill are varied. Throughout history, and
Depending on each culture or civilization, some have prevailed over others. Among them are
they highlight the religious, funeral, commemorative, educational, and ornamental functions.

The earliest samples of sculpture available date back to the Paleolithic.

Superior and among them stand out the so-called 'Paleolithic Venuses', apparently for function
magical-religious.

The religious function is evident throughout the entire history of humanity. It is about
to represent the gods of various peoples, from ancient Egypt, to
Mesopotamia, the Hindu civilization, etc., up to almost our days.

We have evidence of the funerary function of sculpture since ancient Egypt.

revitalized later through numerous mausoleums and funeral monuments that
they have traveled since the EmpireRoman, togothic, thebaroqueand even the time period
contemporary, including Eastern cultures, as is clearly visible in the Taj Mahal.

The commemorative function has been used by many civilizations and political regimes.
It is about enhancing the figure of an important character (emperors, kings,
rulers, heroes...), or their feats or works. Also the feats of some people or a
some notable fact from its history. It usually occupies open public spaces such as
squares, also serving an ornamental function. Although the round bulk predominates,
It can also be in relief as happens with the Trajan Column or the Arch of Titus in
Rome.

If we take into account that for most of human history, the great
most people were illiterate, so it's not surprising that sculpture fulfilled
also a didactic or pedagogical function, through which to explain to the people
certain aspects. For example, in the Middle Ages, during the Romanesque period, it is
it is common to refer to the reliefs of the tympana of the portals as "catechisms"
"stone" or "Biblical in stone" executed to illustrate the illiterate population.
The ornamental function may be linked to some of the other functions, although sometimes
it can be the main objective, as happens with plant decoration or thegeometric. In
Anionic styles such as Islamic or Hebrew play a fundamental role.
Also to a large extent the sculpture of the 20th century, especially the abstract, fulfills
mainly this function.

History of sculpture

Since ancient times, man has had the need and the opportunity to
sculpt. At first they did it with the simplest materials that were at hand:
clay and wood. Later, stone, metals, and all the others began to be used.
that can be seen in the section 'Traditional materials and techniques' and in 'Materials and
techniques of modern times.

The prehistoric peoples created sculptures related to religion and myths.

Sometimes they were simple amulets. They have also been found in some burials of
children, dolls of all types, some articulated like puppets.

The great onesancient civilizations(Rome, Greece, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Asia)

they created large sculptures that represented their gods, their rulers, and their
heroes. They used bas-reliefs to narrate great battles and scenes from life
daily. These civilizations knew how to admire sculpture asartand left for the
posterity ornamental figures made for the simple pleasure of their contemplation. (History
of SculptureInfo)

In European sculpture

European sculpture in the Middle Ages had its own characteristics. The school
Romanesque manifested itself as a reaction against naturalism.classicThe sculptor does not
he pays close attention to the anatomy and beauty of the body. However, he goes
evolving until arriving in thegothica growing interest in nature and for
all living beings. The sculpture of theGothictries to equip its characters
fromexpressionsmore human that show feelings. The themes are almost always of
religion, although the portrait reappears as a novelty, especially for funerary purposes, the result
of the emerging individualism that will culminate in the Renaissance.

In the Italian Renaissance, the imitation of classical works begins with sculpture.
before the othersartsStatues and reliefs were abundant in all the cities.
Frederick II, from Naples, was the great promoter of the new style that spread from
Italy to the other countries.

TheBaroqueIt happens after the Renaissance. The sculpture is essentially decorative, which
expresses movement and attitudes typical of a theatrical scene and demonstrates the
exaltation of feelings.
In Neoclassicism, sculpture returns to theantiquityclassical, not only in the topics
except in style.

In the 20th century, a reaction against the sculptors of the 19th century emerges. They begin this
new stage the French sculptors who learn and value the beauty of the
sculptureGreekyEgyptian. They recover the value of form and addmovementand balance.
In this century appears thecubism, constructivismysurrealism.

Canon of proportions

The canon represents in sculpture and inpaintingwhat the module inarchitectureand it is not
another thing, in general, that the set of proportional measures that are observed in
the human figure.

The artistsGreeksof the Golden Age (5th century B.C.) already had their attributed canon
mainly to the sculptor Polyclitus, and although it has been suffering since then
rectifications and variations in the hands of ancient and modern artists, remained
quite established by the painterLeonardo da Vinciat the end of the 15th century
accommodating to him the majority of thepaintersysculptorsThe fundamental measure of
The Florentine canon taken from the well-constituted man is in the head. This is considered
in height like the eighth part of the whole body, with the face being the tenth part of it
and at a height equal to the length of the hand. With the man standing and extending
the arms, determines a perfect square with the lines that go down vertically and pass through
the ends of the hands and those that are spread horizontally over the head and below
from the feet. The diagonals of this square intersect at the last lumbar vertebra and fix
in the center of the entire figure. By drawing a horizontal line through that central point, it divides the
man into two equal parts and each of these into two others, by parallel lines that
they cross through the middle of the chest and through the knees. The head is divided into four parts.
equal parts, one of which is the nose.

Traditional materials and techniques

Mud

It is one of the oldest materials used by man because it is easy to shape and
no need for special utensils, as you can simply use your hands.
With clay, molds can be made to then work with other materials. If one
used as definitive material must be cooked; in this case it is calledterracotta.

Stone

This material has been used since ancient times because it is readily available in nature.
To handle thestonespecial tools are needed. The stones are more
common in sculpture are:
 Marble: Hard metamorphic rock, with a fine and compact grain. Its treatment of the
surface can be very variable, obtaining different textures, such as smoothness,
morbidity, roughness, etc. Being a very durable material, it is one of the
favored by the great artists of Antiquity and the Renaissance.
Alabaster: It is a gypsum mineral, yellowish in color, similar to marble.
Simple view. It is fragile and brittle, but easy to work with. Slightly translucent.
Limestone: It is soft and easy to work with; it is used in detailed work.
It has the particularity of becoming harder over time. Its
conservation depends heavily on the quality of the quarries located in different
geographical areas. It has been widely used for monumental sculpture.
Other hard stones, such as diorite or granite.
Precious metals and other materials, such as gold, silver, or ivory.

Bronze

It is perhaps the most durable material but at the same time it is the hardest to work with and
needs the help of other techniques such as modeling in clay or plaster. It has been used
especially for urban sculpture of monuments of characters, fountains, etc. The technique
the most prominent technique in working with bronze is the so-called "lost wax," which consists of
make the mold in wax and cover it with clay or another refractory substance. Once dry
the poured bronze melts the wax and takes its place. The liquid wax
it is evacuated through holes made in the mud.

Wood

It is a material highly valued by sculptors for its physical properties and good
results. There are many types of wood and depending on their qualities, it can be left
sculpture in its natural color or on the contrary painted in a suitable polychrome to
each texture. The woods called noble are left in their natural color. They are
thewalnut,oak, hello, cedar, mahoganyand others. The wood is cut at least five years in advance
to carry out the work, in the winter season when thesaviait is in the roots and of this
This way, it is ensured that it is well dried and does not allow for the decomposition of the matter.

The trees have trunks with more or less limited diameters, which forces them to
times when different and appropriate pieces are made to carry out the work. The pieces
they are joined with spikes and sometimes stick together with a special glue. If the sculpture has a
finish of polychromy, the joints can be less concealed, since the paint will cover the
filler material, otherwise one has to do a true artist's work. Sometimes
The wooden sculptures are lightened by hollowing out their interior.
Polychromy

First, the joints are covered with strips of glued fabric.

A layer of plaster mixed with water and glue is applied throughout the work and then
sanding is carried out.
A series of pigments are applied that imitate the skin, the clothing, the hair, and everything.
the rest.
Finally, the gilding process comes. The parts to be gilded are covered with a layer of
red clay dissolved in glue, as support for the very fine sheets called 'pan'
of gold" that was being applied in small portions until covering the surface
desired. On top of the gold, you can also paint or highlight by scratching with a
wooden punch, thus forming all kinds of drawings necessary for the work,
like stars, flowers, geometric shapes, etc.

The tools for working with wood are special:

Axe and adze for roughing.

Chisels and gouges for carving.
Wooden mallet to strike the handle of these tools
Files of different sizes for finishing.

Materials and techniques in modern times

The emergence of new materials due to the Industrial Revolution along with desires
innovators of the artistic avant-garde of the early 20th century, had as
consequently, the execution of works with new materials and techniques. This will be frequent.
the work in iron, aluminum, or concrete. To these innovations are added others.
characteristics such as the role given to the gap or the appearance of the
kinetic sculpture (the so-called 'mobiles'). It also incorporates the so-called 'object'
"found", which means that any object can be considered
sculpture, as happened with the famous Fountain ofMarcel Duchamp.

Ultimately, techniques and materials become diversified and more complex.

minor, especially the great achievements, require the support of facilities
industries for its execution. In them, the sculptor is limited to the design and direction of
the jobs, but barely touches the work. In factories, the workers melt the metals, the
They cut and weld them. Or they pour the concrete into formwork created by others.
workers.

In small achievements, the author can do this work, in which it is reached to

use iron sheets, wire, tinplate, wood or a mixture of these components.
Different varieties of plastic, glass, or fragments are also used.
tile. In short, the material ceases to be a limitation for the contemporary sculptor,
which can thus unleash their creative freedom.
As has already been pointed out, Sculpture and even more the arts subordinated to it, make use of
various procedures for its execution. Sculptors often prepare their work
shaping in model (modeling) withclaythe fine plaster for the figure that is to serve them
like type and this model is equivalent for them to the sketch for the painter or the plan for the
architect. Then, the artist outlines their work with the help of a grid.
making it exactly proportional to its type. The matter on which the
sculptor tends to beclay, stone, wood, bronze, iron, ivory, silverogold.

The fundamental and classic procedure followed by sculptors is carving.

using a chisel and burin or chisel as the case may be since even the others
casting and molding procedures require more or less chisel adjustments if the work has
to come out perfect. Additionally, molding or casting, chiseling, and embossing are used,
embedding, engraving, and stamping or die-cutting.

Sculpting consists of removing particles from the already rough block until achieving
the figure that is intended.
Molding is giving a paste the desired shape by adding or removing portions of it.
dough.
Emptying is obtaining a hollow or empty shape to later fill it with casting.
or with any paste and achieve the positive.
Chiseling is to touch up with a chisel the figures obtained by casting and also
to create bas-reliefs with a chisel on a metal sheet.
Repoussé is to produce on a sheet of metal by hammering on it.
mold the reliefs and the necessary cavities to achieve the desired shape.
•To engrave is to carve or fix by incision (using a chisel, burin, or acid) onto
hard material a random drawing.
Stamping or die-cutting is printing a stamp or impression on a sheet of metal or paste.
die with the shapes in hollow so that they result in relief.
Stamping is applying a thin sheet of precious metal onto a hard mold to
that by force of blows it takes its shapes and then, removing the sheet and joining
the edges of it remain a statue or hollow artistic object but with appearance
solid. It is also called sausage and embedded the result of introducing
some pieces in the openings or grooves made in others. They are varieties of
these inlays widely used in decorative arts, themarquetrywhat is done with
wood or ivory embedding it in the surface of some wooden furniture and the
gilding or damascening that is practiced by introducing thin layers of precious metal
in the open drawings in bronze, iron or steel. With these decorative shapes, they
relate itgranulatedand thefiligreeThis is done by applying threads or cords.
of precious metal on top of another of the same class or inferior producing drawing
and that one sowing metallic pearls on the surface of the jewel or similar piece.

Highlighted sculptures

The Venus of Laussel

 The Sphinx of Giza
The David by Michelangelo
Statue of Liberty

Famous and vanished sculptures of Antiquity:

The Athena Parthenos by Phidias.

The Olympic Zeus by Phidias
The colossal sculpture of Nero in Rome.
Colossus of Rhodes
It was a gigantic bronze statue, supposedly created between the
years 303 and 280 BC. It is believed that its author was the Greek sculptor Cares of Lindos,
disciple of Lysippus. It measured 30 meters in height and was located at the entrance of
the port of Rhodes, visible to the ships approaching the island. It
considered by the ancients as the sixth wonder of the world. The writers
Romans made a description of this work. It was erected to commemorate the
victory of the inhabitants of Rhodes against the general of Macedonia Demetrius
Poliorcetes.