Watch

A watch is a timepiece carried or worn by a person. It is

designed to maintain a consistent movement despite the
motions caused by the person's activities. A wristwatch is
worn around the wrist, attached by a watch strap or another
type of bracelet, including metal bands or leather straps. A
pocket watch is carried in a pocket, often attached to a chain.
A stopwatch is a type of watch that measures intervals of
time.

During most of their history, beginning in the 16th century,

watches were mechanical devices, driven by clockwork,
powered by winding a mainspring, and keeping time with an
oscillating balance wheel. These are known as mechanical
watches.[1][2] In the 1960s the electronic quartz watch was
invented, powered by a battery and keeping time with a
vibrating quartz crystal. By the 1980s it had taken over most
of the watch market, in what became known as the quartz
A modern wristwatch featuring solar
revolution (or the quartz crisis in Switzerland, whose charging and Bluetooth capabilities
renowned watch industry it decimated).[3][4] In the 2010s,
smartwatches emerged, small wrist-worn computers with
touchscreens and with functions that go far beyond
timekeeping.

Modern watches often display the day, date, month, and year.
Mechanical watches may have extra features
("complications") such as moon-phase displays and different
types of tourbillon. Quartz watches often include timers,
chronographs, and alarm functions. Smartwatches and more
complicated electronic watches may even incorporate
calculators, GPS[5] and Bluetooth technology or have heart-
rate monitoring capabilities, and some use radio clock
technology to regularly correct the time.

Most watches used mainly for timekeeping have quartz

movements. But expensive collectible watches, valued more
for their elaborate craftsmanship, aesthetic appeal, and A 1983 Casio watch with touchscreen
glamorous design than for timekeeping, often have traditional
mechanical movements, despite being less accurate and more
expensive than their electronic counterparts.[3][4][6] As of 2019, the most expensive watch ever sold at
auction was the Patek Philippe Grandmaster Chime for US$31.2 million.[7]
History

Origins
The first timepieces to be worn were made in the 16th century
in the German cities of Nuremberg and Augsburg, and these
were transitional in size between clocks and watches.[8]
Nuremberg clockmaker Peter Henlein (or Henle or Hele)
(1485–1542) is often credited as the inventor of the
watch.[9][10] However, other German clockmakers were
A pomander watch from 1530, which
creating miniature timepieces during this period, and there is
once belonged to Philip Melanchthon and
no evidence Henlein was the first.[10][11] is now in the Walters Art Museum,
Baltimore
Watches were not widely worn in pockets until the 17th
century. One account suggests that the word "watch" came
from the Old English word woecce – which meant "watchman" – because town watchmen used the
technology to keep track of their shifts at work.[12] Another says that the term came from 17th-century
sailors, who used the new mechanisms to time the length of their shipboard watches (duty shifts).[13]

Development
A rise in accuracy occurred in 1657 with the addition of the balance spring to the balance wheel, an
invention disputed both at the time and ever since between Robert Hooke and Christiaan Huygens. This
innovation significantly improved the accuracy of watches, reducing errors from several hours a day[14]
to approximately 10 minutes per day,[15] which led to the introduction of the minute hand on watch faces
in Britain around 1680 and in France by 1700.[16]

The increased accuracy of the balance wheel focused attention on errors caused by other parts of the
movement, igniting a two-century wave of watchmaking innovation. The first thing to be improved was
the escapement. The verge escapement was replaced in quality watches by the cylinder escapement,
invented by Thomas Tompion in 1695 and further developed by George Graham in the 1720s.
Improvements in manufacturing – such as the tooth-cutting machine devised by Robert Hooke – allowed
some increase in the volume of watch production, although finishing and assembling was still done by
hand until well into the 19th century.

A major cause of error in balance-wheel timepieces, caused

by changes in elasticity of the balance spring from
temperature changes, was solved by the bimetallic
temperature-compensated balance wheel invented in 1765 by Founded in 1735, Blancpain is the oldest
Pierre Le Roy and improved by Thomas Earnshaw (1749– registered watch brand in the world.
1829). The lever escapement, the single most important
technological breakthrough, though invented by Thomas
Mudge in 1754[17] and improved by Josiah Emery in 1785,[18] only gradually came into use from about
1800 onwards, chiefly in Britain.[19]
The British predominated in watch manufacture for much of
the 17th and 18th centuries, but maintained a system of
production that was geared towards high-quality products for
the élite.[20] The British Watch Company modernized clock
manufacture with mass-production techniques and the
application of duplicating tools and machinery in 1843. In the
United States, Aaron Lufkin Dennison started a factory in
1851 in Massachusetts that used interchangeable parts, and by
1861 a successful enterprise operated, incorporated as the
Waltham Watch Company.[21]

A watch drawn in Acta Eruditorum, 1737

Wristwatches
The concept of the wristwatch goes back to the production of
the very earliest watches in the 16th century. In 1571, Elizabeth I of
England received a wristwatch, described as an "armed watch", from
Robert Dudley.[22] 17th century French mathematician Blaise Pascal is
said to have worn a watch on his left-wrist.[23] The oldest surviving
wristwatch (then described as a "bracelet watch") is one made in 1806,
and given to Joséphine de Beauharnais.[22] From the beginning,
wristwatches were almost exclusively worn by women – men used
pocket watches up until the early 20th century.[24] In 1810, the watch-
maker Abraham-Louis Breguet made a wristwatch for the Queen of
Naples.[25] The first Swiss wristwatch was made in the year 1868 by
the Swiss watch-maker Patek Philippe for Countess Koscowicz of
Hungary.[26][27]

Wristwatches were first worn by military men towards the end of the
19th century, having increasingly recognized the importance of
synchronizing maneuvers during war without potentially revealing
plans to the enemy through signaling. The Garstin Company of London Early wristwatch by Waltham
patented a "Watch Wristlet" design in 1893, but probably produced with a metal shrapnel guard
similar designs from the 1880s. Officers in the British Army began over the crystal, worn by
soldiers in World War I
using wristwatches during colonial military campaigns in the 1880s,
(German Clock Museum)
such as during the Anglo-Burma War of 1885.[24] During the First Boer
War of 1880–1881, the importance of coordinating troop movements
and synchronizing attacks against highly mobile Boer insurgents became paramount, and the use of
wristwatches subsequently became widespread among the officer class. The company Mappin & Webb
began production of their successful "campaign watch" for soldiers during the campaign in the Sudan in
1898 and accelerated production for the Second Boer War of 1899–1902 a few years later.[24] In
continental Europe, Girard-Perregaux and other Swiss watchmakers began supplying German naval
officers with wristwatches in about 1880.[22]

Early models were essentially standard pocket-watches fitted to a leather strap, but by the early 20th
century, manufacturers began producing purpose-built wristwatches. The Swiss company Dimier Frères
& Cie patented a wristwatch design with the now standard wire lugs in 1903. In 1904, Louis Cartier
produced a wristwatch to allow his friend Alberto Santos-Dumont to
check flight performance in his airship while keeping both hands on
the controls as this proved difficult with a pocket watch.[28][29][30]
Cartier still markets a line of Santos-Dumont watches and
sunglasses.[31]

In 1905, Hans Wilsdorf moved to London, and set up his own business,
Wilsdorf & Davis, with his brother-in-law Alfred Davis, providing
quality timepieces at affordable prices; the company became Rolex in
1915.[32] Wilsdorf was an early convert to the wristwatch, and
contracted the Swiss firm Aegler to produce a line of wristwatches.[33]

The impact of the First World War of 1914–1918 dramatically shifted

public perceptions on the propriety of the man's wristwatch and opened
up a mass market in the postwar era.[34] The creeping barrage artillery
tactic, developed during the war, required precise synchronization Mappin & Webb's campaign
between the artillery gunners and the infantry advancing behind the wristwatch, advertised as
barrage. Service watches produced during the war were specially having been in production
designed for the rigors of trench warfare, with luminous dials and since 1898
unbreakable glass. The UK War Office began issuing wristwatches to
combatants from 1917.[35] By the end of the war, almost all
enlisted men wore a wristwatch (or wristlet), and after they
were demobilized, the fashion soon caught on: the British
Horological Journal wrote in 1917, that "the wristlet watch
was little used by the sterner sex before the war, but now is
seen on the wrist of nearly every man in uniform and of many
men in civilian attire."[36] By 1930, the wristwatch vastly
exceeded the pocket watch in market share by a decisive ratio
of 50:1.

Automatic watches
John Harwood invented the first successful self-winding
system in 1923. In anticipation of Harwood's patent for self-
winding mechanisms expiry in 1930, Glycine founder Eugène
Meylan started development on a self-winding system as a A Vacheron Constantin patrimony
separate module that could be used with almost any 8.75 ligne wristwatch
(19.74 millimeter) watch movement. Glycine incorporated
this module into its watches in October 1930, and began
mass-producing automatic watches.[37]

Electric watches
The Elgin National Watch Company and the Hamilton Watch Company pioneered the first electric
watch.[38] The first electric movements used a battery as a power source to oscillate the balance wheel.
During the 1950s, Elgin developed the model 725, while Hamilton released two models: the first, the
Hamilton 500, released on 3 January 1957, was produced into 1959. This model had problems with the
contact wires misaligning, and the watches returned to Hamilton for alignment. The Hamilton 505, an
improvement on the 500, proved more reliable: the contact wires were removed and a non-adjustable
contact on the balance assembly delivered the power to the balance wheel. Similar designs from many
other watch companies followed. Another type of electric watch was developed by the Bulova company
that used a tuning-fork resonator instead of a traditional balance wheel to increase timekeeping accuracy,
moving from a typical 2.5–4 Hz with a traditional balance wheel to 360 Hz with the tuning-fork design.

Quartz watches
The commercial introduction of the quartz watch in 1969 in the form of the Seiko Astron 35SQ, and in
1970 in the form of the Omega Beta 21 was a revolutionary improvement in watch technology. In place
of a balance wheel, which oscillated at perhaps 5 or 6 beats per second, these devices used a quartz-
crystal resonator, which vibrated at 8,192 Hz, driven by a battery-powered oscillator circuit.[39] Most
quartz-watch oscillators now operate at 32,768 Hz, though quartz movements have been designed with
frequencies as high as 262 kHz. Since the 1980s, more quartz watches than mechanical ones have been
marketed.[40]

Smart watches
The Timex Datalink wristwatch was introduced in 1994.[41][42][43] The early Timex Datalink
Smartwatches realized a wireless data transfer mode to receive data from a PC. Since then, many
companies have released their own iterations of a smartwatch, such as the Apple Watch, Samsung Galaxy
Watch, and Huawei Watch.

Hybrid watches
A hybrid smartwatch is a fusion between a regular mechanical watch and a smartwatch.[44]

Parts
The movement and case are the basic parts of a watch. A watch band or bracelet is added to form a
wristwatch; alternatively, a watch chain is added to form a pocket watch.[45]

The case is the outer covering of the watch.

The case back is the back portion of the watch's case. Accessing the movement (such as during battery
replacement) depends on the type of case back, which are generally categorized into four types:

Snap-off case backs (press-on case backs): the watch back pulls straight off and presses
straight on.
Screw-down case backs (threaded case backs): the entire watch back must be rotated to
unscrew from the case. Often it has 6 notches on the external part of the case back.
Screw back cases: tiny screws hold the case back to the case
Unibody: the only way into the case involves prying the crystal off the front of the watch.
The crystal, also called the window or watch glass, is the transparent part of the case that allows viewing
the hands and the dial of the movement. Modern wristwatches almost always use one of 4 materials:[46]

Acrylic glass (plexiglass, hesalite glass): the most impact-resistant ("unbreakable"[47][48]),

and therefore used in dive watches and most military watches. Acrylic glass is the lowest
 cost of these materials, so it is used in practically all low-cost watches.
Mineral crystal: a tempered glass.
Sapphire-coated mineral crystal
Synthetic sapphire crystal: the most scratch-resistant; it is difficult to cut and polish, causing
watch crystals made of sapphire to be the most expensive.
The bezel is the ring holding the crystal in place.[49]

The lugs are small metal projections at both ends of the wristwatch case where the watch band attaches to
the watch case.[49] The case and the lugs are often machined from one solid piece of stainless steel.[50]

Movement
The movement of a watch is the mechanism that measures the
passage of time and displays the current time (and possibly
other information including date, month, and day).[52]
Movements may be entirely mechanical, entirely electronic
(potentially with no moving parts), or they might be a blend
of both. Most watches intended mainly for timekeeping today
have electronic movements, with mechanical hands on the
watch face indicating the time.
Different kinds of movements move the
hands differently as shown in this 2-
Mechanical second exposure. The left watch has a
24-hour analog dial with a mechanical
Compared to electronic movements, mechanical watches are
1/6s "sweep" movement, while the right
less accurate, often with errors of seconds per day; are one has a more common 12-hour dial
sensitive to position, temperature,[53] and magnetism;[54] are and a "1s" quartz movement.
costly to produce; require regular maintenance and
adjustments; and are more prone to failures. Nevertheless,
mechanical watches attract interest from consumers,
particularly among watch collectors. Skeleton watches are
designed to display the mechanism for aesthetic purposes.

A mechanical movement uses an escapement mechanism to

control and limit the unwinding and winding parts of a spring,
converting what would otherwise be a simple unwinding into
a controlled and periodic energy release. The movement also
uses a balance wheel, together with the balance spring (also
known as a hairspring), to control the gear system's motion in A Russian mechanical watch movement
a manner analogous to the pendulum of a pendulum clock. with exhibition case back, showing its
The tourbillon, an optional part for mechanical movements, is movement.
a rotating frame for the escapement, used to cancel out or
reduce gravitational bias. Due to the complexity of designing
a tourbillon, they are expensive, and typically found in prestigious watches.
The pin-lever escapement (called the Roskopf movement
after its inventor, Georges Frederic Roskopf), which is a
cheaper version of the fully levered movement, was
manufactured in huge quantities by many Swiss
manufacturers, as well as by Timex, until it was replaced by
quartz movements.[55][56][57]

Introduced by Bulova in 1960, tuning-fork watches use a type

of electromechanical movement with a precise frequency
(most often 360 Hz) to drive a mechanical watch. The task of
converting electronically pulsed fork vibration into rotary
movements is done via two tiny jeweled fingers, called pawls.
Tuning-fork watches were rendered obsolete when electronic
A so-called mystery watch, it is the first
quartz watches were developed.
transparent watch,[51] c. 1890. The
movement is fitted with a cylinder
Traditional mechanical watch movements use a spiral spring
escapement.
called a mainspring as its power source that must be rewound
periodically by the user by turning the watch crown. Antique
pocket watches were wound by inserting a key into the back of the watch and turning it. While most
modern watches are designed to run 40 hours on a winding, requiring winding daily, some run for several
days; a few have 192-hour mainsprings, requiring once-weekly winding.

Automatic watches
A self-winding or automatic watch is one that rewinds the
mainspring of a mechanical movement by the natural motions
of the wearer's body. The first self-winding mechanism was
invented for pocket watches in 1770 by Abraham-Louis
Perrelet,[58] but the first "self-winding", or "automatic",
wristwatch was the invention of a British watch repairer
named John Harwood in 1923. This type of watch winds itself
without requiring any special action by the wearer. It uses an
eccentric weight, called a winding rotor, which rotates with
the movement of the wearer's wrist. The back-and-forth Automatic watch: An eccentric weight,
motion of the winding rotor couples to a ratchet to wind the called a rotor, swings with the movement
mainspring automatically. Self-winding watches usually can of the wearer's body and winds the
also be wound manually to keep them running when not worn spring.
or if the wearer's wrist motions are inadequate to keep the
watch wound.

In April 2013, the Swatch Group launched the sistem51 wristwatch. It has a mechanical movement
consisting of only 51 parts,[59] including 19 jewels and a novel self-winding mechanism with a
transparent oscillating weight.[60] Ten years after its introduction, it is still the only mechanical movement
manufactured entirely on a fully automated assembly line, including adjustment of the balance wheel and
the escapement for accuracy by laser.[61] The low parts count and the fully automated assembly make it
an inexpensive automatic Swiss watch.[62]
Electronic
Electronic movements, also known as quartz movements, have few or
no moving parts, except a quartz crystal which is made to vibrate by
the piezoelectric effect. A varying electric voltage is applied to the
crystal, which responds by changing its shape so, in combination with
some electronic components, it functions as an oscillator. It resonates at
a specific highly stable frequency, which is used to accurately pace a
timekeeping mechanism. Most quartz movements are primarily
electronic but are geared to drive mechanical hands on the face of the
watch to provide a traditional analog display of the time, a feature most
consumers still prefer.

In 1959 Seiko placed an order with Epson (a subsidiary company of

Seiko and the 'brain' behind the quartz revolution) to start developing a
quartz wristwatch. The project was codenamed 59A. By the 1964
Tokyo Summer Olympics, Seiko had a working prototype of a portable
quartz watch which was used as the time measurements throughout the A Grand Seiko Automatic
event. watch

The first prototypes of an electronic quartz wristwatch (not just

portable quartz watches as the Seiko timekeeping devices at the Tokyo
Olympics in 1964) were made by the CEH research laboratory in
Neuchâtel, Switzerland. From 1965 through 1967 pioneering
development work was done on a miniaturized 8192 Hz quartz
oscillator, a thermo-compensation module, and an in-house-made,
dedicated integrated circuit (unlike the hybrid circuits used in the later
Seiko Astron wristwatch). As a result, the BETA 1 prototype set new
timekeeping performance records at the International Chronometric
Competition held at the Observatory of Neuchâtel in 1967.[63] In 1970,
18 manufacturers exhibited production versions of the beta 21
wristwatch, including the Omega Electroquartz as well as Patek
Philippe, Rolex Oysterquartz and Piaget.
First quartz wristwatch BETA 1
The first quartz watch to enter production was the Seiko 35 SQ Astron, developed by CEH,
which hit the shelves on 25 December 1969, swiftly followed by the Switzerland, 1967
Swiss Beta 21, and then a year later the prototype of one of the world's
most accurate wristwatches to date: the Omega Marine Chronometer.
Since the technology having been developed by contributions from Japanese, American and Swiss,[64]
nobody could patent the whole movement of the quartz wristwatch, thus allowing other manufacturers to
participate in the rapid growth and development of the quartz watch market. This ended – in less than a
decade – almost 100 years of dominance by the mechanical wristwatch legacy. Modern quartz
movements are produced in very large quantities, and even the cheapest wristwatches typically have
quartz movements. Whereas mechanical movements can typically be off by several seconds a day, an
inexpensive quartz movement in a child's wristwatch may still be accurate to within half a second per day
– ten times more accurate than a mechanical movement.[65]
After a consolidation of the mechanical watch industry in
Switzerland during the 1970s, mass production of quartz
wristwatches took off under the leadership of the Swatch
Group of companies, a Swiss conglomerate with vertical
control of the production of Swiss watches and related
products. For quartz wristwatches, subsidiaries of Swatch
manufacture watch batteries (Renata), oscillators
(Oscilloquartz, now Micro Crystal AG) and integrated circuits
(Ebauches Electronic SA, renamed EM Microelectronic-
Marin). The launch of the new SWATCH brand in 1983 was
marked by bold new styling, design, and marketing. Today,
the Swatch Group maintains its position as the world's largest
watch company. Quartz Movement of the Seiko Astron,
1969 (Deutsches Uhrenmuseum, Inv.
Seiko's efforts to combine the quartz and mechanical 2010-006)
movements bore fruit after 20 years of research, leading to the
introduction of the Seiko Spring Drive, first in a limited
domestic market production in 1999 and to the world in September 2005. The Spring Drive keeps time
within quartz standards without the use of a battery, using a traditional mechanical gear train powered by
a spring, without the need for a balance wheel either.

In 2010, Miyota (Citizen Watch) of Japan introduced a newly developed movement that uses a 3-pronged
quartz crystal that was exclusively produced for Bulova to be used in the Precisionist or Accutron II line,
a new type of quartz watch with ultra-high frequency (262.144 kHz) which is claimed to be accurate to +/
− 10 seconds a year and has a smooth sweeping second hand rather than one that jumps each second.[66]

Radio time signal watches are a type of electronic quartz

watch that synchronizes (time transfers) its time with an
external time source such as in atomic clocks, time signals
from GPS navigation satellites, the German DCF77 signal in
Europe, WWVB in the US, and others. Movements of this
type may, among others, synchronize the time of day and the
date, the leap-year status and the state of daylight saving time
(on or off). However, other than the radio receiver, these
watches are normal quartz watches in all other aspects.

Electronic watches require electricity as a power source, and

some mechanical movements and hybrid electronic-
mechanical movements also require electricity. Usually, the
electricity is provided by a replaceable battery. The first use
of electrical power in watches was as a substitute for the
mainspring, to remove the need for winding. The first
electrically powered watch, the Hamilton Electric 500, was
released in 1957 by the Hamilton Watch Company of World's first radio clock wristwatch,
Lancaster, Pennsylvania. Junghans Mega (analog model)
Watch batteries (strictly speaking cells, as a battery is composed of multiple cells) are specially designed
for their purpose. They are very small and provide tiny amounts of power continuously for very long
periods (several years or more). In most cases, replacing the battery requires a trip to a watch-repair shop
or watch dealer; this is especially true for watches that are water-resistant, as special tools and procedures
are required for the watch to remain water-resistant after battery replacement. Silver-oxide and lithium
batteries are popular today; mercury batteries, formerly quite common, are no longer used, for
environmental reasons. Cheap batteries may be alkaline, of the same size as silver-oxide cells but
providing shorter life. Rechargeable batteries are used in some solar-powered watches.

Some electronic watches are powered by the movement of the wearer. For instance, Seiko's kinetic-
powered quartz watches use the motion of the wearer's arm: turning a rotating weight which causes a tiny
generator to supply power to charge a rechargeable battery that runs the watch. The concept is similar to
that of self-winding spring movements, except that electrical power is generated instead of mechanical
spring tension.

Solar powered watches are powered by light. A photovoltaic cell on the face (dial) of the watch converts
light to electricity, which is used to charge a rechargeable battery or capacitor. The movement of the
watch draws its power from the rechargeable battery or capacitor. As long as the watch is regularly
exposed to fairly strong light (such as sunlight), it never needs a battery replacement. Some models need
only a few minutes of sunlight to provide weeks of energy (as in the Citizen Eco-Drive). Some of the
early solar watches of the 1970s had innovative and unique designs to accommodate the array of solar
cells needed to power them (Synchronar, Nepro, Sicura, and some models by Cristalonic, Alba, Seiko,
and Citizen). As the decades progressed and the efficiency of the solar cells increased while the power
requirements of the movement and display decreased, solar watches began to be designed to look like
other conventional watches.[67]

A rarely used power source is the temperature difference between the wearer's arm and the surrounding
environment (as applied in the Citizen Eco-Drive Thermo).

Display

Analog
Traditionally, watches have displayed the time in analog
form, with a numbered dial upon which are mounted at least a
rotating hour hand and a longer, rotating minute hand. Many
watches also incorporate a third hand that shows the current
second of the current minute. In quartz watches this second
hand typically snaps to the next marker every second. In
mechanical watches, the second hand may appear to glide
continuously, though in fact it merely moves in smaller steps,
typically one-fifth to one-tenth of a second, corresponding to
Poljot chronograph
the beat (half period) of the balance wheel. With a duplex
escapement, the hand advances every two beats (full period)
of the balance wheel, typically 1⁄2-second; this happens every four beats (two periods, 1 second), with a
double duplex escapement. A truly gliding second hand is
achieved with the tri-synchro regulator of Spring Drive
watches. All three hands are normally mechanical, physically
rotating on the dial, although a few watches have been
produced with "hands" simulated by a liquid-crystal display.

Analog display of the time is nearly universal in watches sold

as jewelry or collectibles, and in these watches, the range of
different styles of hands, numbers, and other aspects of the
analog dial is very broad. In watches sold for timekeeping,
analog display remains very popular, as many people find it
easier to read than digital display; but in timekeeping watches
the emphasis is on clarity and accurate reading of the time
under all conditions (clearly marked digits, easily visible
hands, large watch faces, etc.). They are specifically designed Casio AE12 LCA (liquid-crystal-analog)
for the left wrist with the stem (the knob used for changing watch
the time) on the right side of the watch; this makes it easy to
change the time without removing the watch from the wrist.
This is the case if one is right-handed and the watch is worn on the left wrist (as is traditionally done). If
one is left-handed and wears the watch on the right wrist, one has to remove the watch from the wrist to
reset the time or to wind the watch.

Analog watches, as well as clocks, are often marketed showing a display time of approximately 1:50 or
10:10. This creates a visually pleasing smile-like face on the upper half of the watch, in addition to
enclosing the manufacturer's name. Digital displays often show a time of 12:08, where the increase in the
number of active segments or pixels gives a positive feeling.[68][69]

Tactile
Tissot, a Swiss luxury watchmaker, makes the Silen-T wristwatch with a touch-sensitive face that vibrates
to help the user to tell time eyes-free. The bezel of the watch features raised bumps at each hour mark;
after briefly touching the face of the watch, the wearer runs a finger around the bezel clockwise. When
the finger reaches the bump indicating the hour, the watch vibrates continuously, and when the finger
reaches the bump indicating the minute, the watch vibrates intermittently.[70]

Eone Timepieces, a Washington D.C.–based company, launched its first tactile analog wristwatch, the
"Bradley", on 11 July 2013 on the Kickstarter website. The device is primarily designed for sight-
impaired users, who can use the watch's two ball bearings to determine the time, but it is also suitable for
general use. The watch features raised marks at each hour and two moving, magnetically attached ball
bearings. One ball bearing, on the edge of the watch, indicates the hour, while the other, on the face,
indicates the minute.[71][72]

Digital
A digital display shows the time as a number, e.g., 12:08 instead of a short hand pointing towards the
number 12 and a long hand 8/60 of the way around the dial. The digits are usually shown as a seven-
segment display.
The first digital mechanical pocket watches appeared in the late 19th century. In the 1920s, the first
digital mechanical wristwatches appeared.

The first digital electronic watch, a Pulsar LED prototype in 1970, was developed jointly by Hamilton
Watch Company and Electro-Data, founded by George H. Thiess.[73] John Bergey, the head of Hamilton's
Pulsar division, said that he was inspired to make a digital timepiece by the then-futuristic digital clock
that Hamilton themselves made for the 1968 science fiction film 2001: A Space Odyssey. On 4 April
1972, the Pulsar was finally ready, made in an 18-carat gold case and sold for $2,100. It had a red light-
emitting diode (LED) display.

Digital LED watches were very expensive and out of reach to the common consumer until 1975, when
Texas Instruments started to mass-produce LED watches inside a plastic case. These watches, which first
retailed for only $20,[74] reduced to $10 in 1976, saw Pulsar lose $6 million and the Pulsar brand sold to
Seiko.[75]

An early LED watch that was rather problematic was The

Black Watch made and sold by British company Sinclair
Radionics in 1975. This was only sold for a few years, as
production problems and returned (faulty) product forced the
company to cease production.

Most watches with LED displays required that the user press
a button to see the time displayed for a few seconds because
LEDs used so much power that they could not be kept
operating continuously. Usually, the LED display color would
be red. Watches with LED displays were popular for a few
years, but soon the LED displays were superseded by liquid
crystal displays (LCDs), which used less battery power and A Casio DBA-800 databank watch with
were much more convenient in use, with the display always phone dialling capabilities, c. 1987
visible and eliminating the need to push a button before
seeing the time. Only in darkness would a button needed to be
pressed to illuminate the display with a tiny light bulb, later illuminating LEDs and electroluminescent
backlights.[76]

The first LCD watch with a six-digit LCD was the 1973 Seiko 06LC, although various forms of early
LCD watches with a four-digit display were marketed as early as 1972 including the 1972 Gruen Teletime
LCD Watch, and the Cox Electronic Systems Quarza. The Quarza, introduced in 1972 had the first Field
Effect LCD readable in direct sunlight and produced by the International Liquid Crystal Corporation of
Cleveland, Ohio.[77] In Switzerland, Ebauches Electronic SA presented a prototype eight-digit LCD
wristwatch showing time and date at the MUBA Fair, Basel, in March 1973, using a twisted nematic LCD
manufactured by Brown, Boveri & Cie, Switzerland, which became the supplier of LCDs to Casio for the
CASIOTRON watch in 1974.[78]

A problem with LCDs is that they use polarized light. If, for example, the user is wearing polarized
sunglasses, the watch may be difficult to read because the plane of polarization of the display is roughly
perpendicular to that of the glasses.[79][80] If the light that illuminates the display is polarized, for
example if it comes from a blue sky, the display may be difficult or impossible to read.[81]
From the 1980s onward, digital watch technology vastly improved. In 1982, Seiko produced the Seiko
TV Watch[82] that had a television screen built-in,[83] and Casio produced a digital watch with a
thermometer (the TS-1000) as well as another that could translate 1,500 Japanese words into English. In
1985, Casio produced the CFX-400 scientific calculator watch. In 1987, Casio produced a watch that
could dial telephone numbers (the DBA-800) and Citizen introduced one that would react to voice. In
1995, Timex released a watch that allowed the wearer to download and store data from a computer to
their wrist. Some watches, such as the Timex Datalink USB, feature dot matrix displays. Since their apex
during the late 1980s to mid-1990s high technology fad, digital watches have mostly become simpler, less
expensive timepieces with little variety between models.

Cortébert digital mechanical pocket watch Cortébert digital mechanical wristwatch

(1890s) (1920s)

A silver Pulsar LED watch from 1976 A Timex digital watch with an always-on
display of the time and date
 A digital LCD watch with electroluminescent Samsung Galaxy Watch series
backlight smartwatches with OLED displays

Illuminated
Many watches have displays that are illuminated, so they can
be used in darkness. Various methods have been used to
achieve this.

Mechanical watches often have luminous paint on their hands

and hour marks. In the mid-20th century, radioactive material
was often incorporated in the paint, so it would continue to
glow without any exposure to light. Radium was often used
but produced small amounts of radiation outside the watch
that might have been hazardous.[84] Tritium was used as a
replacement, since the radiation it produces has such low
energy that it cannot penetrate a watch glass. However,
tritium is expensive – it has to be made in a nuclear reactor –
and it has a half-life of only about 12 years so the paint
remains luminous for only a few years. Nowadays, tritium is
used in specialized watches, e.g., for military purposes (see
Tritium illumination). For other purposes, luminous paint is An illuminated watch face, using a
luminous compound
sometimes used on analog displays, but no radioactive
material is contained in it. This means that the display glows
soon after being exposed to light and quickly fades.

Watches that incorporate batteries often have electric illumination in their displays. However, lights
consume far more power than electronic watch movements. To conserve the battery, the light is activated
only when the user presses a button. Usually, the light remains lit for a few seconds after the button is
released, which allows the user to move the hand out of the way.
 In some early digital
watches, LED displays
were used, which could be
read as easily in darkness
as in daylight. The user had
Views of a liquid crystal display, both with
to press a button to light up electroluminescent backlight switched on
the LEDs, which meant (top) and switched off (bottom)
Digital LCD wristwatch Timex
that the watch could not be
Ironman with read without the button
electroluminescent backlighting being pressed, even in full daylight.[85][86]

In some types of watches, small incandescent lamps or LEDs

illuminate the display, which is not intrinsically luminous. These tend to produce very non-uniform
illumination.

Other watches use electroluminescent material to produce uniform illumination of the background of the
display, against which the hands or digits can be seen.

Speech synthesis
Talking watches are available, intended for the blind or visually impaired. They speak the time out loud at
the press of a button. This has the disadvantage of disturbing others nearby or at least alerting the non-
deaf that the wearer is checking the time. Tactile watches are preferred to avoid this awkwardness, but
talking watches are preferred for those who are not confident in their ability to read a tactile watch
reliably.

Handedness
Wristwatches with analog displays generally have a small knob, called the crown, that can be used to
adjust the time and, in mechanical watches, wind the spring. Almost always, the crown is located on the
right-hand side of the watch so it can be worn of the left wrist for a right-handed individual. This makes it
inconvenient to use if the watch is being worn on the right wrist. Some manufacturers offer "left-hand
drive", aka "destro", configured watches which move the crown to the left side[87] making wearing the
watch easier for left-handed individuals.

A rarer configuration is the bullhead watch. Bullhead watches are generally, but not exclusively,
chronographs. The configuration moves the crown and chronograph pushers to the top of the watch.
Bullheads are commonly wristwatch chronographs that are intended to be used as stopwatches off the
wrist. Examples are the Citizen Bullhead Change Timer[88] and the Omega Seamaster Bullhead.[89]

Digital watches generally have push-buttons that can be used to make adjustments. These are usually
equally easy to use on either wrist.
Functions
Customarily, watches provide the time of day, giving at least the hour
and minute, and often the second. Many also provide the current date,
and some (called "complete calendar" or "triple date" watches) display
the day of the week and the month as well. However, many watches
also provide a great deal of information beyond the basics of time and
date. Some watches include alarms. Other elaborate and more
expensive watches, both pocket and wrist models, also incorporate
A chronograph wristwatch by
striking mechanisms or repeater functions, so that the wearer could
Audemars Piguet
learn the time by the sound emanating from the watch. This
announcement or striking feature is an essential characteristic of true
clocks and distinguishes such watches from ordinary timepieces. This
feature is available on most digital watches.

A complicated watch has one or more functions beyond the basic

function of displaying the time and the date; such a functionality is
called a complication. Two popular complications are the chronograph
complication, which is the ability of the watch movement to function
as a stopwatch, and the moonphase complication, which is a display of
the lunar phase. Other more expensive complications include
Tourbillon, Perpetual calendar, Minute repeater, and Equation of time.
Breguet squelette watch 2933
with tourbillon
A truly complicated watch has many of these complications at once
(see Calibre 89 from Patek Philippe for instance). Some watches aimed
at Muslims can both indicate the direction of Mecca[90] and have
alarms that can be set for all daily prayer requirements.[91] Among
watch enthusiasts, complicated watches are especially collectible.
Some watches include a second 12-hour or 24-hour display for UTC or
GMT. A physicians watch was used for measuring pulse, administering
medication or measuring anesthesia.[92]

The similar-sounding terms chronograph and chronometer are often

confused, although they mean altogether different things. A
chronograph is a watch with an added duration timer, often a stopwatch
Perpetual calendar wristwatch complication (as explained above), while a chronometer watch is a
by Patek Philippe timepiece that has met an industry-standard test for performance under
pre-defined conditions: a chronometer is a high quality mechanical or a
thermo-compensated movement that has been tested and certified to
operate within a certain standard of accuracy by the COSC (Contrôle Officiel Suisse des Chronomètres).
The concepts are different but not mutually exclusive; so a watch can be a chronograph, a chronometer,
both, or neither.

Electronic sports watches, combining timekeeping with GPS and/or activity tracking, address the general
fitness market and have the potential for commercial success (Garmin Forerunner, Garmin Vivofit,
Epson,[5] announced model of Swatch Touch series[93]).
Braille watches have analog displays with raised bumps around the
face to allow blind users to tell the time. Their digital equivalents use
synthesised speech to speak the time on command.

Fashion
Wristwatches and antique pocket watches are often appreciated as
jewelry or as collectible works of art rather than just as timepieces.[94]
This has created several different markets for wristwatches, ranging
from very inexpensive but accurate watches (intended for no other
purpose than telling the correct time) to extremely expensive watches
Timex Datalink USB Dress
that serve mainly as personal adornment or as examples of high
edition from 2003 with a dot
achievement in miniaturization and precision mechanical engineering.
matrix display; the Invasion
video game is on the screen.
Traditionally, dress watches appropriate for informal (business), semi-
formal, and formal attire are gold, thin, simple, and plain, but
increasingly rugged, complicated, or sports watches are
considered by some to be acceptable for such attire. Some
dress watches have a cabochon on the crown or faceted
gemstones on the face, bezel, or bracelet. Some are made
entirely of faceted sapphire (corundum).

Many fashions and department stores offer a variety of less-

A so-called "Boule de Genève" (Geneva
expensive, trendy, "costume" watches (usually for women), ball), c. 1890, 21.5k yellow gold. A type of
many of which are similar in quality to basic quartz pendant watch intended to be used as an
timepieces but which feature bolder designs. In the 1980s, the accessory for women. They usually came
Swiss Swatch company hired graphic designers to redesign a with a matching brooch or chain.
new annual collection of non-repairable watches.

Trade in counterfeit watches, which mimic expensive brand-name watches, constitutes an estimated
US$1 billion market per year.[95]

Space
The zero-gravity environment and other extreme conditions
encountered by astronauts in space require the use of
specially tested watches.

The first-ever watch to be sent into space was a Russian

"Pobeda" watch from the Petrodvorets Watch Factory. It was
sent on a single orbit flight on the spaceship Korabl-Sputnik 4
on 9 March 1961. The watch had been attached without
authorisation to the wrist of Chernuchka, a dog that
successfully did exactly the same trip as Yuri Gagarin, with
The Omega Speedmaster, selected by
NASA for use on space missions in the
exactly the same rocket and equipment, just a month before
1960s Gagarin's flight.[96]
On 12 April 1961, Gagarin wore a Shturmanskie (a transliteration of Штурманские which actually
means "navigator's") wristwatch during his historic first flight into space. The Shturmanskie was
manufactured at the First Moscow Factory. Since 1964, the watches of the First Moscow Factory have
been marked by the trademark "Полёт", transliterated as "POLJOT", which means "flight" in Russian and
is a tribute to the many space trips its watches have accomplished. In the late 1970s, Poljot launched a
new chrono movement, the 3133. With a 23 jewel movement and manual winding (43 hours), it was a
modified Russian version of the Swiss Valjoux 7734 of the early 1970s. Poljot 3133 were taken into space
by astronauts from Russia, France, Germany and Ukraine. On the arm of Valeriy Polyakov, a Poljot 3133
chronograph movement-based watch set a space record for the longest space flight in history.[97]

Through the 1960s, a large range of watches was tested for

durability and precision under extreme temperature changes
and vibrations. The Omega Speedmaster Professional was
selected by NASA, the U.S. space agency, and it is mostly
known thanks to astronaut Buzz Aldrin who wore it during
the 1969 Apollo 11 Moon landing. Heuer became the first
Swiss watch in space thanks to a Heuer Stopwatch, worn by
John Glenn in 1962 when he piloted the Friendship 7 on the
first crewed U.S. orbital mission. The Breitling Navitimer Astronaut Nancy J. Currie wears the
Cosmonaute was designed with a 24-hour analog dial to avoid Timex Ironman Triathlon Datalink model
confusion between AM and PM, which are meaningless in 78401 during STS 88.
space. It was first worn in space by U.S. astronaut Scott
Carpenter on 24 May 1962 in the Aurora 7 Mercury
capsule.[98]

Since 1994 Fortis is the exclusive supplier for crewed space missions authorized by the Russian Federal
Space Agency. China National Space Administration (CNSA) astronauts wear the Fiyta[99] spacewatches.
At BaselWorld, 2008, Seiko announced the creation of the first watch ever designed specifically for a
space walk, Spring Drive Spacewalk. Timex Datalink is flight certified by NASA for space missions and
is one of the watches qualified by NASA for space travel. The Casio G-Shock DW-5600C and 5600E,
DW 6900, and DW 5900 are Flight-Qualified for NASA space travel.[100][101]

Various Timex Datalink models were used both by cosmonauts and astronauts.

Scuba diving
Watch construction may be water-resistant. These watches are sometimes called diving watches when
they are suitable for scuba diving or saturation diving. The International Organization for Standardization
(ISO) issued a standard for water-resistant watches which also prohibits the term "waterproof" to be used
with watches, which many countries have adopted. In the United States, advertising a watch as
waterproof has been illegal since 1968, per Federal Trade Commission regulations regarding the
"misrepresentation of protective features".[102][103][104]

Water-resistance is achieved by the gaskets which forms a watertight seal, used in conjunction with a
sealant applied on the case to help keep water out. The material of the case must also be tested in order to
pass as water-resistant.[105]
None of the tests defined by ISO 2281 for the Water Resistant mark are
suitable to qualify a watch for scuba diving. Such watches are designed
for everyday life and must be water-resistant during exercises such as
swimming. They can be worn in different temperature and pressure
conditions but are under no circumstances designed for scuba
diving.[106]

The standards for diving watches are regulated by the ISO 6425
international standard. The watches are tested in static or still water
under 125% of the rated (water) pressure, thus a watch with a 200-
metre rating will be water-resistant if it is stationary and under 250
metres of static water. The testing of the water-resistance is
fundamentally different from non-dive watches, because every watch
has to be fully tested. Besides water resistance standards to a minimum Seiko 7002–7020 Diver's
200 m on a 4-ring NATO style
of 100-metre depth rating, ISO 6425 also provides eight minimum
strap
requirements for mechanical diver's watches for scuba diving (quartz
and digital watches have slightly differing readability requirements).
For diver's watches for mixed-gas saturation diving two additional ISO 6425 requirements have to be
met.

Watches are classified by their degree of water resistance, which roughly translates to the following (1
metre = 3.281 feet):[107]

Main article ISO 6425

Water-resistance rating Suitability Remarks

Not suitable for diving, swimming,
Suitable for everyday use. Splash/rain
Water Resistant or 30 m snorkeling, water-related work, or
resistant.
fishing.

Suitable for swimming, white-water

Water Resistant 50 m rafting, non-snorkeling water related Not suitable for diving.
work, and fishing.

Suitable for recreational surfing,

Water Resistant 100 m swimming, snorkeling, sailing, and Not suitable for diving.
water sports.
Suitable for professional marine activity
Water Resistant 200 m Suitable for diving.
and serious surface water sports.

Minimum ISO standard for scuba diving Diver's 100 m and 150 m watches are
Diver's 100 m
at depths not requiring helium gas. generally old(er) watches.
Suitable for scuba diving at depths not Typical ratings for contemporary diver's
Diver's 200 m or 300 m
requiring helium gas. watches.

Watches designed for helium mixed-gas

Diver's 300+ m Suitable for saturation diving (helium-
diving will have additional markings to
helium safe enriched environment).
indicate this.

Some watches use bar instead of meters, which may then be multiplied by 10, and then subtract 10 to be
approximately equal to the rating based on metres. Therefore, a 5 bar watch is equivalent to a 40-metre
watch. Some watches are rated in atmospheres (atm), which are roughly equivalent to bar.
Dosimeter
Watches with built-in geiger counters exist for contractors working in
the nuclear industry and military personnel specializing in nuclear
ordnance. The first known example was the Raketa Atom of 1954.[108]
A geiger counter watch was famously used in the 1965 James Bond
movie Thunderball where Sean Connery's character uses a modified
Breitling Top Time to find stolen nuclear warheads. Polimaster, Polimaster PM1603B
Huatec, MTM Special Ops manufacture dosimeter watches. dosimeter watch

Navigation
There is a traditional method by which an analog watch can be used to locate north and south. The Sun
appears to move in the sky over a 24-hour period while the hour hand of a 12-hour clock face takes
twelve hours to complete one rotation. In the northern hemisphere, if the watch is rotated so that the hour
hand points toward the Sun, the point halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate south.
For this method to work in the southern hemisphere, the 12 is pointed toward the Sun and the point
halfway between the hour hand and 12 o'clock will indicate north. During daylight saving time, the same
method can be employed using 1 o'clock instead of 12. This method is accurate enough to be used only at
fairly high latitudes.

See also
Boule de Genève
Clock
Coin watch
Complication
List of 24-hour watch brands
List of most expensive watches sold at auction
List of watch manufacturers
Marine chronometer
Movado Ermeto watch
Pocket watch
Shock-resistant watch
Smart watch
Tachymeter (watch)
Talking clock
The Holy Trinity
Trench watch
Watchmaker
Obrey (watches)

References
1. "CWorld | Christopher Ward | QUARTZ VS AUTOMATIC" (https://www.christopherward.com/
blog/quartz-vs-automatic/). www.christopherward.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/we
 b/20181127110354/https://www.christopherward.com/blog/quartz-vs-automatic/) from the
original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
2. "What is a Watch Movement? Quartz vs Automatic vs Manual vs Kinetic | Est.1897" (https://
web.archive.org/web/20181127151916/https://est1897.co.uk/what-is-a-watch-movement-qu
artz-automatic-manual-kinetic). est1897.co.uk. Archived from the original (https://est1897.c
o.uk/what-is-a-watch-movement-quartz-automatic-manual-kinetic) on 27 November 2018.
Retrieved 27 November 2018.
3. "Four Revolutions: Part 1: A Concise History Of The Quartz Revolution - HODINKEE" (http
s://www.hodinkee.com/articles/four-revolutions-quartz-revolution). HODINKEE. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20190530193005/https://www.hodinkee.com/articles/four-revolutio
ns-quartz-revolution) from the original on 30 May 2019. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
4. "A Concise History of the Quartz Watch Revolution" (https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articl
es/2017-11-16/a-concise-history-of-the-quartz-watch-revolution). Bloomberg.com. 16
November 2017. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20181127113414/https://www.bloom
berg.com/news/articles/2017-11-16/a-concise-history-of-the-quartz-watch-revolution) from
the original on 27 November 2018. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
5. "Epson announces world's lightest GPS watch" (https://www.theverge.com/2012/2/21/28148
19/epson-world-lightest-gps-watch-japan). The Verge. 21 February 2012. Archived (https://w
eb.archive.org/web/20120426091156/http://www.theverge.com/2012/2/21/2814819/epson-w
orld-lightest-gps-watch-japan) from the original on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
6. "Mechanical Watches Almost Disappeared Forever. Here's How They Didn't" (https://www.bl
oomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-04/how-mechanical-watches-survived-after-quartz-a-c
oncise-history). Bloomberg.com. 4 January 2018. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/201
81118004903/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-01-04/how-mechanical-watch
es-survived-after-quartz-a-concise-history) from the original on 18 November 2018.
Retrieved 27 November 2018.
7. Kahle, Laurie (11 November 2019). "Patek Philippe's $31 Million Grandmaster Chime
Becomes Most Expensive Watch Ever Sold" (https://www.barrons.com/articles/patek-philipp
es-31-million-grandmaster-chime-becomes-most-expensive-watch-ever-sold-01573504221).
Barrons. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20200717113751/https://www.barrons.com/a
rticles/patek-philippes-31-million-grandmaster-chime-becomes-most-expensive-watch-ever-
sold-01573504221) from the original on 17 July 2020. Retrieved 17 July 2020.
8. Milham, Willis I. (1945). Time and Timekeepers (https://archive.org/details/timetimekeepersi
00milhuoft/page/212/mode/2up?view=theater). New York: MacMillan. p. 213. ISBN 0-7808-
0008-7.
9. Carlisle, Rodney P. (2004), Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries (https://archive.o
rg/details/scientificameric0000carl), USA: John Wiley & Sons, pp. 143 (https://archive.org/de
tails/scientificameric0000carl/page/143), ISBN 0471244104, "watch clock henlein."
10. Usher, Abbot Payson (1988). A History of Mechanical Inventions (https://books.google.com/
books?id=xuDDqqa8FlwC&pg=PA305). Courier Dover. p. 305. ISBN 0-486-25593-X.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230703112708/https://books.google.com/books?id
=xuDDqqa8FlwC&pg=PA305) from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 19 December
2022.
11. Dohrn-van Rossum, Gerhard (1997). History of the Hour: Clocks and Modern Temporal
Orders (https://books.google.com/books?id=53K32RiEigMC&pg=PA121). Univ. of Chicago
Press. p. 121. ISBN 0-226-15510-2. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2023070311372
0/https://books.google.com/books?id=53K32RiEigMC&pg=PA121) from the original on 3
July 2023. Retrieved 23 January 2023.
12. "Watch" (https://books.google.com/books?id=7iZqYfRWH_0C&q=watchmen+watch+clock+h
enlein). The New Encyclopædia Britannica, 15th Edition. Vol. 4. Encyclopædia Britannica,
Inc. 1983. pp. 746–747. ISBN 0-85229-400-X. Retrieved 3 June 2012.
13. Haven, Kendall F. (2006). 100 Greatest Science Inventions of All Time (https://books.google.
com/books?id=0gBwjLTUzEMC&q=sailor+watch+clock+henlein&pg=PA65). Libraries
Unlimited. p. 65. ISBN 1-59158-264-4. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202307031142
57/https://books.google.com/books?id=0gBwjLTUzEMC&q=sailor+watch+clock+henlein&pg
=PA65) from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
14. Milham 1945, p.226
15. "A Revolution in Timekeeping" (https://www.nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division/popula
r-links/walk-through-time/walk-through-time-revolution). A Walk Through Time. National
Institute of Standards and Technology. 2004. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2022101
3184811/https://www.nist.gov/pml/time-and-frequency-division/popular-links/walk-through-ti
me/walk-through-time-revolution) from the original on 13 October 2022. Retrieved
13 October 2022.
16. Acta Eruditorum (http://atena.beic.it/webclient/DeliveryManager?pid=13458392&search_ter
ms=DTL59). Leipzig. 1737. p. 123. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230703114222/
http://atena.beic.it/view/action/nmets.do?DOCCHOICE=13458392.xml&dvs=168838446335
1~191&locale=en_US&search_terms=DTL59&show_metadata=true&adjacency=&VIEWER
_URL=/view/action/nmets.do?&DELIVERY_RULE_ID=7&divType=) from the original on 3
July 2023. Retrieved 5 June 2018.
17. Forster, Jack. "The Tourbillon Chronicles: Birth Of The Tourbillon" (https://www.the1916comp
any.com/blog/tourbillon-origins.html). www.the1916company.com. Retrieved 2 October
2023.
18. "Timeline of Clocks and Watches" (http://www.historyofwatch.com/clock-history/clock-timelin
e/). History of Watch. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
19. Bajpai, Neha S. "An introduction to British watchmaking" (https://wristcheck.com/discover/w
atch-101/an-introduction-to-british-watchmaking). WristCheck. Retrieved 2 October 2023.
20. Glasmeier, Amy (2000). Manufacturing Time: Global Competition in the Watch Industry,
1795–2000 (https://books.google.com/books?id=cVUSauNST8EC&q=British+Watch+Comp
any+mass+production). Guilford Press. ISBN 9781572305892. Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20230703113711/https://books.google.com/books?id=cVUSauNST8EC&q=Britis
h+Watch+Company+mass+production) from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved
7 February 2013.
21. Roe, Joseph Wickham (1916), English and American Tool Builders (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ), New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press,
LCCN 16011753 (https://lccn.loc.gov/16011753), archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
30703113712/https://books.google.com/books?id=X-EJAAAAIAAJ) from the original on 3
July 2023, retrieved 12 November 2015. Reprinted by McGraw-Hill, New York and London,
1926 (LCCN 27-24075 (https://www.loc.gov/item/27024075)); and by Lindsay Publications,
Inc., Bradley, Illinois, (ISBN 978-0-917914-73-7).
22. Bruton, Eric (2000). The History of Clocks & Watches. Little, Brown and Company. p. 183.
ISBN 0316853550.
23. Caws, Mary Ann (2017). Blaise Pascal: Miracles and Reason. Reaktion Books. p. 147.
24. "The Evolution of the Wristwatch" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131208200615/http://vinta
gewatchstraps.com/wristwatches.html). Archived from the original (http://www.vintagewatchs
traps.com/wristwatches.html) on 8 December 2013. Retrieved 8 December 2013.
25. "First wristwatch" (https://www.breguet.com/en/history/inventions/first-wristwatch). Breguet.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201124233618/https://www.breguet.com/en/histor
y/inventions/first-wristwatch) from the original on 24 November 2020. Retrieved
30 December 2020.
26. "Company | History" (https://www.patek.com/en/company/history#1839-1877). Patek
Philippe. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120728122613/http://www.patek.ch/conte
nts/default/en/timeline.html#1839-1877) from the original on 28 July 2012. Retrieved
30 December 2020.
27. Belcher, David (23 October 2013). "Wrist Watches: From Battlefield to Fashion Accessory"
(https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/23/fashion/wrist-watches-from-battlefield-to-fashion-acce
ssory.html#:~:text=The%20first%20wristwatch%20was%20made,not%20so%20easy%20t
o%20pinpoint.). The New York Times. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202110231113
46/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/10/23/fashion/wrist-watches-from-battlefield-to-fashion-ac
cessory.html#:~:text=The%20first%20wristwatch%20was%20made,not%20so%20easy%20t
o%20pinpoint.) from the original on 23 October 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2020.
28. "The History of Cartier" (https://www.interwatches.com/cartier-history). InterWatches.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20160826050741/https://www.interwatches.com/carti
er-history) from the original on 26 August 2016. Retrieved 23 August 2016.
29. "Aviation Pioneer Scored A First in Watch-Wearing." The New York Times, 25 October 1975.
Retrieved: 21 July 2009.
30. 100 Designs/100 Years: A Celebration of the 20th Century (aka 100 Designs/100 Years:
Innovative Designs of the 20th Century) (with Arlette Barré-Despond), Hove, UK:
RotoVision, 1999 | ISBN 2-88046-442-0
31. Cartier sunglasses. "Cartier rimmed sunglasses" (English). (http://www.cartier.com/show-m
e/accessories/t8200853-santos-dumont-rimmed-sunglasses#/show-me/accessories/t82008
53-santos-dumont-rimmed-sunglasses) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20120806200
550/http://www.cartier.com/show-me/accessories/t8200853-santos-dumont-rimmed-sunglas
ses#/show-me/accessories/t8200853-santos-dumont-rimmed-sunglasses) 6 August 2012 at
the Wayback Machine cartier.com. Retrieved: 9 December 2012.
32. Rolex Jubilee Vade Mecum published by the Rolex Watch Company in 1946.
33. Brozek, John E. "The History and Evolution of the Wristwatch" (http://www.qualitytyme.net/p
ages/rolex_articles/history_of_wristwatch.html). International Watch Magazine. Archived (htt
ps://web.archive.org/web/20100611233904/http://qualitytyme.net/pages/rolex_articles/histor
y_of_wristwatch.html) from the original on 11 June 2010. Retrieved 4 March 2011.
34. Choi, David (May 2016). "WWI vets popularized the most important accessory in a
gentleman's wardrobe" (https://www.businessinsider.com/watches-after-wwi-the-male-acces
sory-2016-5). Business Insider. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20210624210507/http
s://www.businessinsider.com/watches-after-wwi-the-male-accessory-2016-5) from the
original on 24 June 2021. Retrieved 24 June 2021.
35. Hoffman, Paul (2004). Wings of Madness: Alberto Santos-Dumont and the Invention of
Flight (https://archive.org/details/wingsofmadnessal0000hoff). Hyperion Press. ISBN 0-
7868-8571-8.
36. Ordnance Maintenance Wrist Watches, Pocket Watches, Stop Watches and Clocks (https://
books.google.com/books?id=J2DxDwAAQBAJ&q=the+wristlet+watch+was+little+used+by+t
he+sterner+sex+before+the+war%2C+but+now+is+seen+on+the+wrist+of+nearly+every+m
an+in+uniform+and+of+many+men+in+civilian+attire&pg=PP4). Read Books Ltd. 1945.
ISBN 978-1-5287-6620-3. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230703114726/https://bo
oks.google.com/books?id=J2DxDwAAQBAJ&q=the+wristlet+watch+was+little+used+by+the
+sterner+sex+before+the+war%2C+but+now+is+seen+on+the+wrist+of+nearly+every+man
+in+uniform+and+of+many+men+in+civilian+attire&pg=PP4) from the original on 3 July
2023. Retrieved 9 September 2021.
37. Foskett, Stephen (19 July 2021). "Eugène Meylan, Glycine, and the Fight Over the First
Automatic Watch" (https://grail-watch.com/2021/07/19/eugene-meylan-glycine-and-the-fight-
over-the-first-automatic-watch/). Grail Watch. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202207
01144634/https://grail-watch.com/2021/07/19/eugene-meylan-glycine-and-the-fight-over-the
-first-automatic-watch/) from the original on 1 July 2022. Retrieved 15 August 2022.
38. "Hamilton Electric: the Race to Create the World's First Battery-Powered Watch" (https://wor
nandwound.com/hamilton-electric-the-race-to-create-the-worlds-first-battery-powered-watc
h/). wornandwound.com. 31 May 2018. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220702135
356/https://wornandwound.com/hamilton-electric-the-race-to-create-the-worlds-first-battery-
powered-watch/) from the original on 2 July 2022. Retrieved 1 June 2022.
39. Frei, Armin H. (6 February 2020). "First-Hand: The First Quartz Wrist Watch" (https://ethw.or
g/First-Hand:The_First_Quartz_Wrist_Watch). Engineering and Technology History Wiki
(ETHW). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20211205074716/https://ethw.org/First-Han
d:The_First_Quartz_Wrist_Watch) from the original on 5 December 2021. Retrieved
5 December 2021.
40. Mondschein, Kenneth C. (15 September 2020). On Time: A History of Western Timekeeping
(https://books.google.com/books?id=Hgb5DwAAQBAJ&dq=%221980s%22,+more+%22qua
rtz+watches%22+than+mechanical+ones+have+been+marketed&pg=PA166). Johns
Hopkins University Press. p. 166. ISBN 978-1-4214-3827-6.
41. Farion, Christine (31 October 2022). The Ultimate Guide to Informed Wearable Technology:
A hands-on approach for creating wearables from prototype to purpose using Arduino
systems (https://books.google.com/books?id=qnqWEAAAQBAJ&dq=The+Timex+Datalink+
wristwatch+,+was+introduced+in+1994&pg=PA6). Packt Publishing Ltd. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-
80324-447-1.
42. Research & Development (https://books.google.com/books?id=lZ8oAQAAMAAJ&q=The+Ti
mex+Datalink+wristwatch+,+was+introduced+in+1994) (Information not visible in web-
based source.). Vol. 37. Chicago: Technical Publishing Company. 1 July 1995. p. 24.
43. "Timex and Microsoft Team Up on a Watch" (https://www.nytimes.com/1994/06/22/business/
business-technology-timex-and-microsoft-team-up-on-a-watch.html). BUSINESS
TECHNOLOGY. The New York Times. Reuters. 22 June 1994. p. 5. Retrieved 1 October
2024.
44. Advances in Electronics and Electron Physics (https://books.google.com/books?id=rOiBwXJ
vkVwC&dq=%22Hybrid+watches%22&pg=PA257). Academic Press. 1 September 1980.
p. 257. ISBN 978-0-08-057716-6.
45. United States International Trade Commission. "Report to the Committee on Ways and
Means on Watches and Parts Therefor" (https://books.google.com/books?id=_DBzHzS07m
gC) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230426210458/https://books.google.com/book
s?id=_DBzHzS07mgC) 26 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine. 1977. p. 3
46. "Mineral or Sapphire Glass – What is the Difference Between Watch Glasses?" (https://aarni
wood.com/mineral-glass-or-sapphire-crystal/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202209
26105620/https://aarniwood.com/mineral-glass-or-sapphire-crystal/) 26 September 2022 at
the Wayback Machine.
47. "Unbreakable Crystals" section of "A General History of Horology" (https://books.google.co
m/books?id=ldt4EAAAQBAJ) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20230327112540/http
s://books.google.com/books?id=ldt4EAAAQBAJ) 27 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine.
2022. p. 486
48. Oren Hartov. "Military Watches of the World: Great Britain Part 1—The Boer War Through
The Second World War" (https://wornandwound.com/military-watches-of-the-world-great-brit
ain-part-1-the-boer-war-through-the-second-world-war/) Archived (https://web.archive.org/w
eb/20220926105616/https://wornandwound.com/military-watches-of-the-world-great-britain-
part-1-the-boer-war-through-the-second-world-war/) 26 September 2022 at the Wayback
Machine.
49. Katelyn Fogle. "10 Parts of a Watch You Should Actually Know" (https://www.jewelersmutua
l.com/the-jewelry-box/10-parts-watch-you-should-actually-know) Archived (https://web.archiv
e.org/web/20211023111227/https://www.jewelersmutual.com/the-jewelry-box/10-parts-watc
h-you-should-actually-know) 23 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine.
50. Japan Clock & Watch Association. "What are the part names of watches?" (https://www.jcw
a.or.jp/en/time/qa/qa03.html) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20220926105616/http
s://www.jcwa.or.jp/en/time/qa/qa03.html) 26 September 2022 at the Wayback Machine.
51. "Juan F. Déniz, The first transparent watch. Antiquarian Horology Journal" (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20180316214832/http://ahsoc.contentfiles.net/media/assets/file/Juan_Deniz_-_T
he_first_transparent_watch_wm6.pdf) (PDF). Archived from the original (http://ahsoc.conten
tfiles.net/media/assets/file/Juan_Deniz_-_The_first_transparent_watch_wm6.pdf) (PDF) on
16 March 2018. Retrieved 7 April 2018.
52. Silicon Compounds—Advances in Research and Application: 2013 Edition (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=wu-6Led6dEMC&dq=The+movement+of+a+watch+is+the+mechanism+
that+measures+the+passage+of+time+and+displays+the+current+time&pg=PA723).
ScholarlyEditions. 21 June 2013. p. 723. ISBN 978-1-4816-9238-0.
53. "Temperature" (http://us.tagheuer.com/#/temperature). Advice on Your Timepiece. Tag
Heuer. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110303150149/http://us.tagheuer.com/#/te
mperature) from the original on 3 March 2011. Retrieved 4 March 2011.
54. "Magnetism" (http://us.tagheuer.com/#/magnetism). Advice on Your Timepiece. Tag Heuer.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110303150149/http://us.tagheuer.com/#/magnetis
m) from the original on 3 March 2011. Retrieved 4 March 2011.
55. "The original pin-pallet" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120205103752/http://www.musketee
r.ch/Bilder/uhr_bild/RoskAnker.jpg). Archived from the original (http://www.musketeer.ch/Bild
er/uhr_bild/RoskAnker.jpg) on 5 February 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2012.
56. "The Roskopf Watch" (https://web.archive.org/web/20120401150312/http://www.musketeer.
ch/watches/roskopf.html). Musketeer.ch. Archived from the original (http://www.musketeer.c
h/watches/roskopf.html) on 1 April 2012. Retrieved 27 May 2012.
57. "Buffat The Roskopf watch" (http://www.watkinsr.id.au/buffat.html). Watkinsr.id.au. Archived
(https://web.archive.org/web/20180312204219/http://watkinsr.id.au/buffat.html) from the
original on 12 March 2018. Retrieved 28 October 2017.
58. "Watchmaking in Europe and China: Watches & Wonders" (https://web.archive.org/web/201
21011232012/http://www.worldtempus.com/fr/encyclopedie/index-encyclopedique/lhorlogeri
e-dans-le-monde/lhorlogerie-europeenne-en-chine-watches-wonders/). Richemont.
Worldtempus. Archived from the original (http://www.worldtempus.com/fr/encyclopedie/index
-encyclopedique/lhorlogerie-dans-le-monde/lhorlogerie-europeenne-en-chine-watches-wond
ers/) on 11 October 2012.
59. Monika Schramm (29 June 2014). "Vollautomatisch vom Band" (https://www.faz.net/aktuell/t
echnik-motor/swatch-bringt-bunte-sistem51-auf-den-markt-13003950.html). Frankfurter
Allgemeine Zeitung (in German). Retrieved 24 September 2024.
60. Brice Goulard (4 May 2016). "Reviewing the Swatch Sistem51" (https://www.watchtime.com/
blog/monochrome-monday-our-review-of-the-swatch-sistem51/). WatchTime. Retrieved
23 September 2024.
61. Gisbert L. Brunner (19 October 2023). "Swatch Sistem51 – ein Uhrwerk mit System" (https://
www.uhrenkosmos.com/swatch-sistem51-werk-und-konstruktionsweise/).
uhrenkosmos.com (in German). Retrieved 23 September 2024.
62. Stephen Pulvirent (30 April 2013). "An Exclusive Look At The Swatch Sistem51, A
Revolutionary Mechanical Watch" (https://www.hodinkee.com/articles/exclusive-hands-on-lo
ok-at-the-swatch-sistem51). hodinkee.com. Retrieved 23 September 2024.
63. "Milestones: Pioneering Work on the Quartz Electronic Wristwatch, 1962–1967" (http://ethw.
org/Milestones:Pioneering_Work_on_the_Quartz_Electronic_Wristwatch,_1962-1967).
ETHW. 31 December 2015. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20211204234636/http://et
hw.org/Milestones:Pioneering_Work_on_the_Quartz_Electronic_Wristwatch,_1962-1967)
from the original on 4 December 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
64. "In the late 1960s teams of engineers working independently in Japan, Switzerland, and the
United States used newly created electronic components to completely reinvent the
wristwatch" (https://web.archive.org/web/20151013191116/http://www.ieee-uffc.org/main/his
tory/step.pdf) (PDF). IEEE. 2000. Archived from the original (http://www.ieee-uffc.org/main/hi
story/step.pdf) (PDF) on 13 October 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2016.
65. Quartz mechanisms usually have a resonant frequency of 32768 Hz, chosen for ease of
use (being 215). Using a simple 15 stage divide-by-two circuit, this is turned into a 1 pulse
per second signal responsible for the watch's timekeeping.
66. "Bulova introduces the most accurate watch in the world, the Precisionist" (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20110310131803/http://www.crunchgear.com/2010/03/23/bulova-introduces-the-
most-accurate-watch-in-the-world-the-precisionist/). Crunch gear. 23 March 2010. Archived
from the original (http://www.crunchgear.com/2010/03/23/bulova-introduces-the-most-accura
te-watch-in-the-world-the-precisionist/) on 10 March 2011. Retrieved 8 July 2012.
67. "History of the Solar Wristwatch" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070812141728/http://www.
soluhr.com/). Soluhr.com. Archived from the original (http://www.soluhr.com/) on 12 August
2007. Retrieved 17 January 2007.
68. "Why Time Stands Still for Watchmakers" (https://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/28/business/m
edia/28adco.html). The New York Times. 28 November 2008. Archived (https://web.archive.
org/web/20090416220236/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/11/28/business/media/28adco.htm
l) from the original on 16 April 2009. Retrieved 28 November 2008.
69. Barbara Mikkelson (13 May 2011). "The Ten Ten Tenet" (http://www.snopes.com/business/m
arket/clockhands.asp). Snopes.com. Barbara and David P. Mikkelson. Archived (https://web.
archive.org/web/20230703114724/https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/the-ten-ten-tenet/)
from the original on 3 July 2023. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
70. "Tissot Silen-T User's Manual" (https://web.archive.org/web/20160303230208/http://support.
tissot.ch/usersmanual/137-en.pdf) (PDF). Support.tissot.ch. Archived from the original (htt
p://support.tissot.ch/usersmanual/137-en.pdf) (PDF) on 3 March 2016. Retrieved
28 October 2017.
71. Anita Li (14 July 2013). "Innovative Tactile Watch Helps You 'Feel What Time it Is' " (http://m
ashable.com/2013/07/13/tactile-watch-bradley/). Mashable. Archived (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20130716000923/http://mashable.com/2013/07/13/tactile-watch-bradley/) from the
original on 16 July 2013. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
72. Callum Borchers (12 July 2013). "Thanks to Kickstarter, tactile watch debuts" (https://www.b
ostonglobe.com/business/2013/07/11/watch-for-blind-kickstarter/0dt8VUnqc0hZ3z3gxUXRO
P/story.html). The Boston Globe. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20130714122829/htt
p://www.bostonglobe.com/business/2013/07/11/watch-for-blind-kickstarter/0dt8VUnqc0hZ3z
3gxUXROP/story.html) from the original on 14 July 2013. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
73. "All in Good Time: HILCO EC director donates prototype of world's first working digital watch
to Smithsonian" (http://www.texascooppower.com/texas-stories/people/all-in-good-time).
Texas Co-op Power. February 2012. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2013020902142
5/http://www.texascooppower.com/texas-stories/people/all-in-good-time) from the original on
9 February 2013. Retrieved 21 July 2012.
74. " "TI $20 Watch", The Jerome and Dorothy Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and
Innovation, [Smithsonian Institution]" (https://web.archive.org/web/20110818043131/http://in
vention.smithsonian.org/centerpieces/quartz/coolwatches/20watch.html).
Invention.smithsonian.org. Archived from the original (http://invention.smithsonian.org/center
pieces/quartz/coolwatches/20watch.html) on 18 August 2011. Retrieved 28 October 2017.
75. "Nerd Watch - Vintage Electronics Have Soul – The Pocket Calculator Show Website" (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20171029012925/http://pocketcalculatorshow.com/nerdwatch/).
Pocketcalculatorshow.com. Archived from the original (http://pocketcalculatorshow.com/nerd
watch/) on 29 October 2017. Retrieved 28 October 2017.
76. U.S. patent 4,096,550 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US4096550): Walter Boller, Marco
Donati, Juerg Fingerle, Peter Wild, Illuminating Arrangement for a Field-Effect Liquid-Crystal
Display as well as Fabrication and Application of the Illuminating Arrangement, filed 15
October 1976.
77. "Casio TA-1000 Electronic Clock & Calculator" (https://web.archive.org/web/2012041500585
9/http://pocketcalculatorshow.com/magicalgadget/index3.html). Magical Gadgets, Sightings
& Brags. Pocket Calculator Show. Archived from the original (http://pocketcalculatorshow.co
m/magicalgadget/index3.html#teletime) on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2007.
78. Peter J. Wild. "First-Hand:Liquid Crystal Display Evolution - Swiss Contributions" (http://eth
w.org/First-Hand:Liquid_Crystal_Display_Evolution_-_Swiss_Contributions). ETHW.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170703123209/http://ethw.org/First-Hand:Liquid_Cr
ystal_Display_Evolution_-_Swiss_Contributions) from the original on 3 July 2017. Retrieved
23 October 2011.
79. Ostdiek, Vern; Bord, Donald (2012). Inquiry into Physics (https://books.google.com/books?id
=YeYJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA343). Cengage Learning. p. 343. ISBN 978-1-133-71150-6.
Extract of page 343 (https://books.google.com/books?id=YeYJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA343)
80. Breithaupt, Jim (2001). Physics (https://books.google.com/books?id=uSPzV9R08nsC)
(illustrated ed.). Nelson Thornes. p. 151. ISBN 0-7487-6243-4. Extract of page 151 (https://b
ooks.google.com/books?id=uSPzV9R08nsC&pg=PT151)
81. Ge, Zhibing; Wu, Shin-Tson (2010). Transflective Liquid Crystal Displays (https://books.goog
le.com/books?id=1Sp1avgTedMC). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-0-470-68906-
6. Extract of page 39-40 (https://books.google.com/books?id=1Sp1avgTedMC&pg=PA39)
82. "The Seiko TV Watch" (https://web.archive.org/web/20141006090525/http://hightechies.co
m/gadgets/the-seiko-tv-watch.html). HighTechies.com. Archived from the original on 6
October 2014. Retrieved 23 July 2014.
83. "T001 Instruction Manual" (http://www.taschenfernseher.de/doku/doku-seikotvwatch.pdf)
(PDF). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20121030070456/http://www.taschenfernsehe
r.de/doku/doku-seikotvwatch.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 30 October 2012. Retrieved
27 May 2012.
84. "Alan's Vintage Watches" (http://alanwatch.homestead.com/page9.html). Radium Watch Dial
Pattern. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20150924131942/http://alanwatch.homestea
d.com/page9.html) from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 16 April 2015.
85. Finlay Renwick (18 November 2020). "The Digital Watch Turns 50: A Definitive History" (http
s://www.esquire.com/uk/watches/a34711480/digital-watch-history/). Esquire. "There were no
hands, instead it featured an LED "time screen" made of synthetic ruby with 27 diodes in
each digit that displayed the time for 1.25 seconds when the wearer pushed a button on the
front."
86. Benj Edwards (17 October 2018). "The Digital Watch: A Brief History" (https://www.pcmag.c
om/news/the-digital-watch-a-brief-history). PC Mag. "The display, produced by a complex
25-chip circuit, was so power-hungry that it lit up only temporarily when the user pushed a
button on the front of the unit."
87. "A Guide to "Destro": Watches from Sinn, Mühle, Citizen, and More - Worn & Wound" (http://
wornandwound.com/a-guide-to-destro-watches-from-sinn-muhle-citizen-and-more/).
Wornandwound.com. 10 May 2016. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/2017082312411
9/http://wornandwound.com/a-guide-to-destro-watches-from-sinn-muhle-citizen-and-more/)
from the original on 23 August 2017. Retrieved 28 October 2017.
88. CITIZEN "BULLHEAD" CHALLENGE TIMER
89. "Hands-On: With The Omega Seamaster Bullhead (Live Pics + Pricing)" (https://www.hodink
ee.com/articles/hands-on-with-the-omega-seamaster-bullhead-live-pics-pricing).
Hodinkee.com. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20170802210638/https://www.hodinke
e.com/articles/hands-on-with-the-omega-seamaster-bullhead-live-pics-pricing) from the
original on 2 August 2017. Retrieved 28 October 2017.
90. "Muslim watches" (https://web.archive.org/web/20150928004218/http://www.watchismo.co
m/search.aspx?find=muslim). Watchismo. Archived from the original (http://www.watchismo.
com/search.aspx?find=muslim) on 28 September 2015. Retrieved 14 April 2012.
 91. "Islamic Watch & Clock" (http://www.alfajr.com/). ALFAJR. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20120404130128/http://www.alfajr.com/) from the original on 4 April 2012. Retrieved
14 April 2012.
92. "Men's 1940 Hamilton D37 Fairchild Gun Timer Watch | Strickland Vintage Watches" (http
s://stricklandvintagewatches.com/?wpsc-product=mens-1940-hamilton-d37-fairchild-gun-tim
er-watch). stricklandvintagewatches.com. Retrieved 4 August 2025.
93. Hug, Daniel : Swatch lanciert 2015 eine intelligente Uhr. In: NZZ am Sonntag, 27 July 2014,
page 26 (German)
94. Nazanin Lankarani (21 January 2013). "Buying Back a Forgotten Chinese Heritage" (https://
www.nytimes.com/2013/01/21/fashion/21iht-acaw-pocket21.html). The New York Times.
Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201105060659/https://www.nytimes.com/2013/01/2
1/fashion/21iht-acaw-pocket21.html) from the original on 5 November 2020. Retrieved
22 January 2013. "We try to explain why it makes sense to spend $500,000 on a watch."
95. "Havocscope Counterfeit Watches Market Value: $1 billion" (http://www.havocscope.com/co
unterfeit-watches-market-value/). Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20110506003715/ht
tp://www.havocscope.com/counterfeit-watches-market-value/) from the original on 6 May
2011. Retrieved 23 March 2011.
96. Burgess, Colin; Dubbs, Chris (2007). Animals in Space: From Research Rockets to the
Space Shuttle (https://books.google.com/books?id=xSdHVIpsrKkC) (illustrated ed.).
Springer Science & Business Media. p. 213. ISBN 978-0-387-49678-8. Extract of page 213
(https://books.google.com/books?id=xSdHVIpsrKkC&pg=PA213)
97. "Russian Space Watches History" (http://www.netgrafik.ch/russian_space_watches.htm).
Netgrafik.ch. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20201212073856/http://www.netgrafik.c
h/russian_space_watches.htm) from the original on 12 December 2020. Retrieved 27 May
2012.
98. "Navitimer, the aviator favourite watch" (https://www.breitling.com/us-en/watches/navitimer/).
Breitling. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20180404200807/https://www.breitling.com/
us-en/watches/navitimer/) from the original on 4 April 2018. Retrieved 17 January 2007.
99. "Fiyta.com.cn" (https://web.archive.org/web/20070115191903/http://www.fiyta.com.cn/).
Fiyta. Archived from the original (http://www.fiyta.com.cn) on 15 January 2007. Retrieved
17 January 2007.
100. "NASAexplores 5-8 Article: What Time is It?" (https://archive.today/20061114025319/http://w
ww.nasaexplores.com/show2_5_8a.php?id=02-024&gl=58). 14 November 2006. Archived
from the original (http://www.nasaexplores.com/show2_5_8a.php?id=02-024&gl=58) on 14
November 2006. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
101. "NASAexplores - Express Lessons and Online Resources" (https://archive.today/200803041
91551/http://www.nasaexplores.com/search_nav_9_12.php?id=02-024&gl=912). 4 March
2008. Archived from the original (http://www.nasaexplores.com/search_nav_9_12.php?id=0
2-024&gl=912) on 4 March 2008. Retrieved 23 October 2011.
102. The Timex Blog. "WHAT MAKES A WATCH WATER-RESISTANT?" (https://www.timex.com/t
he-timex-blog/what-makes-a-watch-water-resistant.html). Timex. Archived (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20211227183413/https://www.timex.com/the-timex-blog/what-makes-a-watch-w
ater-resistant.html) from the original on 27 December 2021. Retrieved 27 December 2021.
103. Federal Trade Commission (16 June 1997). "FTC's Guides for Advertising and Marketing
Watches Up for Review" (https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/1997/06/ftcs-guid
es-advertising-and-marketing-watches-review). FTC.gov. Archived (https://web.archive.org/
web/20211227183419/https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/1997/06/ftcs-guides-
advertising-and-marketing-watches-review) from the original on 27 December 2021.
Retrieved 27 December 2021.
104. Code of Federal Regulations (1 January 1997). "16 CFR 245.5 - Misrepresentation of
protective features" (https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-1997-title16-vol1/pdf/CFR-19
97-title16-vol1-sec245-5.pdf) (PDF). govinfo.gov. Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/202
11227183408/https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/CFR-1997-title16-vol1/pdf/CFR-1997-titl
e16-vol1-sec245-5.pdf) (PDF) from the original on 27 December 2021. Retrieved
27 December 2001.
105. "Watch Industry Questions and Answers: Water-Resistance" (https://web.archive.org/web/20
070218121615/http://www.europastar.com/europastar/watch_tech/waterresistance.jsp).
Europa Star. VNU eMedia Inc. Archived from the original (http://www.europastar.com/europa
star/watch_tech/waterresistance.jsp) on 18 February 2007. Retrieved 17 January 2007.
106. "What you need to know about water resistance" (https://www.thewatchpages.com/is-your-w
atch-really-water-resistant/). The Watch Pages. 29 July 2020. Retrieved 14 November 2023.
107. "Watches" (http://www.jwnz.co.nz/page/watches.aspx). Jwnz.co.nz. Archived (https://web.ar
chive.org/web/20170715033823/http://www.jwnz.co.nz/page/watches.aspx) from the original
on 15 July 2017. Retrieved 28 October 2017.
年にソビエトで作られたラケタ（Ракета/Raketa）のガイガーカウンター付腕時計 -
108. "1954
ガイガーカウンターカタログ" (https://geigercounter001.blog.fc2.com/blog-entry-1688.html).
geigercounter001.blog.fc2.com. Retrieved 4 August 2025.

Further reading
Beckett, Edmund, A Rudimentary Treatise on Clocks, Watches and Bells (https://www.guten
berg.org/ebooks/17576), 1903, from Project Gutenberg
Berner, G.A., Illustrated Professional Dictionary of Horology (http://www.fhs.ch/berner/?l=e
n), Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH 1961–2012
Daniels, George, Watchmaking (https://books.google.com/books?id=ZWq8c0xvGxsC),
London: Philip Wilson Publishers, 1981 (reprinted 15 June 2011)
De Carle, Donald, (Illustrations by E. A. Ayres), Practical Watch Repairing (https://archive.or
g/details/practicalwatchre0000deca), 3rd edition, New York : Skyhorse Pub., 2008.
ISBN 978-1-60239-357-8. Significant information on watches, their history, and inner
workings.
Denn, Mark, "The Tourbillon and How It Works," IEEE Control Systems Magazine, June
2010, IEEE Control Systems Society, DOI 10.1109/MCS.2010.936291.
Donzé, Pierre-Yves. "Dynamics of innovation in the electronic watch industry: a comparative
business history of Longines (Switzerland) and Seiko (Japan), 1960-1980." Essays in
Economic & Business History 37.1 (2019): 120-145. online (https://www.ebhsoc.org/journal/i
ndex.php/ebhs/article/download/6/6)
Donzé, Pierre-Yves (2022). The business of time: A global history of the watch industry.
Manchester University Press.
Grafton, Edward, Horology, a popular sketch of clock and watch making (https://books.googl
e.com/books?id=GlIEAAAAQAAJ), London: Aylett and Jones, 1849
American and Swiss Watchmaking in 1876 by Jacques David (http://www.watkinsr.id.au/davi
d.html)
The Watch Factories of America Past and Present by Henry G. Abbott (1888) (http://www.sil.
si.edu/digitalcollections/HistoryCultureCollections/SIL-029-015/pdf/SIL-029-015.pdf)
Federation of the Swiss Watch Industry FH (http://www.fhs.ch/)
UK patent GB218487, Improvements relating to wrist watches (http://v3.espacenet.com/text
doc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=GB218487&F=0) Archived (https://web.archive.org/web/20080508
061339/http://v3.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=GB218487&F=0) 8 May 2008
 at the Wayback Machine, 1923 patent resulting from John Harwood's invention of a practical
self-winding watch mechanism.

External links
Media related to Watches at Wikimedia Commons
Budget Watch Collecting at Wikibooks

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Watch&oldid=1309307818"