John A. Macdonald became a lawyer when he was 21.

He obtained a reputation for exhibiting tenacity, forming alliances, and respecting national rights. He found common ground and recruited supporters. His party was effective at resolving problems quickly. The mutual respect between Macdonald and George-Etienne Cartier lasted for as long as both men were alive. When the united Province of Canada was in a deadlock, he cooperated with his nemesis George Brown to crash a party in the Atlantic colonies, and present the case for Confederation. He learned from the failure of federalism in the U. S. that a strong central government was essential for national unity. After the success of Confederation in 1867, Macdonald became Canada's first Prime Minister. He convinced a major railway company to begin a railway which would stretch across the country. Macdonald's government fell to a scandal manufactured by his opponents but regained the mandate of the voters after a economically depressing period of Liberal government. Macdonald's National Policy of protectionism, railways, and settlement contriubuted to an economic recovery. He was determined to maintain Canada's economic independence and build a self-sufficient economy. Sir John A. died two months after winning an election which was in fact a national referendum on unrestricted free trade with the United States.1 John A. Macdonald was born in Scotland in January 1815, and grew up in Upper Canada, amid rebellions and American raids. He began apprenticeship as a lawyer at an the age of 17, and was admitted to the Upper Canada bar at the age of 21. He gained a reputation as a man who enjoyed a difficult challenge by defending clearly hopeless cases. The most significant of John A. Macdonald's achievements before Confederation were his work towards the advancement of the LiberalConservative party and his alliance with francophone Canada. He believed in respecting FrenchCanadian nationality. The majority of French-Canadians would support the Liberal-Conservatives for about half a century. The union which he engineered between the Reform faction and the old
1

David Orchard. The Fight for Canada: Four centuries of resistance to American expansionism, (Westmount, Quebec: Robert Davies Multimedia Publishing Inc., 2002), 81

Conservatives would dominate Canadian politics until his death in 1891. This party accomplished the abolition of feudalism in October 1854 soon after coming to power, and resolved the difficult problem of the clergy reserves.2 Macdonald's alliance with George-Etienne Cartier, known as The Lightning Striker, would last until Cartier's death from Bright's disease, and would make Confederation possible.3 By 1864, politicians from west and east Canada province were in a stalemate. The Province of Canada, united in the aftermath of Lord Durham's report, was divided into French and Englishspeaking factions. A proposal be francophone members would be opposed by members from Canada West, and vice versa.4 The American Civil War was in progress, which meant that Canada was likely to be the main theatre of any war between Britain and the Northern States. British America would be stronger united than separate. Macdonald was a late convert to the idea of Confederation, but once he realized that it was better than the divisiveness of the nominally united Province of Canada, he worked tirelessly towards the goal of colonial unity. When Macdonalds Liberal rival George Brown suggested a coalition which would work together to achieve a federation of British North American colonies, John Alexander Macdonald and the rest of the coalition set out for Charlottetown, where a Maritime Union Conference was in progress.5 On August 29, the steamer Queen Victoria left Quebec city for Prince Edward Island with a full load of champagne.6 Because the Maritime delegates did not have much on their agenda, the well-prepared representatives from the Province of Canada were able to deliver effective speeches. John A. showed off his knowledge of British history, and Cartier and Brown

2 3 4 5 6

Heath Mcquarrie, The Conservative Party, (McLelland and Stewart Ltd., Toronto), 13 Orchard, 71 Mcquarrie, 22 Desmond Morton, A Short History of Canada, (Hurtig Publishers Ltd., Edmonton), 73 James H. Marsh, The Persuasive Power of Champagne, (Historica Foundation of Canada, <http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com>, 2007)

lectured concerning their areas of expertise.7 A week of substance-enhanced recreation and a change of scenery to Halifax and Saint John mellowed the Maritime politicians enough to agree to another conference in Quebec on October 10. At Quebec, John A. explained the failure of the federal system in the U. S. A. and proposed a strong central government. His political partner Cartier, however, advocated provincial powers sufficient to fill the function of the old Quebec Act and maintain francophone Catholic identity. The Quebec Conference led to the London Conference, and the drafting of the B. N. A. act. After receiving royal assent, Confederation passed a vote by Canadian politicians in Canada West by a large majority and among francophone politicians by a much smaller majority.8 Macdonald had used his legal expertise and political experience to become the major contributor to Canadian Confederation, and he became the first Prime Minister of the Dominion of Canada on July 1, 1867 and was knighted by the Queen.9 During Macdonald's first administration from 1867 to 1873 Canada acquired Rupert's Land from the Hudson's Bay Company, and welcomed British Columbia, P. E. I., and Manitoba as new provinces. Plans were made for a railway which would link B. C. with Montreal without going through the U. S. The railway became a major political issue, and the 1872 election was closely won. On April 2 1873, the Liberals alleged that the C. P. R. company had won the trans-national railroad contract because of which party it supported in the previous election. There was really only one railway company with the finances and the engineering experience to build the railroad, and since the Liberals were against a national railroad, the Canadian Pacific Railroad company contributed money to the election campaigns of Cartier and Macdonald. Despite having not gained personally from the campaign contributions, Macdonald lost supporters because of the Liberal allegations, and the government

7 8 9

Donald Creighton, The Young Politician, (Macmillan, Toronto, 1965), 365 Morton, 74 J. K. Johnson, John A. Macdonald, (Historica Foundation of Canada, <http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com>, 2007)

resigned in November 1973.10 Macdonald's party lost the election in 1874.11 Fortunately for Macdonald, the Liberals gained power just in time for an economic depression. When manufacturers failed to convince the Liberals to protect domestic industry with tariffs in their 1876 budget, Macdonald's Conservatives promised to implement their own tariff system, which would allow domestic finished products to compete with cheap imports. This system, along with the national railroad and the settling of the West, was called the National Policy. Tariffs on raw materials were lowered, and production costs were reduced. The National Policy helped the Sir John A. as well, by enriching wealthy businessmen who would support the Conservative Party.12 The last spike of the Canadian Pacific Railway was finally driven in November 1885, completing the CPR line in half the time specified in the contract.13 In 1880, Canadian National identity was strengthened with the appointment of the first High Commissioner for Canada, who fulfilled the function of ambassador to Britain. In 1890, the McKinley tariff on Canadian wheat exports to the U. S. was levied. Sir John's effort to negotiate a limited reciprocal trade agreement was thwarted, so he followed a strategy which was designed to ensure Canadian independence from the U. S. for decades to come. He opposed the Liberal platform of Unrestricted Reciprocity, and the even more extreme scheme of commercial union with the States.14 Sir John appealed to Canadian nationalism, and promised to his audiences that With my utmost effort, with my latest breath, will I oppose the 'veiled treason' which attempts with sordid means and mercenary proffers to lure our people from their allegiance. He published a pamphlet drawn up by Liberal supporters which explained how Americans could force Canada into surrender.15 American
10 11 12

13 14 15

Mcquarrie, 37 P. B. Waite, Pacific Scandal, (Historica Foundation of Canada, <http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com>, 2007) Robert Craig Brown, National Policy, (Historica Foundation of Canada, <http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com>, 2007) Mcquarrie, 44 Morton, 111 Morton, 112

politicians talked openly of forcing the assimilation of the Dominion of Canada through trade policies. Edward Blake, the former Liberal leader, publicly opposed Laurier's trade policy. The 1891 election proved to be too exhausting for the old lion, and he died two months after the election. He indeed defended the nation that he founded with his latest breath.16 The Right Honourable Sir John Alexander Macdonald, Knight Commander of the Bath, was the man who was responsible more than any other for the creation and survival of the Dominion of Canada. The Scottish-born lawyer was involved in Canadian politics for forty-eight years, and was the leader of the Liberal-Conservative coalition of francophone and English-speaking reformers and Tories for most of his adult life. His party ended the feudal system in Canada. As a father of Confederation, he was the main author of the B. N. A. act. The trans-national railroad that he worked relentlessly to complete opened up the prairies and linked B. C. with Ontario and Quebec. His government fell to a politically motivated scandal, but regained the confidence of the electorate and saw the country recover from an economic depression. His brand of protectionism provided a top-down boost to the Canadian economy and promoted east-west trade in defiance of geography and politics. Canada got its first de facto ambassador to Britain during his government. He fought against the seemingly inevitable incorporation of Canada into the United States, and remained popular until his death. 17

16 17

Mcquarrie, 53 Donald Creighton, The Old Chieftain, (Macmillan, Toronto, 1965), 552

The Father of Canada

Joseph Vautour

John F. Ross C.V.I. CHW 4U1 Mr. Price 06. 18. 07.

Works Cited Robert Craig Brown, National Policy, (Historica Foundation of Canada, <http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com>, 2007) Donald Creighton, The Young Politician, (Macmillan, Toronto, 1965) Donald Creighton, The Old Chieftain, (Macmillan, Toronto, 1965) J. K. Johnson, John A. Macdonald, (Historica Foundation of Canada, <http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com>, 2007) David Orchard. The Fight for Canada: Four centuries of resistance to American expansionism, (Westmount, Quebec: Robert Davies Multimedia Publishing Inc., 2002) James H. Marsh, The Persuasive Power of Champagne, (Historica Foundation of Canada, <http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com>, 2007) Heath Mcquarrie, The Conservative Party, (McLelland and Stewart Ltd., Toronto) Desmond Morton, A Short History of Canada, (Hurtig Publishers Ltd., Edmonton) P. B. Waite, Pacific Scandal, (Historica Foundation of Canada, <http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com>, 2007)