Understanding EIA

Environment Impact Assessment or EIA can be defined as the study to

predict the effect of a proposed activity/project on the environment. A
decision making tool, EIA compares various alternatives for a project and
seeks to identify the one which represents the best combination of economic
and environmental costs and benefits.
 What is EIA?
 Evolution of EIA
 History of EIA in India
 The EIA process
 Forms of impact assessment
 Comparative review of EIA procedures and practices
 
1. What is EIA?
Environment Impact Assessment or EIA can be defined as the study to
predict the effect of a proposed activity/project on the environment. A
decision making tool, EIA compares various alternatives for a project and
seeks to identify the one which represents the best combination of economic
and environmental costs and benefits. 
EIA systematically examines both beneficial and adverse consequences of
the project and ensures that these effects are taken into account during project
design. It helps to identify possible environmental effects of the proposed
project, proposes measures to mitigate adverse effects and predicts whether
there will be significant adverse environmental effects, even after the
mitigation is implemented. By considering the environmental effects of the
project and their mitigation early in the project planning cycle, environmental
assessment has many benefits, such as protection of environment, optimum
utilisation of resources and saving of time and cost of the project. Properly
conducted EIA also lessens conflicts by promoting community participation,
informing decision makers, and helping lay the base for environmentally
sound projects. Benefits of integrating EIA have been observed in all stages
of a project, from exploration and planning, through construction, operations,
decommissioning, and beyond site closure. 
2. Evolution of EIA
EIA is one of the successful policy innovations of the 20th Century for
environmental conservation. Thirty-seven years ago, there was no EIA but
today, it is a formal process in many countries and is currently practiced in
more than 100 countries. EIA as a mandatory regulatory procedure originated
in the early 1970s, with the implementation of the National Environment
Policy Act (NEPA) 1969 in the US. A large part of the initial development
took place in a few high-income countries, like Canada, Australia, and New
Zealand (1973-74). However, there were some developing countries as well,
which introduced EIA relatively early - Columbia (1974), Philippines
(1978). 

The EIA process really took off after the mid-1980s. In 1989, the World
Bank adopted EIA for major development projects, in which a borrower
country had to undertake an EIA under the Bank's supervision (see table 1:
Evaluation and history of EIA). 

Table 1: Evolution and history of EIA

  Development of EIA
 
Pre-1970 Project review based on the technical/engineering
  and economic analysis.

Limited consideration given to environmental

consequences.
 
Early/mid – 1970s EIA introduced by NEPA in 1970 in US.
 
Basic principle: Guidelines, procedures including
public participation requirement instituted.

Standard methodologies for impact analysis

developed (e.g. matrix, checklist and network).

Canada, Australia and New Zealand became the

first countries to follow NEPA in 1973-1974.
Unlike Australia, which legislated EIA, Canada
and New Zealand established administrative
procedures.

Major public inquires help shape the process's

 development.
 
Late 1970 and early More formalised guidance.
1980s
  Other industrial and developing countries
introduced formal EIA requirements (France, 1976;
Philippines, 1977), began to use the process
informally or experimentally ( Netherlands, 1978)
or adopted elements, such as impact statements or
reports, as part of development applications for
planning permission (German states [lander],
Ireland).

Use of EA by developing countries (Brazil,

Philippines, China, Indonesia)

Strategic Environment Assessment[1] (SEA), risk

analysis included in EA processes[2].

Greater emphasis on ecological modelling,

prediction and evaluation methods.
 

Provision for public involvement.

 
Coordination of EA with land use planning
processes.
 
Mid 1980s to end of In Europe, EC Directive on EIA establishes basic
decade principle and procedural requirements for all
  member states.

Increasing efforts to address cumulative effects.

World Bank and other leading international aid

agencies establish EA requirements.

Spread of EIA process in Asia.

  
1990s Requirement to consider trans-boundary effects
  under Espoo convention.

Increased use of GIS and other information

technologies.

Sustainability principal and global issues receive

increased attention.

India also adopted the EIA formally.

 
Formulation of EA legislation by many developing
countries.

Rapid growth in EA training.

 
Source: International Study of the Effectiveness of Environmental
Assessment, final report, Environmental assessment in a changing world,
Prepared by Barry Sadler, June 1996.
 
[1]Definition of SEA: Policy tool to assess the environmental
consequences of development policies, plans and programmes
[2]Definition of risk assessment: An instrument for estimating the
probability of harm occurring from the presence of dangerous conditions
or materials at a project site. Risk represents the likelihood and
significance of a potential hazard being realized
 
3. History of EIA in India
The Indian experience with Environmental Impact Assessment began over 20
years back. It started in 1976-77 when the Planning Commission asked the
Department of Science and Technology to examine the river-valley projects
from an environmental angle. This was subsequently extended to cover those
projects, which required the approval of the Public Investment Board. Till
1994, environmental clearance from the Central Government was an
administrative decision and lacked legislative support.

On 27 January 1994, the Union Ministry of Environment and Forests (MEF),

Government of India, under the Environmental (Protection) Act 1986,
promulgated an EIA notification making Environmental Clearance (EC)
mandatory for expansion or modernisation of any activity or for setting up
new projects listed in Schedule 1 of the notification. Since then there have
been 12 amendments made in the EIA notification of 1994. 

The MoEF recently notified new EIA  legislation in September 2006. The
notification makes it mandatory for various projects such as mining, thermal
power plants, river valley, infrastructure (road, highway, ports, harbours and
airports) and industries including very small electroplating or foundry units
to get environment clearance. However, unlike the EIA Notification of 1994,
the new legislation has put the onus of clearing projects on the state
government depending on the size/capacity of the project.

Certain activities permissible under the Coastal Regulation Zone Act, 1991
also require similar clearance. Additionally, donor agencies operating in
India like the World Bank and the ADB have a different set of requirements
for giving environmental clearance to projects that are funded by them.
4. The EIA process 
The stages of an EIA process will depend upon the requirements of the
country or donor. However, most EIA processes have a common structure
and the application of the main stages is a basic standard of good practice. 

The environment impact assessment consists of eight steps with each step
equally important in determining the overall performance of the project.
Typically, the EIA process begins with screening to ensure time and
resources are directed at the proposals that matter environmentally and ends
with some form of follow up on the implementation of the decisions and
actions taken as a result of an EIA report. The eight steps of the EIA process
are presented in brief below:

 Screening: First stage of EIA, which determines whether the proposed

project, requires an EIA and if it does, then the level of assessment
required. 
 
 Scoping: This stage identifies the key issues and impacts that should
be further investigated. This stage also defines the boundary and time
limit of the study.
 
 Impact analysis: This stage of EIA identifies and predicts the likely
environmental and social impact of the proposed project and evaluates
the significance.
  Mitigation: This step in EIA recommends the actions to reduce and
avoid the potential adverse environmental consequences of
development activities.

 Reporting: This stage presents the result of EIA in a form of a report

to the decision-making body and other interested parties. 
 Review of EIA: It examines the adequacy and effectiveness of the EIA
report and provides the information necessary for decision-making.
 
 Decision-making: It decides whether the project is rejected, approved
or needs further change.
 
 Post monitoring: This stage comes into play once the project is
commissioned. It checks to ensure that the impacts of the project do
not exceed the legal standards and implementation of the mitigation
measures are in the manner as described in the EIA report. 

The overview of the EIA process is represented in figure 1.

Figure 1: Generalised process flow sheet of the EIA process

Source: The manual in perspective, EIA Training Resource Manual, United

Nations Environment Programme, 2002
5. Forms of impact assessment
There are various forms of impact assessment such as Health Impact
Assessment (HIA) and Social Impact Assessment (SIA) that are used to
assess the health and social consequences of development so that they are
taken into consideration along with the environmental assessment. One of the
forms of impact assessment is strategic environment assessment, which is
briefly discussed below:

i. Strategic environment assessment

Strategic Environment Assessment (SEA) refers to systematic analysis of the
environmental effects of development policies, plans, programmes and other
proposed strategic actions. This process extends the aims and principles of
EIA upstream in the decision-making process, beyond the project level and
when major alternatives are still open. SEA represents a proactive approach
to integrating environmental considerations into the higher levels of decision-
making. 

Despite its wide use and acceptance, EIA has certain shortcomings as a tool
for minimising environmental effects of development proposals. It takes
place relatively late at the downstream end of the decision making process,
after major alternatives and directions have been chosen (see table 3:
Difference in EIA and SEA).

Table 3: Difference in EIA and SEA

 
Environment impact assessment Strategic environment assessment
         Takes
place at end of decision-          Takes
place at earlier stages of
making cycle decision making cycle
         Reactive
approach to         Pro-active
approach to
development proposal development proposals
         Identifies
specific impacts on         Also
identifies environmental
the environment implications, issues of
         Considers
limited number of sustainable development
feasible alternatives         Considers
broad range of
         Limited review of cumulative potential alternatives
effects         Early
warning of cumulative
         Emphasis
on mitigating and effects
minimizing impacts         Emphasis
on meeting
         Narrow perspective, high level environmental objectives,
of detail maintaining natural systems
         Well-defined
process, clear         Broad
perspective, lower level
beginning and end of detail to provide a vision and
overall framework
         Focuses
on standard agenda,
treats symptoms of          Multi-stage
process,
environmental deterioration overlapping components, policy
level is continuing, iterative
         Focuses
on sustainability
agenda, gets at sources of
environmental deterioration
 Source: EIA Training Resource Manual, 2nd edition, 2002, United
Nations Development Programme
SEA had limited development and implementation till 1990. However, after
1990, a number of countries in developed economies adopted SEA. Some
countries such as Canada and Denmark have made provision for SEA of
policy, plans and programmes separately from EIA legislation and procedure.
Other countries such as Czech Republic, Slovakia, etc have introduced SEA
requirements through reforms in EIA legislation and in case of United
Kingdom through environmental appraisal. While in New Zealand and
Australia, it is a part of resource management or biodiversity conservation
regimes. The adoption of SEA is likely to grow significantly in the coming
years especially with directives by European Union and Protocol to the
UNECE Convention on Transboundary EIA by signatory countries (with a
provisional date of May 2003 for completion). 

6. Comparative review of EIA procedures and practices

 
Developed countries EIA in developing EIA in India
countries
Well-framed EIA Lack of formal EIA Formal legislation for
legislation in place. For legislation in many EIA. It has been
instance, in Canada, developing countries. enacted by making an
Canadian Environmental For instance, EIA is not amendment in the
Assessment Act mandatory in many Environment
regulates EIA while EU African countries Protection Act 1986.
countries are guided by
Directive on EIA
(1985).
In developed countries, Limited involvement of Limited involvement
active involvement of all public and government of public and
participants including agencies in the initial government agencies
competent authority, phases. This often in the initial phases.
government agencies results in poor
and affected people at representation of the
early stages of the EIA. issues and impacts in
This makes the process the report, adversely
more robust and gives a affecting the quality of
fair idea of issues, which the report.
need to be addressed in
the initial phase of EIA.
Integrated approach to Mainly environmental No provision in place
EIA followed. All aspects considered. to cover landscape
aspects including social Poor on social or health and visual impacts in
and health taken into aspects. the Indian EIA
account. regulations
Proper consideration of The consideration of Same as developing
alternatives in EIA alternatives in countries
developing countries is
more or less absent.
The process of screening In developing countries, Screening done on
is well defined. For screening practice in the basis of a defined
instance, in EU EIA is weak. In most list. Threshold values
countries competent cases, there is a list of on the size of the
authorities decide activities that require project has been used
whether EIA is required EIA but without any to decide whether the
after seeking advice threshold values. project will be
from developer, NGO cleared by the state
and statutory consultees. government or the
In Japan, screening central government.
decision is made by the
authorizing agency with
respect to certain
criteria. In Canada,
federal authority
determines whether an
environmental
assessment is required or
not.
Scoping process is Scoping process in Earlier scoping was
comprehensive and most developing done by consultant or
involves consultation countries is very poorly proponent with an
with all the stakeholders. defined. In many inclination towards
In many countries like countries including meeting pollution
US, Netherlands, China, Pakistan, etc. control requirements,
Canada and Europe, the there is no provision for rather than
involvement of the scoping. In some addressing the full
public and their concern countries like in Nigeria range of potential
are addressed in the and Indonesia, a term of environmental
scoping exercise. reference is followed impacts from a
Besides this, funding for scoping while in proposed
organisations such as some countries like development.
World Bank, ADB and Ghana, Taiwan and However, the new
ERDB have provision Chile, a general notification has put
for consultation with the checklist is followed. In the onus of scoping
affected people and countries where it is on the expert
NGOs during undertaken, there is no committee based on
identification of issues public consultation the information
in scoping exercise. during scoping. provided by the
Moreover, in most proponent.
developing countries, Consultation with
scoping is often public is optional and
directed towards depends on the
meeting pollution discretion of the
control requirements, expert committee.
rather than addressing  
the full range of
potential environmental
impacts from a
proposed development.
Most reports in local Most reports in English Most reports in
language and not in the local English and not in the
language. local language. In
some case, executive
summary is translated
into local language.
A multi-disciplinary Lack of trained EIA Same in India.
approach. Involvement professionals often Preparation of EIA is
of expert with expertise leads to the preparation done by consultants.
in different areas. of inadequate and Therefore, the
irrelevant EIA reports selection criterion for
in developing countries the organisation is
fees/cost rather than
the expertise of EIA
team. 
Two tier of EIA review, Poor review or In India too, EIA
One conducted after the monitoring. review is not upto the
completion of EIA to marks. The review
check the adequacy and agency called Impact
effectiveness of EIA and Assessment Agency
the second done before (IAA) lacks inter-
decision-making. disciplinary capacity.
No representation of
 NGO in IAA, which
is a violation of the
EIA notification.
Expertise in EIA: The The expertise in EIA is Expertise in this area
International slowly developing. In is developing.
Association for Impact most cases, students
Assessment (AIA) and from the developing
other organisations countries go to the
demonstrate that there developed countries to
are a large number of gain knowledge of the
individuals with the subject.
capability to design,
conduct, review and
evaluate EIAs from
countries of the North.
The major portion of
teaching about
environmental
assessment also takes
place in industrial
countries.
Source: Compiled by Industry & Environment Unit, Centre for
Science & Environment, 2006
 
REF: https://www.cseindia.org/understanding-eia-383