Indian philosophy
Main article: Indian philosophy
Adi Shankara is one of the most frequently studied Hindu philosophers.[34][35]
Indian philosophy (Sanskrit: darśana, lit. 'point of view', 'perspective')[36] refers to the diverse
philosophical traditions that emerged since the ancient times on the Indian subcontinent. Indian
philosophical traditions share various key concepts and ideas, which are defined in different ways
and accepted or rejected by the different traditions. These include concepts such
as dhárma, karma, pramāṇa, duḥkha, saṃsāra and mokṣa.[37][38]
Some of the earliest surviving Indian philosophical texts are the Upanishads of the later Vedic
period (1000–500 BCE), which are considered to preserve the ideas of Brahmanism. Indian
philosophy is commonly grouped based on their relationship to the Vedas and the ideas contained in
them. Jainism and Buddhism originated at the end of the Vedic period, while the various traditions
grouped under Hinduism mostly emerged after the Vedic period as independent traditions. Hindus
generally classify Indian philosophical traditions as either orthodox (āstika) or heterodox (nāstika)
depending on whether they accept the authority of the Vedas and the theories
of brahman and ātman found therein.[39][40]
The schools which align themselves with the thought of the Upanishads, the so-called "orthodox" or
"Hindu" traditions, are often classified into six darśanas or
philosophies:Sānkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā and Vedānta.[41]
The doctrines of the Vedas and Upanishads were interpreted differently by these six schools
of Hindu philosophy, with varying degrees of overlap. They represent a "collection of philosophical
views that share a textual connection," according to Chadha (2015). [42] They also reflect a tolerance
for a diversity of philosophical interpretations within Hinduism while sharing the same foundation. [ii]
Hindu philosophers of the six orthodox schools developed systems of epistemology (pramana) and
investigated topics such as metaphysics, ethics, psychology (guṇa), hermeneutics,
and soteriology within the framework of the Vedic knowledge, while presenting a diverse collection of
interpretations.[43][44][45][46] The commonly named six orthodox schools were the competing philosophical
traditions of what has been called the "Hindu synthesis" of classical Hinduism.[47][48][49]
There are also other schools of thought which are often seen as "Hindu", though not necessarily
orthodox (since they may accept different scriptures as normative, such as the Shaiva Agamas and
Tantras), these include different schools of Shavism such as Pashupata, Shaiva Siddhanta, non-
dual tantric Shavism (i.e. Trika, Kaula, etc.).[50]
The parable of the blind men and the elephant illustrates the important Jain doctrine of anēkāntavāda
The "Hindu" and "Orthodox" traditions are often contrasted with the "unorthodox" traditions
(nāstika, literally "those who reject"), though this is a label that is not used by the "unorthodox"
schools themselves. These traditions reject the Vedas as authoritative and often reject major
concepts and ideas that are widely accepted by the orthodox schools (such as Ātman, Brahman,
and Īśvara).[51] These unorthodox schools include Jainism (accepts ātman but rejects Īśvara, Vedas
and Brahman), Buddhism (rejects all orthodox concepts except rebirth and
karma), Cārvāka (materialists who reject even rebirth and karma) and Ājīvika (known for their
doctrine of fate).[51][52][53][54][55][iii][56][57]
Jain philosophy is one of the only two surviving "unorthodox" traditions (along with Buddhism). It
generally accepts the concept of a permanent soul (jiva) as one of the five astikayas (eternal, infinite
categories that make up the substance of existence). The other four
being dhárma, adharma, ākāśa ('space'), and pudgala ('matter'). Jain thought holds that all existence
is cyclic, eternal and uncreated.[58][59]
Some of the most important elements of Jain philosophy are the Jain theory of karma, the doctrine of
nonviolence (ahiṃsā) and the theory of "many-sidedness" or Anēkāntavāda. The Tattvartha Sutra is
the earliest known, most comprehensive and authoritative compilation of Jain philosophy. [60][61]
Buddhist philosophy
Main article: Buddhist philosophy
Monks debating at Sera monastery, Tibet, 2013. According to Jan Westerhoff, "public debates constituted the
most important and most visible forms of philosophical exchange" in ancient Indian intellectual life. [62]
Buddhist philosophy begins with the thought of Gautama Buddha (fl. between 6th and 4th century
BCE) and is preserved in the early Buddhist texts. It originated in the Indian region of Magadha and
later spread to the rest of the Indian subcontinent, East Asia, Tibet, Central Asia, and Southeast
Asia. In these regions, Buddhist thought developed into different philosophical traditions which used
various languages (like Tibetan, Chinese and Pali). As such, Buddhist philosophy is a trans-
cultural and international phenomenon.
The dominant Buddhist philosophical traditions in East Asian nations are mainly based on
Indian Mahayana Buddhism. The philosophy of the Theravada school is dominant in Southeast
Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand.
Because ignorance to the true nature of things is considered one of the roots of suffering (dukkha),
Buddhist philosophy is concerned with epistemology, metaphysics, ethics and psychology. Buddhist
philosophical texts must also be understood within the context of meditative practices which are
supposed to bring about certain cognitive shifts. [63]: 8 Key innovative concepts include the four noble
truths as an analysis of dukkha, anicca (impermanence), and anatta (non-self).[iv][64]
After the death of the Buddha, various groups began to systematize his main teachings, eventually
developing comprehensive philosophical systems termed Abhidharma.[63]: 37 Following the
Abhidharma schools, Indian Mahayana philosophers such
as Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu developed the theories of śūnyatā ('emptiness of all phenomena')
and vijñapti-matra ('appearance only'), a form of phenomenology or transcendental idealism.
The Dignāga school of pramāṇa ('means of knowledge') promoted a sophisticated form of Buddhist
epistemology.
There were numerous schools, sub-schools, and traditions of Buddhist philosophy in ancient and
medieval India. According to Oxford professor of Buddhist philosophy Jan Westerhoff, the major
Indian schools from 300 BCE to 1000 CE were:[63]: xxiv the Mahāsāṃghika tradition (now extinct),
the Sthavira schools (such as Sarvāstivāda, Vibhajyavāda and Pudgalavāda) and
the Mahayana schools. Many of these traditions were also studied in other regions, like Central Asia
and China, having been brought there by Buddhist missionaries.
After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, some of these philosophical traditions continued to
develop in the Tibetan Buddhist, East Asian Buddhist and Theravada Buddhist traditions.[65][66]
