INDIA

TRADITIO
N
NS,
CULTURE
 OUTLINES
• Module 3- Indian Religion, Philosophy and
Practices

Pre Vedic and Vedic Religion, Buddhism, Jainism, Six System Indian Philosophy,
Shankar Acharya, Various Philosophical Doctrines, Other Heterodox Sections,
Bhakti Movement, Sufi Movement, Socio religious reform movement of 19th
century, Modern religious practices.
 PRE-VEDIC RELIGION
• Roots in Mesolithic prehistoric religion around 8000 BCE.

• Several tribal religion still exist.

• Indus Valley Civilization (3300-1700 BCE) has evidence of swastika.

• There are no religious buildings or evidence of elaborate burials. If there

were any temples, they have not been identified.

• The so called Pashupati (SHIVA- Lord of animals) seal has been found from
Indus Valley sites.
Pashupati seal from Indus Valley Civilization
Made up of steatite, found in modern day Pakistan in 1928
 VEDIC RELIGION
• 1500- 600 BCE.
• Major civilization that occurred in India after Indus Valley Civilization
• Vedas were composed in this period and there comes the name VEDIC.
• Started with the coming of Aryans or Indo-Aryans.
• The word ‘VEDA’ is derived from Sanskrit word ‘Vid’ which means
knowledge.
 VEDIC TEXTS
• Written and handed down orally over about 10 centuries (15 – 5 century BCE)
• Composed in Sanskrit as the earliest books of mankind
• Occupy a unique position in the world of literature
• Considered as a supreme authority in all matters concerning religion, laws
and social conduct.
• Authors : Rishi families like KANVAS,KASHYAPS, AGASTYAS,
VISHWAMITRAS, VASHISTS etc.
• Classification: Initially only one collection of all the sacred mantras (25000 or
more). Later for purpose of study and preservation, the single collection was
divided in four parts by VEDA VYASA.
• RIG VEDA, SAMA VEDA, YAJUR VEDA, ATHARVA VEDA
 VEDIC TEXTS
• RIG VEDA : Book of Verses. Around 1000 hymns addressed to various deities
mostly to serve the needs of priest class who were custodians of that sacred
literature.

• SAMA VEDA: Book of Chants. Inspired from previous one. Added the musical
notation and composition to aid the performance of rituals.

• YAJUR VEDA: Book of Sacrificial prayers. Deals with the duties of priests.

• ATHARVA VEDA: Book of Magical Spells. Related to Ayurveda.

 VEDIC TEXTS
• When Vedic religion gradually evolved into Hinduism between 6th and 2nd
century BCE, the texts taken collectively became the most sacred literature of
Hinduism.

• They are known as Shruti (What is heard), the divinely revealed section of
Hindu literature in contrast to the later religious literature known as Smriti
(What is remembered), which are traditional texts attributed to human
authors.
 VEDIC RELIGION
• Religion of Ancient Indo-European speaking people who entered India about
1500BCE from Persia(Iran).

• Oldest stratum of religious activity in India. It was one of the major traditions
that shaped Hinduism.

• Worshippers of nature , polytheism was challenged by monotheistic ideas.

• Upanishad section of Vedic literature envisage a progressive outlook.

• They followed the traditional lines while others followed the path of
unorthodoxy.
BUDDHISM
• Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (563 BCE - 483 BCE).
• His teachings became the foundation for the Buddhism.
• In 3rd century BCE, King Ashoka made Buddhism the state religion of India.
• Buddhism spreaded beyond India and it gained extreme popularity in South
East Asia.
• His teachings are known as ‘dharma’ which included wisdom, kindness,
patience, generosity and compassion.
• He mentioned four noble truths for mankind
• (i) Truth of suffering: where there is life there is pain.
• (ii) Cause of suffering: desire is the ultimate cause of suffering.
• (iii)End of suffering: state of freedom from desire, pain and any kind of
attachment, state of complete peace leading to Nirvana.
• (iv) Path of Liberation: path that frees us from suffering.
 BUDDHISM
• He taught his followers that the end of suffering could be achieved by following
Eight fold path:
1. Right understanding
2. Right thought
3. Right speech
4. Right action
5. Right livelihood
6. Right effort
7. Right mindfulness
8. Right concentration
 JAINISM
• Started by Vardhman Mahavira (540 BCE- 468 BCE)
• As per Jainism he was the last (24th) Tirthankara of Jainism. Rishabhdeva was
the first and Parsavanath was 23rd.
• Jainism is believed to be an eternal dharma, with the tirthankars directing each
cycle of cosmological time.
• Main religious ethics/vows of Jain religion are No Violence, No Possession of
materialistic values , No Stealing, No Lies and Celibacy
• Jain religion denies the supremacy of Vedas and condemn Vedic Rituals.
• Strict Vegetarian lifestyle, main motto of life is to help one another are also
the traits of Jain religion.
• It rejects the existence of God and emphasizes that world was created by nature
and it continues on its own through the cycle of rise and fall.
• They also believe that suffering can be controlled by peace of mind and seeking
the right knowledge and perception by right conduct.
 JAINISM
• Jainism also mention three virtues or three jewels of life to achieve the
enlightenment :
1. Right faith
2. Right knowledge
3. Right conduct/actions

• Jainism is divided in two sub sections: Shwetambars and Digambaras

BUDDHISM and JAINISM
• Both rejects notions and grand rituals associated with the Vedas.
• Both Gautama Buddha and Mahavira were born in royal families both
renounced their comfortable lifestyle to attain enlightenment.
• Both stressed the principle of non violence.
• Both believes in the concept of Karma.
• Both denies the existence of God as the creator of universe. They also denies
the supremacy of holy texts and importance given to them.

• Both believes in the concept of reincarnation which is the rebirth of the soul in a
new body after the death of the previous body.
 BUDDHISM v/s JAINISM
BUDDHISM JAINISM
Rebirth is one of the principal beliefs Cycle of birth and death will continue due to
good or bad deeds.

Principle teaching: life means suffering and to Emphasis on respect of all living beings.
escape suffering one needs to follow four noble Liberation by attaining five vows and following
truths and practice eight noble paths. three jewels.

Two major sections : Mahayana and Theravada Two major sections : Shwetambars and
Digambars

Founded in 6th century BCE in modern day Nepal Founded in 5th century BCE in Northern India

Followers in Thailand, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, USA, South American continent, also in smaller
Nepal, Bhutan, Japan, Tibet, China, Vietnam, islands nations in South Asia.
Mongolia, Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong etc.
 Six System Indian Philosophy
• Philosophy arose in India as an enquiry into the mystery of life and
existence.
• Indian Philosophy refers to several traditions of philosophical thought
that originated in the Indian subcontinent.
• Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa, Uttara Mimamsa
• Each differs in one way or other in terms of concepts, phenomena, laws and
domains.
Six System Indian Philosophy
1. NYAYA: it states that nothing is acceptable unless it is in accordance
with reason and experience (scientific approach). Nyaya is
considered as a technique of logical thinking

• Gautama Muni is the author of Nyaya Sutras which says that there are four
means of attaining a valid knowledge: perception, inference, comparison
and verbal testimony.
Six System Indian Philosophy
2. VAISHESHIKA : considered as the realistic and objective philosophy of
universe. Vaisheshika thinkers believe that all objects of the universe
are composed of five elements–earth, water, air, fire and ether.

• They believe that God is the guiding principle. The living beings were
rewarded or punished according to the law of karma, based on
actions of merit and demerit.

• Vaisheshika and Nyaya schools eventually merged because of their

closely related metaphysical theories (Vaisheshika only accepted
perception and inference as sources of valid knowledge).
• Author was KONADA KASHAYAP
Six System Indian Philosophy
3. SAMKHYA : Samkhya is the oldest of the orthodox philosophical
systems, and it postulates that everything in reality stems from
purusha (self, soul or mind) and prakriti (matter, creative agency,
energy).

• Purush cannot be modified or changed while prakriti brings change in

all objects.

• KAPILA MUNI was the author of Samkhya Philosophy

Six System Indian Philosophy
4. YOGA : Founded by Patanjali.
• Yogic techniques control body, mind & sense organs, thus considered
as a means of achieving freedom from diseases. This could be attained by
practicing:

• Self control (Yama)

• Observation of rules (Niyama)
• Fixed postures (Asana)
• Breath control (Pranayama)
• Choosing an object (Pratyahara)
• Fixing the mind (Dharna)
• Concentrating on the fixed object (Dhyana)
• Complete dissolution of body mind and object (Samadhi)
Six System Indian Philosophy
5. PURVA MIMAMSA : Founded by JAIMINI.

• This philosophy encompasses the Nyaya-vaisheshika systems and

emphasizes the concept of valid knowledge. According to Purva
Mimamsa, Vedas are eternal and possess all knowledge.

• According to Mimamsa philosophy Vedas are eternal and possess all

knowledge, and religion means the fulfilment of duties prescribed by
the Vedas.

• It says that the essence of the Vedas is dharma. By the execution of

dharma one earns merit which leads one to heaven after death.
Six System Indian Philosophy
6. UTTARA MIMAMSA aka VEDANTA :
• It concentrates on the philosophical teachings of the Upanishads
(mystic or spiritual contemplations within the Vedas), rather than the
Brahmanas (instructions for ritual and sacrifice).

• The school separated into three sub-schools, each interpreting the

texts in its own way and producing its own series of sub-
commentaries: Advaita (Adi Shankara),Visishtadvaita (Ramanuja)
and Dvaita (Madhvacharya)

• All three accepted Vedas as the only valid means of knowledge

SHANKARACHARYA
• Indian Philosopher and theologian who consolidated the doctrine of
VEDANTA.
• Known as ADI SHANKARA born 788 AD in Kerala.
• Devotee of Lord Shiva. He propounded the Doctrine of Advaita and
wrote many commentaries on the Vedic canon (Upanishads, Brahma
Sutras and Bhagavad Gita) in Sanskrit.
• Opposed Buddhist Philosophy and was responsible for reviving
Hinduism in India to a great extent when Buddhism was gaining
popularity.
• Established four Mathas in the four corners of India at Shingeri, Puri,
Dwaraka and Badrinath– for propagation of Sanathana Dharma
• Wrote Brahmasutrabhasya, Nirvana Shatakam and Prakaran
Granths.
HETERODOX SECTIONS
• Before 6th century BCE there were number of religious movements
that had an impact on the Indian philosophy.

• It included various acceptance or denial of concept of the ethics,

materialism, atheism etc.

• It idealized extreme asceticism over family life and strict non-

violence over violence and non vegetarian consumption.

• There were two main religiously sophisticated movements which

gained most significance : BHAKTI MOVEMENT and SUFI
MOVEMENT
 BHAKTI MOVEMENT
• Important landmark in cultural history of medieval India.
• Silent revolution in society brought by religious reformers.
• Responsible for many variations in rites and rituals associated with
the worship of God by Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs of India.
• Eg. Kirtan at temples, Qawwali at dargah and Gurbani at gurdwaras
are all derived from the Bhakti movement of medieval India(800-
1700 AD).
• Main leaders: SHANKARACHARYA, CHAITANYA MAHAPRABHU AND
NAMADEVA etc.

• Major achievement: abolition of idol worship, unity of God or one

God, condemnation of rituals, sacrifices and blind faith, open
minded approach to religious matters and no distinction of castes.
SUFI MOVEMENT
• In 7th century AD traders from Saudi Arabia who traded with India’s
western coastline brought Islam to India.
• There after the faith spread to north and it rose to prominence
during the Delhi Sultanate’s rule in 10th and 11th centuries AD.
• A liberal reform movement inside Islam was Sufi Movement.
• Originated in Persia and extended to India in 11th century.
• It incorporated many Indian ideas in Islam including postures, music
and dance. Hindus and Muslims both had believers in Sufism.
• There were two Sufi orders: BASHARA (strict Islamic believers) and
BESHARA (liberal approach to religion).
• It disapproved of the moral decay and show of wealth that followed
the formation of Islamic empire. Their main belief was real worship
meant service to mankind and self control was necessary to acquire
knowledge.
 SOCIO RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS OF 19TH CENTURY
• Aimed at modernizing Indian Society through social restructuring.
• Two types in nature : REFORMIST and REVIVALIST
• REFORMIST: responded with the time and scientific temper of the
modern era.
• REVIVALIST: started reviving ancient Indian traditions and thoughts
and believed that western thinking ruined Indian culture and ethos.

• BRAHMO SAMAJ: founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy (1772-1833) in

Calcutta in 1828. Fought against idolatry, polytheism, casteism,
pointless rituals, Sati, polygamy, child marriage etc. In addition
fought for women’s rights such as widow remarriage and female
education. Also opposed the prevalent Hindu Superstitions.
 SOCIO RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS OF 19TH CENTURY
• ALIGARH MOVEMENT: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan in 1875. Established
Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College in Aligarh to give Muslims
access to modern education. Later its name changed to Aligarh
Muslim University.
• PRARTHANA SAMAJ: established 1867 in Bombay with the objective
of rational worship and social reform. Preached Monotheism and
denounced priestly domination and caste distinctions.

• ARYA SAMAJ: Social and religious reform movement by Swami

Dayanand Saraswati(1824-1883) who founded Arya Samaj in 1875.
Mainly opposed child marriage, animal sacrifice, polytheism and
caste system. Women empowerment and social equality were also
promoted.
 SOCIO RELIGIOUS REFORM MOVEMENTS OF 19TH CENTURY
• RAMAKRISHNA MISSION: Swami Vivekananda established it in 1897
in Calcutta to spread the teachings of his teacher Ramakrishna
Paramahansa. Abolition of untouchability and caste system were
two main objectives of this mission.

• SATYASHODHAK SAMAJ: Founded by Jyotirao Phule in 1873 in

Bombay. Against upper caste domination and social inequality. Its
main objectives were social service and spread of education among
women and people of lower caste.
• It was aimed at complete abolition of caste system and gave a sense
of identity to the depressed communities as a class against Brahmins
who were seen as exploiters.