Module 3 1.
Pre-Vedic and Vedic Religion
🔹 Pre-Vedic Religion (Indus Valley Civilization)
● Polytheistic nature; worship of nature (trees, animals, water, fertility symbols).
● Presence of Mother Goddess, proto-Shiva (Pashupati), and sacred animals.
● Use of fire altars and ritual bathing (Great Bath).
● Religion was non-scriptural, symbolic, and largely ritualistic.
🔹 Vedic Religion
● Based on four Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur, Atharva.
● Ritual sacrifices (Yajnas) to appease deities like Indra (rain), Agni (fire), Varuna (cosmic
order).
● Emphasis on karma (action), ritualism, and dharma (duty).
● Gradual evolution from polytheism to monotheism in Upanishadic phase (Brahman =
universal soul).
☸️ 2. Buddhism
● Founded by Gautama Buddha (563–483 BCE).
● Preached Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path.
● Opposed Vedic rituals, caste system, and animal sacrifice.
● Belief in Ahimsa, karma, re-birth, and nirvana (liberation).
● Divided into Theravāda, Mahāyāna, and Vajrayāna.
🕊️ 3. Jainism
● Founded by Mahavira (599–527 BCE), 24th Tirthankara.
● Core principles: Ahimsa (non-violence), Anekantavada (many-sidedness), Aparigraha
(non-possession).
● Dualistic philosophy: Soul (Jiva) and matter (Ajiva).
● Rejected Vedic authority, rituals, and caste system.
● Two sects: Shwetambara (white-clad) and Digambara (sky-clad/naked ascetics).
🧠 4. Six Systems of Indian Philosophy (Shad Darshanas)
All six are orthodox (accept the Vedas as authority):
School Founder Key Focus
Nyaya Gautama Logic and reasoning
Vaisheshika Kanada Atomic theory of universe
Samkhya Kapila Dualism of Purusha (spirit) & Prakriti (matter)
Yoga Patanjali Control of mind and body to attain liberation
Purva Mimamsa Jaimini Ritualism and Dharma
Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa) Badarayana Spiritual monism (Brahman = ultimate reality)
🧘 5. Shankaracharya (Adi Shankara)
● 8th-century philosopher and reformer.
● Propounded Advaita Vedanta (non-dualism): Atman = Brahman.
● Opposed ritualism and caste rigidity; promoted Jnana Yoga (path of knowledge).
● Wrote commentaries on Upanishads, Gita, and Brahma Sutras.
● Established four mathas (monastic centers) in India.
🌀 6. Various Philosophical Doctrines
● Dvaita (Dualism) – by Madhvacharya: God and soul are distinct.
● Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Monism) – by Ramanuja: God is the whole, souls are parts.
● Shuddhadvaita – by Vallabhacharya: Absolute non-dualism; devotion is key.
● Nimbarka’s Bhedabheda: God is both different and non-different from soul.
🚫 7. Other Heterodox Sects
● Charvaka/Lokayata: Materialistic, atheist school; rejected karma, soul, afterlife.
● Ajivika: Fatalistic sect; belief in niyati (fate) and no free will.
● Rejected Vedas and concepts like moksha.
🙏 8. Bhakti Movement
● Emerged during 7th–17th centuries in South & North India.
● Emphasized personal devotion to a deity (Vishnu, Shiva, or Shakti).
● Opposed casteism, ritualism; encouraged equality and love.
● Saints: Alvars, Nayanars, Kabir, Tulsidas, Mirabai, Surdas, etc.
● Spread spiritual vernacular literature and poetry.
🕯️ 9. Sufi Movement
● Islamic mystical tradition promoting love, equality, and devotion to God.
● Emphasized tolerance, universal brotherhood, and simple living.
● Saints: Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti, Nizamuddin Auliya, Bulleh Shah, etc.
● Built bridges between Hindu-Muslim communities.
🏛️ 10. Socio-Religious Reform Movements of 19th Century
● A response to social evils and colonial influence:
○ Raja Ram Mohan Roy – Brahmo Samaj (against Sati, for women’s rights)
○ Dayanand Saraswati – Arya Samaj (return to Vedas, against idol worship)
○ Swami Vivekananda – Ramakrishna Mission (spiritual nationalism)
○ Syed Ahmed Khan – Aligarh Movement (Muslim education reform)
○ Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar – Widow remarriage, women education.
🛕 11. Modern Religious Practices
● Continued influence of Bhakti and Sufi traditions.
● Rise of spiritual leaders like Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, Sadhguru, Mata Amritanandamayi.
● Interfaith dialogue, yoga, and meditation adopted globally.
● Digitalization of spirituality – online sermons, e-puja, festivals via social media.
● Environmental ethics integrated with spirituality (eco-temples, river worship, etc.)
☸️ Four Noble Truths (Arya Satya)
These are the essence of Buddha's teaching to understand and overcome suffering (dukkha):
1. Dukkha – The Truth of Suffering
○ Life is full of suffering – birth, old age, disease, death, separation from loved ones,
etc.
○ Even happiness is temporary, so attachment causes pain.
2. Samudaya – The Truth of the Cause of Suffering
○ Suffering is caused by desire (tanha), attachment, greed, anger, and ignorance.
○ Craving leads to rebirth and continued suffering.
3. Nirodha – The Truth of the End of Suffering
○ If desire is removed, suffering ends.
○ This is called Nirvana – a state beyond pain, craving, and rebirth.
4. Magga – The Truth of the Path to End Suffering
○ The way to end suffering is by following the Eightfold Path.
🛤️ Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga)
This path is the practical guide to living a balanced and mindful life. It’s divided into 3 categories:
1. Wisdom (Prajna)
● Right View – Understanding the truth of suffering and karma.
● Right Intention – Thinking with compassion and without hatred or greed.
2. Ethical Conduct (Sila)
● Right Speech – Avoid lying, gossip, or hurtful talk.
● Right Action – Do not harm others, follow moral conduct.
● Right Livelihood – Choose a job that doesn't harm others (no weapons, slaughter, etc.).
3. Mental Discipline (Samadhi)
● Right Effort – Develop good thoughts, avoid bad ones.
● Right Mindfulness – Be aware of your thoughts, feelings, and actions.
● Right Concentration – Practice meditation to gain inner peace and wisdom.
🧘 Summary in One Line:
The Four Noble Truths tell us why we suffer, and the Eightfold Path tells us how to
stop suffering.
📚 The Four Vedas – Overview
Veda Meaning Main Focus Style
Rig Veda Praise/Vers Hymns dedicated to deities like Agni, Indra, Varuna Poetry
e
Sama Veda Melody Musical chants and hymns used during rituals Music
Yajur Veda Sacrifice Instructions and formulas for performing rituals Prose +
Verse
Atharva Veda Knowledge Spells, charms, medicine, philosophy, daily life Mixed
🕉️ 1. Rig Veda (ऋग्वेद) – Oldest & Most Important
● Composed around 1500 BCE.
● Contains 1,028 hymns (suktas) in 10 Mandalas (books).
● Devoted to natural forces (devas) like:
○ Agni (fire), Indra (war), Varuna (cosmic order), Soma (divine drink).
● Introduced Gayatri Mantra (in praise of Savitar/Sun).
● Source of early philosophy, cosmology, and social values.
🎶 2. Sama Veda (सामवेद) – Veda of Melodies
● Derived mostly from Rigveda but set to music.
● Used by priests (udgātṛs) in yajnas (rituals).
● Basis of Indian classical music traditions.
● Focus on rhythm, melody, and chants during sacrifices.
🔥 3. Yajur Veda (यजर्वेु द) – Veda of Rituals
● Deals with ritual instructions and formulas for conducting sacrifices.
● Divided into two:
○ Shukla (White) Yajurveda – well-arranged verses.
○ Krishna (Black) Yajurveda – unorganized, mixed with commentary.
● Used by priests called adhvaryu during yajnas.
✨ 4. Atharva Veda (अथर्ववेद) – Veda of Daily Life & Magic
● Contains hymns, incantations, charms, and healing remedies.
● Covers medicine, health, sorcery, peace, and house rituals.
● Gives insight into the lives of common people.
● Philosophical ideas and early thoughts of Upanishads also included.
🧠 Fun Fact:
Each Veda has four parts:
1. Samhita – Collection of hymns
2. Brahmana – Ritual explanations
3. Aranyaka – Meditative forest texts
4. Upanishad – Spiritual and philosophical teachings
Module 1 🏛️ 1. Theories of the Origin of State in
Ancient India
🔹 1.1 Evolutionary Theory
● The most accepted theory.
● Suggests that the state evolved gradually from family → clan → tribe → community →
state.
● Originated due to social needs like protection, food, justice.
🔹 1.2 Force Theory
● State was created by powerful individuals or warriors using force to dominate others.
● Might made right — the strongest became kings.
🔹 1.3 Mystical Theory
● The state and king were considered divine or God-chosen.
● King is the representative of God on earth. Popular in Manusmriti and other texts.
🔹 1.4 Contract Theory
● Based on an agreement between ruler and ruled.
● People gave up some freedoms for security and law & order.
● Found in Mahabharata and other epics.
🏗️ 2. Stages of State Formation in Ancient India
1. Tribal society (kin-based leadership).
2. Clan-based chiefdoms.
3. Janapadas (small territorial states).
4. Mahajanapadas (16 major states).
5. Empires (like Maurya & Gupta).
👑 3. Kingship in Ancient India
● King (Raja) was central authority, symbol of unity.
● Considered divine, but accountable to dharma (moral code).
● Performed Ashwamedha Yajna, Rajasuya Yajna to establish power.
🏢 4. Council of Ministers (Mantri Parishad)
● King was assisted by:
○ Purohita (priest/advisor)
○ Senapati (army chief)
○ Amatya (finance & administration)
○ Gramika (village head)
● Consulted on war, finance, justice, and diplomacy.
🧾 5. Political Ideals in Ancient India
● State should ensure justice, protection, and welfare.
● King must follow Raj Dharma (ethical governance).
● Popular texts: Arthashastra (by Kautilya), Manusmriti.
🫂 6. Conditions for the Welfare of Society
● No excessive taxation
● Peace and justice
● Protection of weak and poor
● Encouragement of trade, agriculture, and education
🧩 7. The Seven Limbs of the State (Saptanga Theory)
As per Arthashastra, a state has 7 essential elements:
Element Description
Swami (King) Head of the state
Amatya (Ministers) Advisors and administrators
Janapada (Territory) Land and people
Durga (Fort) Defence mechanism
Kosha (Treasury) Economy and resources
Danda (Army) Military force
Mitra (Allies) Friendly states and diplomacy
🏺 8. Society in Ancient India
🔹 Purusārthas – Four Aims of Life
1. Dharma – Righteousness, moral duties
2. Artha – Wealth and prosperity
3. Kama – Desire and pleasure
4. Moksha – Liberation from rebirth
🧘 9. Varnāshrama System
🔹 Varna – Four-fold Class System
1. Brahmins – Priests, teachers
2. Kshatriyas – Warriors, rulers
3. Vaishyas – Merchants, farmers
4. Shudras – Servants, laborers
Varna was originally based on qualities (Guna) and duties (Karma), but later became
hereditary and rigid.
🔹 Ashrama – Four Stages of Life
1. Brahmacharya – Student stage
2. Grihastha – Householder stage
3. Vanaprastha – Forest dweller/retired life
4. Sannyasa – Renunciation/liberation
💍 10. Marriage in Ancient India
● Considered a sacred duty (sanskar).
● Various types: Brahma, Gandharva, Rakshasa, etc.
● Women's role: loyalty, motherhood, domestic responsibility.
🚺 11. Understanding Gender as a Social Category
● Patriarchal society: Women were considered dependent on men.
● However, early Vedic texts mention women scholars like Gargi, Maitreyi.
👩🎓 12. Representation of Women in Historical Traditions
● Early Vedic: Equal status; allowed education & debates.
● Later Vedic: Decline in status; limited rights.
● Post-Vedic: Restricted to home, denied property and education.
🚫 13. Challenges Faced by Women
● Child marriage, Sati, purdah, lack of education
● Limited property rights.
● Social evils increased in medieval and post-Vedic periods.
🧱 14. Four-Class Classification (Chaturvarna)
● Concept from Rig Veda – Purusha Sukta.
● Brahmana (mouth), Kshatriya (arms), Vaishya (thighs), Shudra (feet).
● Led to social hierarchy and caste divisions later.
🔗 15. Slavery in Ancient India
● Known as Dasa or Dasi.
● Mostly prisoners of war, debt-bonded, or born into slavery.
● Could be freed under special conditions.
● Regulated in texts like Manusmriti, but not racially based.
People became slaves due to:
1. War Captivity – Prisoners of war were often enslaved.
2. Debt Bondage – People unable to repay debts were sold as slaves.
3. Criminal Punishment – Slavery could be a sentence for crimes.
4. Born into Slavery – Children of slaves automatically became slaves.
5. Voluntary Slavery – Poor individuals sometimes sold themselves or their children
Module 5 🏛️ 1. Indian Architecture
🔹 Ancient Indian Architecture:
● Harappan (Indus Valley): Planned cities, drainage systems, Great Bath, granaries.
● Mauryan Era: Ashokan pillars, stupas (Sanchi), rock-cut caves (Barabar hills).
● Gupta Period: Temples like Dashavatara Temple, Ajanta Caves.
● Dravidian Style (South): Meenakshi Temple (Madurai), Brihadeeswara Temple.
● Nagara Style (North): Khajuraho Temples, Sun Temple (Konark).
🔹 Features:
● Use of stone, symmetry, symbolism, sculptures.
● Emphasis on spirituality and cosmic geometry.
🛠️ 2. Engineering and Architecture in Ancient India
● Concepts from Vaastu Shastra: principles of energy flow in buildings.
● Use of geometry, astronomy, and water engineering (step wells, tanks).
● Iron pillar of Delhi – corrosion-resistant metallurgical marvel.
● Bamboo and stone bridges, temple construction without cement.
🗿 3. Sculptures
● Indus Valley: Terracotta figurines, bronze "Dancing Girl", stone priest.
● Maurya & Gupta: Yaksha-Yakshi, Ashoka's lion capital.
● Chola period: Nataraja (cosmic dance of Shiva).
● Used in temples, caves (Ellora, Ajanta).
🔖 4. Seals and Coins
● Seals (Indus Valley): Pictographic script, animals (unicorn, bull).
● Used for trade and identity.
● Ancient coins: Made of gold, silver, copper.
○ Issued by Mauryas, Guptas, Kushanas.
○ Displayed kings, deities, symbols.
🍶 5. Pottery
● Indus Valley: Red and black pottery.
● Painted Grey Ware (PGW): Vedic period.
● Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW): Mauryan era.
● Terracotta toys and utensils as everyday items and religious artifacts.
🎭 6. Puppetry
● Traditional storytelling + drama using puppets:
○ Kathputli (Rajasthan) – string puppets.
○ Bommalattam (Tamil Nadu) – rod and string.
○ Gombeyatta (Karnataka), Tholu Bommalata (Andhra Pradesh) – shadow puppets.
● Themes: epics, mythology, folk tales.
💃 7. Dance
● Classical Dances (8 recognized):
○ Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu)
○ Kathak (North India)
○ Kathakali & Mohiniyattam (Kerala)
○ Odissi (Odisha)
○ Manipuri (Manipur)
○ Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh)
○ Sattriya (Assam)
● Folk Dances: Garba, Bihu, Ghoomar, Lavani, Chhau, Dandiya.
🎶 8. Music
● Two Major Traditions:
○ Hindustani (North): sitar, tabla, khayal, dhrupad.
○ Carnatic (South): veena, mridangam, kriti.
● Samaveda – basis of ancient Indian music.
● Contributions of Tansen, Thyagaraja, etc.
🎭 9. Theatre & Drama
● Rooted in Natya Shastra (by Bharata Muni).
● Sanskrit Theatre: Kalidasa’s Abhijnanasakuntalam.
● Folk Theatre Forms:
○ Yakshagana (Karnataka)
○ Jatra (Bengal)
○ Nautanki (UP)
○ Bhavai (Gujarat)
🎨 10. Painting
● Prehistoric Rock Art: Bhimbetka caves.
● Ajanta and Ellora murals (Gupta era).
● Miniature paintings – Mughal, Rajasthani, Pahari styles.
● Modern styles: Bengal school, folk arts (Madhubani, Warli, Kalamkari).
🥋 11. Martial Arts Traditions
● Kalaripayattu (Kerala): oldest martial art.
● Silambam (Tamil Nadu), Thang-Ta (Manipur).
● Traditional training included yoga, meditation, and combat skills.
🎡 12. Fairs and Festivals
● Religious Fairs: Kumbh Mela, Rath Yatra, Pushkar Fair.
● Harvest Festivals: Pongal, Bihu, Onam, Makar Sankranti.
● Cultural Festivals: Holi, Diwali, Eid, Christmas, Navratri.
● Promote unity in diversity.
🌍 13. India’s Cultural Contribution to the World
● Yoga and Ayurveda – adopted globally.
● Zero, decimal system, astronomy.
● Spiritual philosophy – Vedanta, Buddhism.
● Indian cuisine, music, and clothing influence global trends.
● Sanskrit & Buddhist texts studied worldwide.
🎬 14. Indian Cinema
● Began with Raja Harishchandra (1913) by Dadasaheb Phalke.
● Two major types:
○ Mainstream (Bollywood, Tollywood) – entertainment and drama.
○ Parallel Cinema – realistic themes (Satyajit Ray, Shyam Benegal).
● Indian cinema has become a soft power promoting Indian values and diversity.
● National Film Awards and International recognition (Oscars, Cannes).
✅ Summary Points for Exam
Art Form Example
Architecture Brihadeeswara Temple, Sanchi Stupa
Sculpture Nataraja, Lion Capital
Dance Bharatanatyam, Kathak
Music Hindustani, Carnatic
Theatre Yakshagana, Jatra
Painting Ajanta Caves, Madhubani
Martial Arts Kalaripayattu, Silambam
Festival Kumbh Mela, Diwali
Module 4 🔭 1. Astronomy in India
● Known as Jyotish Shastra (science of celestial bodies).
● Vedanga Jyotisha is one of the earliest texts on astronomy.
● Famous ancient astronomers:
○ Aryabhata: Earth rotates, solar & lunar eclipses explained scientifically.
○ Varahamihira: Authored Brihat Samhita – astronomy + astrology.
○ Bhaskara I & II: Predicted planetary motions, authored Siddhanta Shiromani.
● Concepts like nakshatras (constellations), tithis (lunar days) were used for calendars and
agriculture.
⚗️ 2. Chemistry in India
● Ancient Indian chemists practiced Rasayana Shastra (alchemy).
● Use of chemicals in dyes, cosmetics, metallurgy, and medicine.
● Nagarjuna: Famous for his work on mercury and alchemy.
● Techniques like distillation, sublimation, calcination used in Ayurveda and metallurgy.
➗ 3. Mathematics in India
● India is the birthplace of zero (0) and decimal system.
● Aryabhata: Place value system, approximation of π (pi), trigonometry.
● Brahmagupta: Rules for zero, negative numbers, and algebra.
● Bhaskara II: Calculus concepts like derivatives and infinity before Newton.
● Use of mathematics in architecture, astronomy, engineering, and trade.
🧲 4. Physics in India
● Ancient Indian physics dealt with concepts of:
○ Motion (Gati), force (Bal), atoms (Anu, Paramanu).
● Kanada (founder of Vaisheshika school): Atomic theory of matter.
● Surya Siddhanta contains astronomical and physical concepts like gravity.
🌾 5. Agriculture in India
● Use of seasonal cycles, lunar calendars for crop planning.
● Techniques:
○ Crop rotation, irrigation, composting.
○ Domestication of animals like cows, buffalo, elephants.
● Ancient texts like Krishi-Parashara, Manasollasa discuss farming methods.
💊 6. Medicine in India
● Ayurveda – world's oldest medical system.
● Founders:
○ Charaka (Charaka Samhita) – internal medicine.
○ Sushruta (Sushruta Samhita) – surgery; described 100+ surgical instruments.
● Concepts: Tridosha (Vata, Pitta, Kapha), Panchamahabhuta (five elements).
● Other systems: Unani, Siddha, Yoga therapy.
🧪 7. Metallurgy in India
● Highly advanced since Harappan times.
● Famous examples:
○ Iron Pillar of Delhi – rust-resistant.
○ Zinc distillation in Zawar (Rajasthan).
○ Extraction of gold, silver, copper from ores.
● Tools made of bronze, iron, and steel.
🗺️ 8. Geography in India
● Knowledge of mountains, rivers, monsoons, soil types.
● Early Indian texts mapped out routes, regions, and climatic zones.
● Varahamihira’s works detailed natural geography, rain cycles, earthquakes.
🧬 9. Biology in India
● Study of plants and animals found in Ayurveda and Upanishads.
● Classification of herbs, animals, and human anatomy.
● Observation of plant-based medicines, animal behavior, and embryology.
🛕 10. Harappan Technologies
● Urban planning: grid-based cities, drainage systems, toilets.
● Engineering: baked bricks, granaries, dockyards (Lothal).
● Tools made of copper, bronze, and stone.
● Advanced weighing systems and measurements.
💧 11. Water Management in India
● Ancient systems:
○ Step wells (baolis), tanks, dams, canals.
● Harappan cities had underground drainage.
● Kalinga & Mauryan era: large-scale irrigation projects.
● Arthashastra mentions water tax and canal maintenance.
🧵 12. Textile Technology in India
● Known for cotton weaving and silk spinning.
● Use of natural dyes (indigo, turmeric).
● Exported fine muslin, silk, and woolen fabrics.
● Spinning wheel and looms used.
📝 13. Writing Technology in India
● Scripts used:
○ Brahmi (used by Ashoka), Kharosthi, Nagari, later Devanagari.
● Palm leaf manuscripts, birch bark, and copper plates used for writing.
● Epigraphy: art of inscription on stone and metal.
🔥 14. Pyrotechnics in India
● Use of fireworks, gunpowder, explosives during medieval period.
● Used in festivals, military, and rituals.
● Concepts of chemical reactions known in Ayurveda and Rasashastra.
🛒 15. Trade in Ancient India
● Well-developed internal and foreign trade.
● Exports: spices, textiles, ivory, pearls, metals.
● Sea trade with Rome, China, Egypt, Southeast Asia.
● Use of coins, seals, weights, and barter systems.
● Silk Route and Spice Route helped in cultural exchange.
🌍 16. India’s Dominance up to Pre-Colonial Times
● India was known as "Sone ki Chidiya" (Golden Bird).
● Contributed 25–30% of world GDP before 17th century.
● Major hub of science, trade, spirituality, and education.
● Home to Takshashila and Nalanda – top global universities.
● Rich in agriculture, textile, metallurgy, medicine, and philosophy.
✅ Summary Table for Revision:
Field Key Contribution
Astronomy Aryabhata, planetary motion
Chemistry Rasashastra, mercury use
Mathematics Zero, decimal system, algebra
Medicine Ayurveda, surgery (Sushruta)
Metallurgy Rust-free iron pillar, zinc production
Agriculture Crop cycles, irrigation systems
Trade Exports to Rome, China, Arabia
Writing Brahmi script, palm leaf manuscripts
Module 2 1. Evolution of Script in India
🔹 Harappan Script
● Belongs to the Indus Valley Civilization (2500–1900 BCE).
● Still undeciphered.
● Found on seals, pottery, copper plates.
● Written left to right and right to left (boustrophedon).
● Likely used for trade and identity.
🔹 Brahmi Script
● Earliest deciphered script of India.
● Used by Emperor Ashoka in his inscriptions (3rd century BCE).
● Mother of most Indian scripts (like Devanagari, Tamil, Bengali).
● Read left to right.
● Found in Ashokan Edicts across India and Sri Lanka.
📚 2. Vedic and Post-Vedic Literature
🔹 The Vedas (1500–500 BCE)
● Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda.
● Written in Vedic Sanskrit.
● Contain hymns, rituals, philosophy, prayers.
● Foundation of Hindu religious knowledge.
🔹 The Upanishads
● Philosophical texts that explore spiritual ideas, karma, moksha, Brahman.
● Considered Vedanta (the end of Vedas).
● Discuss the inner meaning of life and existence.
🔹 The Ramayana (by Valmiki)
● Epic in Sanskrit about Lord Rama.
● Teaches dharma, duty, ideal character.
● Later translated into many regional languages.
🔹 The Mahabharata (by Vyasa)
● Longest epic in the world.
● Includes Bhagavad Gita, a spiritual dialogue.
● Explores dharma, karma, politics, and morality.
🔹 The Puranas
● 18 main Puranas: Bhagavata, Vishnu, Shiva, etc.
● Stories of gods, goddesses, creation, cosmology.
● Written in Sanskrit – used for popular religious education.
🕉️ 3. Buddhist and Jain Literature
🔹 Buddhist Literature
● Language: Pali (common language of the people).
● Tripitaka (Three Baskets):
1. Vinaya Pitaka (monastic rules),
2. Sutta Pitaka (sermons of Buddha),
3. Abhidhamma Pitaka (philosophy).
● Also, Jataka tales: stories of Buddha's past lives.
🔹 Jain Literature
● Language: Prakrit, Ardhamagadhi, later Sanskrit.
● Texts: Agamas (canonical scriptures), commentaries.
● Teachings of Mahavira and earlier Tirthankaras.
📘 4. Kautilya’s Arthashastra
● Written by Chanakya (Kautilya) in Sanskrit.
● Treatise on statecraft, economics, espionage, war.
● Describes duties of the king and ministers, and principles of administration.
● Comparable to Machiavelli’s "The Prince" in the West.
✍️ 5. Famous Sanskrit Authors
Author Works
Kalidasa Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghaduta
Bhasa Early Sanskrit dramas
Banabhatta Harshacharita, Kadambari
Sudraka Mricchakatika (The Little Clay Cart)
Bhavabhuti Malatimadhava, Uttara-Ramacharita
📖 6. Regional Language Literatures
🔹 Telugu Literature
● Flourished under Kakatiya and Vijayanagara empires.
● Great poets: Nannaya, Tikkana, Pothana.
● Themes: Ramayana, Mahabharata, Bhakti.
🔹 Kannada Literature
● Oldest texts: Kavirajamarga (9th century).
● Famous poets: Pampa, Ranna, Basavanna.
● Bhakti movement was strong (Veerashaiva/Lingayat poets).
🔹 Malayalam Literature
● Influenced by Sanskrit and Tamil.
● Poet: Thunchaththu Ramanujan Ezhuthachan – father of Malayalam.
● Devotional, narrative, and modern poetry.
🪷 7. Sangam Literature (Tamil)
● Ancient Tamil literature (300 BCE – 300 CE).
● Anthologies of poetry and ethics.
● Themes: Love (Akam) and war/valor (Puram).
● Works: Tolkappiyam, Purananuru, Silappadikaram, Manimekalai.
🗺️ 8. Northern Indian Languages & Literature
● Apabhramsa: Evolution stage between Sanskrit → Hindi.
● Hindi Literature:
○ Bhakti Era: Kabir (nirguna), Tulsidas (Ramcharitmanas), Surdas (Krishna Bhakti).
○ Riti Era: focus on love and beauty.
○ Modern Era: Premchand (Godan), Mahadevi Verma, Ramdhari Singh Dinkar.
🕌 9. Persian and Urdu Literature
● Brought by Turk and Mughal rulers.
● Amir Khusro: blended Persian and Hindavi – called father of Urdu.
● Persian used in royal courts and for writing histories, poetry.
● Urdu evolved in Delhi, Lucknow – known for ghazals, shayari, and nazms.
✅ Summary Table for Quick Revision
Language/Script Notable Works / Contributions
Harappan Script Still undeciphered, used in seals
Brahmi Script Used by Ashoka, ancestor of many Indian scripts
Sanskrit Vedas, epics, Puranas, drama, Arthashastra
Pali Tripitaka (Buddhist texts)
Prakrit Jain Agamas, common language texts
Tamil Sangam literature, ethical and poetic works
Telugu Ramayana translations, Bhakti poetry
Kannada Bhakti movement, Jain epics
Malayalam Mix of Sanskrit and Tamil, devotional poetry
Hindi Bhakti & Modern literature (Tulsidas, Premchand)
Urdu & Persian Poetry, court literature, cultural fusion
