Pre-Vedic Religion (Before 1500 BCE)

This refers to the religious beliefs and practices of the Indus Valley Civilization (Harappan
Civilization).

🏛 Key Features:

1. Worship of Nature and Fertility:

o People worshipped Mother Goddess (symbol of fertility).

o Worship of animals, trees, and natural forces like water and earth was
common.

2. No Temples or Idols:

o No solid evidence of grand temples.

o Religious life was simple and closely connected to nature.

3. Proto-Shiva Worship:

o A seal found at Mohenjo-daro shows a figure sitting in a yogic posture,

surrounded by animals — believed to be an early form of Lord Shiva
(Pashupati).

4. Symbolic Worship:

o Use of symbols like the swastika, linga (phallic symbol), and yoni (symbol of
female energy).

5. Burial Practices:

o People buried the dead with items, showing belief in life after death.

Vedic Religion (1500 BCE – 500 BCE)

This refers to the religion of the Aryans who composed the Vedas, especially the Rigveda
(oldest Veda).

Main Features of Early Vedic Religion:

1. Polytheism – Worship of Many Gods:

o Gods were mostly personified natural forces.

o Example:
 ▪ Agni (Fire)

▪ Indra (Rain and War)

▪ Vayu (Wind)

▪ Surya (Sun)

▪ Varuna (Cosmic Order)

2. Yajnas (Sacrificial Rituals):

o Rituals with fire were central.

o Ghee, grains, and animals were offered in fire to please gods.

3. No Temples or Idols Yet:

o Worship was done in open air or home altars.

o Priests (Brahmins) recited hymns during rituals.

4. Social Structure Began to Form:

o Varna system began:

▪ Brahmins (priests)

▪ Kshatriyas (warriors)

▪ Vaishyas (traders/farmers)

▪ Shudras (servants)

5. Emphasis on Rta (Cosmic Order):

o The idea of a natural order or universal law, maintained by gods and rituals.

Later Vedic Religion (After 1000 BCE)

The religion evolved into more philosophical and ritualistic forms.

Changes & Developments:

1. Rise of Brahminical Power:

o Rituals became more complex, performed by Brahmins only.

2. Gods Changed:
 o Importance shifted from natural gods (like Indra) to Brahma, Vishnu, and
Rudra/Shiva.

3. Emergence of Upanishads:

o Focus on inner self (Atman) and ultimate reality (Brahman).

o Spiritual knowledge was seen as higher than rituals.

4. Karma and Moksha:

o Belief in karma (action and result) and moksha (liberation from cycle of
rebirth) became central.

Key Differences at a Glance:

Feature Pre-Vedic Religion Vedic Religion

Time Before 1500 BCE 1500–500 BCE

Main Focus Fertility, Nature Worship Fire rituals, Hymns, Gods of nature

Scriptures None found Vedas (Rigveda, etc.)

Deities Mother Goddess, Proto-Shiva Indra, Agni, Varuna, later Vishnu

Rituals Simple or unknown Yajnas and fire sacrifices

Priest Class Not clearly known Brahmins

Philosophy Minimal, symbolic Developed later in Upanishads

Buddhism
Founder: Gautama Buddha (Siddhartha), around 6th century BCE
Origin: Reaction against rituals, caste, and dogmas in Vedic religion

Main Teachings:

1. Four Noble Truths (Chatur Arya Satya):

o Dukkha – Life is full of suffering.

o Samudaya – Desire (Trishna) is the cause of suffering.

o Nirodha – Ending desire ends suffering.

 o Magga – Follow the Eightfold Path to end suffering.

2. Eightfold Path (Ashtangika Marga):

o Right Understanding

o Right Thought

o Right Speech

o Right Action

o Right Livelihood

o Right Effort

o Right Mindfulness

o Right Concentration

3. Middle Path:

o Avoid extremes of luxury and self-torture.

4. No Soul (Anatta):

o Denies a permanent self or soul.

5. Karma and Rebirth:

o Good or bad actions cause rebirth, but no permanent soul travels — just a
stream of consciousness.

6. Goal: Nirvana — freedom from suffering and rebirth.

Branches:

• Theravāda – Oldest, strict, found in Sri Lanka and SE Asia.

• Mahāyāna – Compassion-focused, with Bodhisattvas (help others reach nirvana).

• Vajrayāna – Mixed with Tibetan practices and mantras.

Jainism
Founder: Mahavira (24th Tirthankara), 6th century BCE
Origin: Also a reaction against ritualism, believes in a long line of spiritual teachers
(Tirthankaras).

Main Teachings:
 1. Five Great Vows (Mahavratas) – especially for monks:

o Ahimsa – Non-violence (most important)

o Satya – Truth

o Asteya – No stealing

o Brahmacharya – Celibacy

o Aparigraha – Non-possession

2. Jiva and Ajiva:

o Jiva – Soul (eternal, conscious)

o Ajiva – Non-soul (matter, time, motion, etc.)

3. Karma:

o Karma is a real substance that binds to the soul due to bad actions.

4. Goal: Moksha – Liberation of the soul from karma.

5. Anekantavada:

o Truth is many-sided. One perspective is never complete (symbol: elephant

and blind men).

6. Strict Ahimsa:

o Even microscopic life should not be harmed. Extreme vegetarianism.

Sects:

• Digambara – "Sky-clad", monks do not wear clothes.

• Shvetambara – "White-clad", monks wear white robes.

Six Systems of Indian Philosophy

(Ṣaḍdarśana)
These are ancient schools of thought developed to explain life, liberation, and the universe.
All except one (Cārvāka) accept the Vedas.

1. Nyaya – Logic and Reasoning

• Focus: Knowledge through logic

 • Tools: Four Pramanas (proofs) – Perception, Inference, Comparison, and Verbal
Testimony

• Goal: Right knowledge leads to liberation

2. Vaisheshika – Atomism and Metaphysics

• Founder: Kanada

• Believes everything is made of atoms (Anu).

• Describes categories of existence: substance, quality, action, etc.

3. Sankhya – Dualism of Spirit and Matter

• Founder: Kapila

• Two eternal realities:

o Purusha – Consciousness

o Prakriti – Nature/matter

• Liberation comes when Purusha realizes it is separate from Prakriti.

4. Yoga – Practice of Discipline

• Based on Sankhya, but adds God (Ishvara)

• Founder: Patanjali (Yoga Sutras)

• Eight Limbs of Yoga (Ashtanga Yoga):

o Yama, Niyama (ethics)

o Asana (postures)

o Pranayama (breath)

o Pratyahara (withdrawal)

o Dharana (concentration)

o Dhyana (meditation)

o Samadhi (absorption)

5. Purva Mimamsa – Rituals and Dharma

• Focus: Vedic rituals are essential for dharma and liberation

• Emphasizes the power of mantras and yajnas

• No focus on God, but believes in karma and dharma

6. Vedanta (Uttara Mimamsa) – Knowledge of the Self

• Based on Upanishads and the idea of Brahman (universal soul)

• Goal: Realizing Atman = Brahman

• Branches:

o Advaita (non-dualism – Shankaracharya): Only Brahman is real.

o Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism – Ramanuja)

o Dvaita (dualism – Madhvacharya): God and soul are separate.

Summary Table:

School/Religion Focus Soul? God? Key Idea

Buddhism End of suffering No No Middle path, Nirvana

Jainism Liberation of soul Yes No Ahimsa, Karma, Anekantavada

Nyaya Logic Yes Yes Reason leads to liberation

Vaisheshika Metaphysics Yes Yes Atom theory, categories

Sankhya Dualism Yes No Purusha and Prakriti

Yoga Discipline and Meditation Yes Yes Eightfold yoga, concentration

Mimamsa Vedic Rituals Yes Indirect Karma, dharma, rituals

Vedanta Knowledge of Self Yes Yes Atman is Brahman (non-dualism)

Shankaracharya – A Great Indian Philosopher

• Adi Shankaracharya lived in the 8th century CE.

• He was a Hindu saint and philosopher who helped revive Hinduism.

• He travelled across India, teaching and debating with scholars.

What did he teach?

He started a philosophy called Advaita Vedanta:

• Advaita means “Not Two” or “Only One”.

 • He said:
→ God (Brahman) and soul (Atman) are the same.
→ The world we see is not real; it’s an illusion (Maya).
→ Our true self is not this body or mind – it is pure soul, same as Brahman.

• To get liberation (Moksha), we must realize this truth through knowledge (Jnana
Yoga).

Various Indian Philosophies (Darshanas)

Indian thinkers developed 6 main schools (called Shad-darshanas) to explain life, truth, and
liberation.

All of them believe in the Vedas.

The 6 Systems:

1. Nyaya – Logic and thinking

→ Believes that right knowledge comes from reasoning and logic.

2. Vaisheshika – Science and matter

→ Says everything is made of tiny particles (atoms). Describes the world in detail.

3. Sankhya – Nature and soul

→ Believes in two things:

o Purusha – Soul (silent observer)

o Prakriti – Nature (mind, body, world)

→ Soul gets free when it stops being attached to nature.

4. Yoga – Meditation and discipline

→ Based on Sankhya but adds God (Ishvara).
→ Uses eight steps like yoga postures, breath control, meditation, etc.

5. Mimamsa – Vedic rituals and duties

→ Believes that doing rituals and duties properly brings good results and heaven.

6. Vedanta – Knowledge of the soul

→ Says that knowing your true self (Atman) is the only way to be free.
→ Shankaracharya’s Advaita Vedanta is the most famous form.

Other Heterodox Sects (Non-Vedic)

These systems do not accept the Vedas. They are called Nāstika.

1. Buddhism

• Founded by Gautama Buddha.

• Says that suffering is part of life, and we must follow the Eightfold Path to end it.

• No belief in soul or God.

• Goal: Nirvana (freedom from suffering and rebirth)

2. Jainism

• Founded by Mahavira.

• Believes in soul (Jiva) and karma.

• Teaches non-violence (Ahimsa) and simple living.

• Goal: Moksha – free the soul from karma.

3. Charvaka (Materialism)

• Believes only in what we can see or touch.

• No soul, no God, no heaven or hell.

• Says: "Enjoy life — that’s all that matters."

4. Ajivika

• Believes that everything in life is fixed by destiny.

• Whatever happens is already decided.

• This philosophy is no longer active today.

Quick Comparison Table:

Believes in Belief in Belief in

School/Sect Path to Liberation
Vedas? Soul God

Nyaya Yes Yes Yes Logic and reasoning

Vaisheshika Yes Yes Yes Understanding the world

Sankhya Yes Yes No Realizing difference from nature

Yoga Yes Yes Yes Meditation and discipline

 Believes in Belief in Belief in
School/Sect Path to Liberation
Vedas? Soul God

Mimamsa Yes Yes Indirect Performing rituals

Self-knowledge (Atman =
Vedanta Yes Yes Yes
Brahman)

Buddhism No No No Eightfold Path, Nirvana

Jainism No Yes No Non-violence, self-effort

Charvaka No No No Live and enjoy life

Ajivika No Yes Not clear Everything is destiny

Sure! Here's a detailed and easy-to-understand explanation of the Bhakti Movement, Sufi
Movement, Socio-Religious Reform Movements of the 19th Century, and Modern
Religious Practices:

Bhakti Movement (Devotion-Based

Movement)
Time: Around 7th century to 17th century CE
Main Idea: Loving God with full devotion is the true path to salvation, not rituals or caste.

Key Features:

• Devotion (Bhakti) to a personal God (like Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna, Rama, or Devi).

• Anyone—rich or poor, man or woman, any caste—could follow Bhakti.

• Opposed caste system, idol worship (in some cases), and rituals.

• Simple language: saints used regional/local languages, not Sanskrit.

Famous Saints:

• North India: Kabir, Mirabai, Tulsidas, Surdas

• South India: Alvars (Vishnu devotees), Nayanars (Shiva devotees)

• Others: Guru Nanak (founder of Sikhism)

Importance:
 • United people from different backgrounds

• Promoted equality and social harmony

Sufi Movement (Islamic Mystical Movement)

Time: Started in the 8th–9th century, became popular in India by the 12th century
Main Idea: Love and closeness to God through simplicity, devotion, and service

Key Features:

• Sufis were Muslim mystics who believed in spiritual love for God.

• Taught kindness, equality, peace, and tolerance.

• Believed in service to humanity as service to God.

• Opposed rigid religious practices and divisions.

Practices:

• Singing devotional music (called Qawwali)

• Visiting saints’ shrines (Dargahs)

→ Example: Dargah of Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer

Importance:

• Helped spread Islam in India peacefully

• Promoted Hindu-Muslim unity

Socio-Religious Reform Movements of the

19th Century
Time: 1800s
Context: British rule had started, and many Indians saw social problems like:

• Caste discrimination

• Child marriage

• Sati (burning of widows)

• Illiteracy and superstition

 Aim:

• Remove bad social practices and bring reform using reason, education, and religious
values.

Important Movements and Reformers:

Movement / Leader Beliefs and Contributions

Brahmo Samaj (Raja Ram Against Sati, child marriage, caste. Supported women’s
Mohan Roy) education. Believed in one God.

Arya Samaj (Swami Dayanand Return to pure Vedic religion. Against idol worship, caste,
Saraswati) and rituals. Promoted education.

Ramakrishna Mission (Swami Combined religion with social service. Believed all religions
Vivekananda) are true. Inspired youth.

Theosophical Society (Annie Focused on spiritualism and Indian culture. Supported

Besant) Indian independence.

Aligarh Movement (Sir Syed Worked for Muslim education and modernization. Started
Ahmad Khan) Aligarh Muslim University.

Singh Sabha Movement Reformed Sikh practices. Promoted education among Sikhs.

Prarthana Samaj (M.G.

Against caste, child marriage. Supported widow remarriage.
Ranade)

Common Focus:

• Education

• Women's rights

• Equality

• Ending superstition

Modern Religious Practices

In modern India, religious practices are changing due to education, technology, and urban
life.

Features of Modern Practice:

 1. Interfaith Respect:

o Many people now respect all religions and celebrate each other’s festivals
(e.g. Diwali, Eid, Christmas together).

2. Use of Technology:

o Live-streaming of aarti, namaz, or church services.

o Apps for reading scriptures (like Gita, Quran, Bible).

3. Spiritual, not ritualistic:

o Many young people focus more on spiritual growth (meditation, yoga) than
rituals.

4. Social Service by Religious Groups:

o Temples, Gurudwaras, churches, and mosques often run schools, hospitals,

and relief work.

5. Inter-caste and Inter-religious marriages:

o Becoming more common, showing acceptance and harmony.

6. Modern Saints and Gurus:

o Many follow modern spiritual leaders (e.g. Sri Sri Ravi Shankar, Sadhguru,
Mata Amritanandamayi, etc.)

Summary Chart:

Time
Movement/Practice Main Idea Key Figures
Period

Bhakti Movement 7th–17th C Devotion to God with love Kabir, Mirabai, Tulsidas

8th C Love of God through peace

Sufi Movement Khwaja Moinuddin Chishti
onward and service

19th Improve society using religion Raja Ram Mohan Roy,

Reform Movements
Century + reason Vivekananda

20th–21st Mix of spirituality + social Sadhguru, various

Modern Practices
C service organizations
 UNIT-4
1. Astronomy in India

• Ancient Indians were keen sky-watchers.

• The Rigveda mentions stars, planets, and sunrise-sunset cycles.

• Aryabhata (5th century CE) said:

o Earth rotates on its axis.

o Calculated the time of eclipses scientifically.

• Varahamihira (6th century): wrote about stars, weather, and astrology.

• Surya Siddhanta: a famous ancient Indian book on astronomy.

Achievements:

• Calculated planet positions.

• Explained eclipses and phases of the moon.

• Developed calendars and timekeeping.

2. Chemistry in India

• Called Rasashastra in ancient times.

• Used for medicines, dyes, perfumes, and metals.

• Developed techniques like distillation, sublimation, and filtration.

• Knew how to make soaps, alkalis, and glass.

• Nagarjuna was a famous ancient Indian chemist and alchemist.

3. Mathematics in India

• India invented zero (0) — a huge breakthrough.

• Aryabhata gave the value of pi (π) and introduced decimal system.

• Brahmagupta worked with negative numbers and algebra.

• Bhaskaracharya (12th century) wrote Lilavati, a famous math book.

• Indian math was later passed to the Arabs, and then Europe.
Contributions:

• Decimal system

• Algebra, arithmetic

• Geometry and trigonometry

4. Physics in India

• Ancient Indian texts discussed concepts of light, sound, motion, heat.

• Kanada, the sage, spoke of atoms and molecules in his Vaisheshika philosophy.

• Sound was explained as a vibration.

• Light was thought to travel in a straight line.

5. Agriculture in India

• India had advanced farming since the Harappan era (2500 BCE).

• Grew wheat, barley, rice, cotton, and sugarcane.

• Used irrigation canals, ploughs, and crop rotation.

• Texts like Krishi-Parashara explained good farming methods.

6. Medicine in India

• Known as Ayurveda (science of life).

• Two main ancient texts:

→ Charaka Samhita (internal medicine)
→ Sushruta Samhita (surgery)

Achievements:

• Described diseases, treatments, and surgery.

• Plastic surgery, cesarean, bone setting were practiced.

• Used hundreds of herbs and plants.

7. Metallurgy in India
• Ancient Indians were masters of metalwork.

• Knew how to make steel, copper, bronze, gold, silver.

• Made rust-free iron:

→ Example: Iron Pillar of Delhi (doesn’t rust even after 1600 years).

• Used zinc extraction and alloys before many other civilizations.

8. Geography in India

• Ancient texts describe rivers, mountains, seasons, and climate zones.

• Kalidasa and Varahamihira wrote about the natural environment.

• Aryabhata knew the Earth was round and rotated on its axis.

9. Biology in India

• Ayurveda classified plants, animals, and food.

• Knew about photosynthesis, animal behavior, and plant medicine.

• Varahamihira wrote about botany and zoology.

10. Harappan Technologies

• Harappan Civilization (Indus Valley) was highly advanced (c. 2500 BCE).

• Planned cities with drainage systems, brick houses, and public baths.

• Used weights and measures, potter’s wheels, and granaries.

11. Water Management in India

• Built stepwells (baolis), tanks, and canals.

• Harappans had underground drainage.

• Later, kingdoms like the Cholas built huge tanks and channels.

Famous example:

• Kallanai Dam on the Kaveri River – 2000 years old, still in use!
12. Textile Technology in India

• India was famous for cotton and silk weaving.

• Harappans spun cotton threads.

• Dyes from plants and minerals used for coloring.

• Exported fine muslin, silk, and wool to other countries.

Techniques:

• Handlooms

• Natural dyes

• Embroidery and block printing

13. Writing Technology in India

• Harappans used a script (still undeciphered).

• Later, Brahmi and Kharosthi scripts used in Ashoka’s time.

• Palm leaves and birch bark were used for writing.

• Ink and pens (kalam) were developed.

Tools:

• Stylus

• Stone inscriptions

• Copper plates

14. Pyrotechnics in India (Fireworks & Explosives)

• Used in festivals, celebrations, and military.

• Gunpowder and firecrackers became common in medieval India.

• Knowledge of combustible chemicals used in mining and warfare.

15. Trade in Ancient India

• India was rich in spices, silk, gems, metals, and textiles.

 • Traded with Egypt, Rome, China, Arabia, and Southeast Asia.

• Famous trade routes: Silk Route, Spice Route, Maritime trade (by sea).

Used coins, barter system, and built ports (like Lothal, Tamralipta).

16. India’s Dominance up to Pre-colonial Times

• Before British rule, India was one of the richest countries.

• Contributed 25% of world GDP around 1700.

• Famous for:

o Cotton textiles (like Dhaka muslin)

o Spices (pepper, cardamom)

o Metals, gems, and medicine

Strong kingdoms like:

• Maurya, Gupta, Chola, Vijayanagara, Mughal empires

India's wealth attracted traders from:

• Europe, Arabia, China, etc.

Would you like a PDF summary, table format, or flashcards for quick revision?

Sure! Here's a detailed and easy explanation of the Harappan Civilization, also known as
the Indus Valley Civilization:

Harappan Civilization (Indus Valley Civilization)

Time Period:

• Approx. 2500 BCE to 1900 BCE

• One of the oldest urban civilizations in the world (along with Egypt and
Mesopotamia)

Location:

• Spread across modern-day Pakistan and north-western India

• Main cities: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Dholavira, Lothal, Kalibangan, Rakhigarhi

Town Planning and Architecture:

1. Grid System:

o Cities were built with straight streets, like today’s modern cities.

o Roads cut each other at right angles.

2. Drainage System:

o Advanced underground drainage system.

o Every house was connected to a covered drain.

3. Brick Houses:

o Used baked bricks of standard size.

o Houses had wells, bathrooms, and courtyards.

4. Public Buildings:

o Great Bath in Mohenjo-Daro – used for ritual bathing.

o Granaries – for storing grain.

o Assembly halls and possible marketplaces.

Agriculture:

• Grew wheat, barley, peas, cotton, sesame, and dates.

• Used ploughs and irrigation.

• Dams and canals were used to manage water.

Trade and Economy:

1. Internal Trade:

o Traded with nearby villages and towns.

o Used weights and measures made of stone.

2. Foreign Trade:

o Traded with Mesopotamia (Iraq) and Persia (Iran).

 o Exported cotton, beads, ivory, and pottery.

3. Ports:

o Lothal (in Gujarat) had a dockyard, showing sea trade.

Technology and Craft:

• Excellent metalwork: copper, bronze, and gold.

• Made tools, ornaments, and statues.

• Used potter’s wheels to make fine pottery.

• Developed toys, seals, bangles, and bead jewellery.

Harappan Script:

• Used symbols or signs (called pictographs).

• Written on seals, pottery, and tablets.

• Still undeciphered – we don’t know what it says yet.

Religion and Beliefs:

• Worshipped Mother Goddess (symbol of fertility).

• Worship of nature elements like trees and animals (e.g., bull).

• No large temples found – religion might have been simple and nature-based.

• Sacred symbols: swastika, pipal tree, and lingam-like stones.

Society:

• Lived in well-planned homes – suggests equality.

• No sign of large palaces or armies.

• Likely had merchants, farmers, craftsmen, and priests.

Decline of Harappan Civilization:

Around 1900 BCE, the civilization slowly declined. Reasons may include:
 • Climate change and drought

• Floods or earthquakes

• River dried up (like the Saraswati)

• Invasion or migration by other groups

Famous Sites:

Site Present Location Special Feature

Harappa Punjab, Pakistan First site discovered

Mohenjo-Daro Sindh, Pakistan Great Bath, Granary

Dholavira Gujarat, India Water storage, large reservoirs

Lothal Gujarat, India Dockyard, bead-making industry

Kalibangan Rajasthan, India Ploughed field, fire altars

Rakhigarhi Haryana, India One of the largest sites, many skeletons found

In Summary:

• Highly advanced urban civilization

• Great engineers and planners

• Experts in trade, craft, and farming

• Mysterious due to undeciphered script

• Left behind a rich legacy in early Indian history

Would you like a mind map or quiz to help revise this easily?