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New religious sects

27 December 2023 19:11

Vratyas- mentioned in atharvaveda, it meant those people who no longer believed in the sacredness of
Vedas, he could understood as a priest of non Vedic fertility cult.

Causes of intellectual awakening of heterodox thinkers

1. Rigidity of Vedic religion provide less liberty to express other faith and ideas, sacrifices and
rituals increased and became more elaborate and expensive.
2. Growing importance of sacrifices and rituals established the domination
3. Since Vedic religion hadn't yet permeated into society, people found it easy to join these
heterodox sects
4. With urbanisation and expansion of trade people sought higher social status, which was
restricted in hindu caste system
5. Grievance of kshtriyas that staged life of ashramas was only available to Brahmins
6. Growth of trade and commerce helped in the emergence of heterodox ideas.

Upanishadic thought
1. Major Upanishads are dated between the 8th-6th century BCE.
2. Upanishad means "Sitting down near one's teacher"
3. It also means "Rahasyam", means imparted only to a few worthy ones.
4. Upanishads were a search for ultimate liberation of the soul but without the mediation of a
priest or the presence of any intermediaries.
5. It drifted away from the Vedic practices of sacrifice, yajna etc
6. There was considerable thought behind the development of new techniques of perception which
included Dhyana and yoga.
7. Aim of upanishads- MOKSHA

Atman-Brahman
• One of the most well known teaching of Atman appears in Chandayoga upanishad, as
instruction between brahmana Uddalaka aruni to his son shvetketu.
• Acc. To him Atman resides individually in every being but merges with the Brahman and
becomes one.

• Tat tvam asi- you(individual) are that (universal essence)

• Knowledge of Atman(self) leads to the leads to liberation and ultimate freedom
• Atman = Brahman(centre of upanishadic thought)

Theory of transmigration
• Brihadaranyaka upanishad has the first appearance of this doctrine in developed form.
• Thus doctrine developed in 2 stages :-
1. Those of perform good and pious deeds travel the way to their pitrayana(fathers) on the moon,
but they come back on earth once their good deeds have finished.
2. The other one is for those who cultivate faith and asceticism or tapasya, these would upon death
are liberated into the brahmana, never to be born again.
• Thus, as long as one has desires and passions, we'll be stuck in the ever existing loop of
life and death, once we renounce we are liberated
• Theory of transmigration even applies to the gods, one Indra dies, other comes, same for animals
etc.
• Bad karma- Choti jaat,cringe, gareeb good karma- badi jaat, Ameer, Chad etc

Doctrine of emancipation
• Pitrayana allows the soul to enjoy the fruits of his karma, but the should takes rebirth again
• In devayana those who are faithful and performed asceticism went by the way of gods but never
take birth again.
• Thus, mukti is a state of infiniteness that a man attains when he known his own Self and thus
becomes Brahman.

Saddarshana or Six systems of Philosophy

• Hindu philosophy classifies philosophical thought into 2:-
1. Astika :- has 6 orthodox school
2. Nastika- Jain, buddhism, ajiviks

Astika schools of thought :- Sankhya, yoga, vedanta, mimamsa, nyaya and vaisheshika. (Also
called saddarshana)

Nyaya
• Means analysis
• School of logic and epistemology rather than theology
• Teacher was Aksapada Gautama
• Essentially a system of reasoning, considers clear thinking and logical arguments as essential for
attaining highest bliss
Vaisheshika
• School of Individual characteristics

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• It's sutras deal with physics and metaphysics
• Belive that nature is atomic and in dualism of matter and soul
• Teacher of earliest vaisheshika sutras is Uluka kanada

Sankhya
• Oldest of the 6 systems and occurs in rudimentary form in Upanishads
• Kapila was the founder
• There are 25 basic elements of which prakriti is first and purusha is last, both are independent of
each other.
• Sankhya metaphysics is the doctrine of 3 constituent qualities :- Causing virtue(sattva),
Passion(rajas), Dullness(tamas), or sattogun, rajjogun and tamogun.
• When cosmic matter evolves anyone of these 3 gunas over weighs another hence the equilibrium
is broken.

Yoga
• Spiritual discipline or application
• Yoga Sutra of patanjali is the basic text
• The god of yoga school is an exalted being who is symbolised in the sacred syllable of OM, which
is imp in meditation and sublime purity of soul.
• The course of training is divided into 8 phases:-

• Spiritual strenght- Awaken Kundalini, runs through spinal column

Mimamsa
• Earliest work is the sutras of jaimini.
• Explain Vedas as eternalz self existent and wholly authoritative
• Respect for Vedas and observance of their rules is essential first steps for salvation
• Later merged with vedanta school

Vedanta
• End of Vedas, also called Uttara mimamsa tradition
• Based on Upanishads and Brahma sutras of badaryana.
• Advaita vedanta by adi shankaracharya l, beloved in idea of double standard of truth
• Borrwed the doctrine of 3 gunas from sankhya school
• Whole universe is a Maya-illusion,,, only the brahman, the world should is the ultimate reality.
• Once the unity between the two is recognised through meditation, salvation is achieved.

Ajivikas
• Acc. To buddhist record Nanda vaccha was considered founder of ajivika sect
• Believed in fatalism, Ashoka and his son dasaratha patronised Ajivikas
• Succeded by Kisa samkicca followed by makkhali gosala.
• Gosala believed in doctrine of reanimation and ridiculed severe austerities of Vedas.
• Sravasti was hq of ajivika sect
• Nothing in the world could be changed as everything is predetermined
• Acc. To ajivika there are six inevitable factors in life:- gain and loss, joy and sorrow and life
and death
• Ajivikas believe in Niyati, niyati controlled everything all actions and phenomenon, hence strict
determinism was the central tenet of ajivikism.
• They were ascetics of the most extreme kind, die by starvation
• They believed in transmigration of soul and every soul was dated to run the same course through
a period of 84,00,000 Mahakalpas.
• All were driven by destiny(niyati), chance(sangati) and nature(bhava).

Gosala was succeeded by purana kassapa and pakudha kacchayana:-

• Kassapa held the view that action did not have any merit or demerit
• No evil caused by hurting or torturing others, similarly no merit is acquired by generosity

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• Non action is the way out of life

Lokyata and charvaka

• Materialist thought
• Name after founders carvaka and ajita kesakambalin
• They developed concept of scepticism and belived in the knowledge through experience
• Questioned Vedas authority

Jainism
• Led by vardhamana Mahavira (buddhist text referes to him as nigantha nataputta)
• 24 tirthankars are responsible for the origin and development of jaina religion and philosophy.
• Acc. To jaina tradition risabha was the first founder of this sect
• Jina parsvanatha was the 23rd tirthankar, Mahavira was the 24th tirthankar
• Yajur veda mentions 3 tirthankaras:- risabha, ajitanatha and aristanemi
• Acharrangasutra, sutrakritanga and kalpasutra are earliest jaina secular texts.
• For buddhist and jainasz the Grihastha stage could be by passed and one could become a
renouncer without having to go through the householder's stage.
• Mahaviras father- Siddhartha, head of jnatrikas and mother Trishala, a lichhavi princess.
• Mahavira was hailed as Nigrantha or free from fetters.

Tenets
• Non violence.
• Truth.
• Non-possession.
• Not to recieve anything that was not voluntarily given.
• Cricitces human emotions.
• Denies existence of God.
• Focuses on austere life.
• World has no beginning or end.
• World is made of soul and matter, Jiva and ajiva in Hindi
• Jiva ajiva come together and forms karma or action
• To free ourselves from the bondage of karma, one has to practise severe austerities and self
mortification

Mahavira advocated that the world wasn't created by any supreme creator, the world function
according to eternal law of decay and development. All animate and inanimate objects have a souls,
they feel pain and influence of injury

Orginal dostrines taught by Mahavira were contained in 14 old texts known as Purvas.

Jain councils
1. First council- Patliputra, Sthulabhadra divided the jaina Canon into 12 angas or sections
which was accepted by the Svetambaras. Digambara refused to accept.
2. Second council - Vallabhi, presided over by Devardhi kshemasarmana new additions in the
form of Upangas or minor sections, among them Acharanga sutta and bhagvati sutta are
the most important.
Acharanga sutta - code or conduct of jaina monk
Bhagvati sutta- Expounds jaina doctrines in a comprehensive manner

Spread of Jainism
• Mahavira had 11 disciples known as Gandharas or heads of schools.
• Arya sudharma was the only gandhara who survived Mahavira and became the First thera or
chief preceptor of jaina order.
• The jaina order in the days of late nanda king was administered by two theras, they were-
Sambhutavijaya and bhadrabahu
• Bhadrabahu was the 6th thera and contemporary of chandragupta maurya.
• Jainism success was greater than buddhism, one of the imp causes was success of popular
dialect Prakrit and ardhamagadhi used in place of Sanskrit.
• Chandragupta maurya also adopted jainism.

Triratnas:-
Jains re supposed to follow 3 principles or triratnas
1. Right faith (samyag-darshana)
2. Right knowledge (samyag-jnana)
3. Right conduct (samyag-mahavrata)

5 great vows
1. Not to kill or Injure (ahimsa)
2. Not to steal (asteya)
3. Not to lie (Satya)
4. Celibacy (brahmacharya)- Mahavira added this to the 4 principles of parsavanatha.
5. Not to possess property (aparigraha)

Decline of Jainism
• Split amongst jains as digambaras and svetambaras
• Lack of missionary zeal
• Factionalism
• Severity of practises
• Spread of Buddhism as rival faith
• No royal patronage

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Buddhism
Gautama Buddha was born as siddhartha in the sakya clan to its king suddhodhana and mother
mahamaya.
• His father suddhodana, chief of sakya clan and mother Maya, princess of koliya clan, born in
Lumbini in Nepal tarai region.

• After attaining enlightenment Buddha delivered his first sermon in a deer park in Sarnath near
Varanasi this event is described as dharmachakra Parivartan or the wheel of the great law
• He learned the technique of meditation and teachings of upanishad from - Alara kalama
• The doctrine central to these teaching is called "chain of dependent origination" called
Paticca-samuppada.
• Asvajit, mogallana, upali, sari-putra and ananda- first 5 disicples.
• Debtors were debarred from joining the buddhist Sangha until they had paid their debts.

What are Sanghas?

• It was the religious order of the buddhists
• Criminals, lepers and persons affected by infectious diseases were not given admission
• Initially Buddha didn't allow women as well, but later at the request of his chief disciple
Anana and his foster mother Mahapajapati gotami, he allowed.
• Purpose? To populatise buddhism
• During 4 months of rain, they fixed abode and meditated, this was called "Vasa" or retreat.
• People of different order were allowed, education was promoted, empowered discipline, a code
or conduct has to be followed for monks and nuns.
• Sangha had punishment powers as well.

After the death of Buddha :-

• First buddhist council was held at Rajagriha under the patronage of ajata shatru, headed by
Upali, Upali recited vinaya pitaka, Ananda recited sutta pitaka.
• Second meet held a century later after Buddha death, at vaishali in 383 BCE.
• Third meet held in patliputra, convened by Ashoka, in the third council, Buddha's philosophy
was collected into Abhidhamma pitaka.
• 4th buddhist council held at Kashmir under the aeges of Kanishka.

Buddhist order split into( Split took place in the 2nd council meet)
• Sthaviravadins or believers in teaching of elder - Upheld the vinaya pitaka, rigid disciplinary
laws
• Mahasanghikas or members of the great community - Favoured new/modified rules and
relaxations
• Sarvastivadins

Emergence of Mahayana and hinayana Buddhism

Mahayana developed after 4th buddhist council or great vehicle became popular in India,
Nalanda University was an important centre of buddhist learning and was patronised by palas,
Mahayana spread to China and Japan

Hinayana or lesser vehicle became popular in Burma, srilanka and Thailand and other south eastern
nations.

By the end of Gupta period Vajrayana or vehicle of thunderbolt emerged, popular in Bengal and
Bihar, the vikramsila University in Bihar was imp centre of Vajrayana buddhism

With the rise of bhakti movement buddhism declined in India and soon after Buddha came to be
known as an avatar of Vishnu thus incorporated into Hinduism

Buddhist literature
• Compiled in Pali
• Pali canons are called tripatakas(3 baskets)
• They are:-
1. Upali recited Vinaya pitaka:- deals with monastic rules and moral disciplines
2. Ananda recited Sutta pitaka :- discourses and teachings of Buddha
3. Abhidhamma pitaka:- buddha's philosophy/teachings.

4 noble truths of Buddha

1. Noble truths of suffering :- birth, age, death, separation, unfulfilled wishes
2. Noble truths of origin of suffering:- thirst for pleasure, power and long life
3. Noble truths of cessation of suffering or nirvana :- complete stopping or release of sorrow
4. Noble truths of path leading to cessation of suffering:- noble 8 fold path or middle path

Buddhas 8fold path or middle path( Astangika marga)

1. Right views
2. Right resolve
3. Right speech
4. Right conduct
5. Right livelihood
6. Right effort
7. Right recollection

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8. Right meditation

Acc to buddhist a human being is a compound of 5 psychosomatic elements- Body, feelings,

perceptions, states of mind and awareness.
• They don't believe in soul, universe is soulless
• Lays great emphasis on law of karma, present determined by past actions.
• Nirvana- Ultimate goal of human life, by eliminating desires one can attain it.

Other famous heterodox ideas

1. PURANA KASSAPA- preached doctrine of "Akriya" or non-action, he was brahamana teacher
whose main dostrine was that action doesn't lead to merit or demerit. Even if one kills, he
won't incur sin
2. MAKKALI GOSALA- Preached doctrine of "Niyativada", there is no cause or basis for sin of living
beings, no deed can affect one's future births, no human action, strenght, courage can affect
one's destiny, all men are without strenght and virtue, they are driven by destiny, chance and
nature.
3. AJITA KESAKAMBALI- Good or evil deeds don't lead to good or bad karma respectively, there
is no transmigration of soul, no ascetic can reach perfection on the right path.
4. PAKUDHA KACCAYANA:- THERE ARE 7 IMMUTABLE ELEMENTS- bodies of earth, fire,
water, air, joy, sorrow, life. Even if a man cuts a head from his sword, he doesn't take a life,
his sword passed thru the 7 elements. The theory is called asavatavada.
5. SANJAYA BELATTHIPUTTA- Against agnostic teachers in their approach towards answering
question in vague manner
6. NIGANTHA NATAPUTTA:- The fourfold restraint is a barrier that surrounds a Nigantha, by
avoiding all sind he become perfect, controlled and firm

Impact of new religious movements

• Idea of social equality was popularised, buddhist and jains didnt gave Any importance to the
caste system, acceptance of women in the buddhist order also had an important impact coz it
provided them with equal status.
• Emphasis on karma by these new religious ideas for future life also indirectly favoured the
activities of trading community.
• These new religions gave importance to language like prakrit, pali and ardhamagadhi,
hence paved the way for vernacular literature in local languages and greater reach along the
masses.

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