Reviewer in STS chapter 6 - Inductive generates a generalized

statement from specific observations.

6.1 Defining Science
- The development of the modern
- Scientist are depicted as cold scientific method contributed to the
individuals devoid of emotions, accelerated advancement of science
largely engrossed in serious scientific towards the end of Renaissance
work ushering Scientific Revolution
- Science is actually an important part
Classification of science
of our daily lives. As it is also
important maintaining order in 1. Natural Sciences – investigate
society, one can somehow say that natural phenomena, attempt to give
science is a social institution explanation of how things happen.
- The Oxford Dictionary of English a. Physical Sciences
defines it as the “systematic study of b. Biological Sciences
the structure and behavior of the 2. Social Sciences – attempt to give
physical and natural world through insight on human behavior and
observation and experiment” societies
a. Anthropology
6.2 Philosophy of Science
b. Archaeology
- Science originated from philosophy c. Economics
- Philosophy – is the investigation of d. History
the nature of knowledge, existence e. Psychology
and reality. f. Sociology
- 18th and 19th centuries that science 3. Formal Sciences – based on a set of
became distinct from philosophy rules defined beforehand (also known
- The philosophers developed the as priori statements) rules, theorems
scientific method starting from that can be applied to various systems
Aristotle. are formulated.
- Francis Baron refined the process of a. Mathematics
scientific reasoning during the b. Logic
Renaissance. c. Statistics
- Aristotle emphasized the importance
deductive reasoning during the
Renaissance.
- Francis Baron realized that it can be
combined with inductive reasoning
for a more holistic approach to
understanding the universe
- Deductive refers to the process of
obtaining a specific statement or
theory from a more generalized
statement from specific statements
Philosophers also tackled the validity of 6.3 The Concept of Good Life and Human
scientific reasoning. Berlin Circle (1920) Flourishing
and Vienna Circle (1924 - 1936) two groups
The ancient Greek philosophers not only
of empiricist philosophers in the 1920s
pondered upon the nature of the universe.
Verificationism or verifiability principle – They also contemplated about life in general,
a discipline is scientific if it can be supported they tackled concepts such as morality,
by empirical evidence. If it cannot be virtue, good and happiness. These
observed, it is regarded as meaningless. Later questions that existed a long time ago still
on it is considered as restrictive as it persist today as humans are still on the quest
discourages budding theories. of achieving the so-called good life.
Karl Popper – offered alternative view on 6.3.1 The Greek Pioneers in the Philosophy
science, according to him “true science of Life
cannot be proven, only falsified, this is the
The ancient Greek philosophers delved
falsification principle, Falsification here
heavily on concepts revolving about life and
means that a hypotheses or idea can be tested
the universe.
by experimentation. As long as the
experiment shows that an idea is not false, it - Socrates (470 – 399 BCE) one of the
is accepted as the prevailing explanation to most prominent philosophers who
the relevant phenomena. focused about life itself. “The
unexamined life is not worth living”
- According to the falsification
- He ask questions about moral and
principle, many branches of science,
psychological issues and challenged
particularly those in the social
existing ideas
sciences are not truly scientific.
- Due to his ideology, Socrates was
There are limitations to what science can do. condemned and put to death by the
Athenian society
- It can only predict or state
- Plato (428 – 348 BCE) a student of
possibilities
Socrates, after leaving Athens and
- Science cannot be used to study
travelling around he returned to
theological issues
Athens to found his own school
Philosophy of science – the study of Academy
scientific methods of inquiry as well the - In the Academy many intellectuals
defining of the scope and validity of science. are schooled and honed including
Aristotle (384 – 322 BCE) who
- Discussions of ethical issues served as a tutor to Alexander the
involving science also belong to Great. While Plato focused on
philosophy Science therefore co- metaphysics and epistemology,
exists with philosophy Aristotle systematized logic
- Due to their influence, Plato and
Aristotle along with Socrates are
considered pivotal figures in western
philosophy
 The death of Alexander the Great in 323 6.3.2 The Good Life and Happiness
BCE the Hellenistic Age began; 4 major
- Good is a universal concept; different
schools of philosophy emerged
religions and philosophies speak
1. Cynics – the purpose of life is to live about it.
in a virtue. According to them in - Considered to be the opposite of evil
order to be attuned with nature, - What is good is preferred and
people must reject all conventional desirable be it intention or action
needs such as power, sex and wealth. - Philosophers have long been
a. Main Figures of cynicism contemplating about what constitutes
i. Antisthenes a good life
ii. Diogenes
Happiness is a concept that exist in different
iii. Crates of Thebes
cultures and philosophies. However it is not
2. Sceptics – believed that people should
easy to define
doubt their senses, morality and logic.
In skepticism, no one can be certain - In psychology happiness is a positive
about the knowledge we have emotion or state arising from well-
3. Epicureans – consider all the being, well-being includes physical
sensations we experience are true. and mental health, life satisfaction
Founded by Epicurus (341 – 271 and a sense of purpose
BCE). Epicureanism emphasized the - In eastern religions, happiness is a
importance of maximizing pleasure spiritual state; Buddhism freedom
and minimizing pain as the innate from craving as happiness; In
goal of man Hinduism it is a freedom from the
a. Epicureanism is a form of cycle of births and deaths
hedonism – a view that - From a biological perspective it has
pleasure and pain are the two been suggested that interplay of
only important aspects of genetics, brain physiology and
living. chemistry, body hormones and
4. Stoics – posited that perfect physical health is involved in
rationality is the key to achieve moral happiness.
goodness - The Greeks has their own concepts of
a. Stoicism leans toward the happiness the term they used was
achievement of apatheia eudaimonia (good-spirited) is more
(equanimity) – a state of mind properly translated is “human
wherein one is not disturbed flourishing” or “prosperity”.
by passions, pain or emotions - Plato asserted that the highest form of
b. The founder of this school of happiness results from morality and
thought is Zeno of Cituim justice. The cynics, hedonists and
(334 - 262 BCE) stoics all have different notions on
how to achieve happiness.
- This happiness is ultimately related to
good life
Eudaimonia is a concept central to the As an example, Aristotle considered
philosophy of Aristotle. In his work episteme or scientific knowledge and
Nicomachean Ethics, Aristotle discussed phronesis (practical wisdom) as
eudaimonia in relation to other concepts such intellectual virtues.
as arete(virtue) and philia(“friendship”)
On the other hand, andreia (bravery) and
- According to Aristotle eudaimonia is sophrosune (temperance) are moral values.
the end goal of human action and the
Since it is preferred and desired, good is the
highest human good
aim of all human action. Eudaimonia is the
- Eudaimonia is not simply a state of
highest human good; one can say that a good
mind or being but its results from the
life is achieved by doing actions leading to
sum of human activities to lead a life
eudaimonia
it is a complete end by itself
- It is comparable to Abraham 6.4 Technology as Way of Understanding our
Maslow’s concept of self- World
actualization the highest personal
need , a desire for fulfillment or Technology – is essentially the application of
achieving the most out of one’s scientific knowledge to make our lives easier.
potential. - Technology becomes more advanced
as science grows and the society
Aristotle gave pointers on how to achieve
directly benefits from such
eudaimonia
advancement
- Eudaimonia can be achieved by - Technology is amoral it does not tell
rational action. us whether we utilize it in the right or
wrong manner
The major components of eudaimonia
- Technology is an integral part of our
- Arete or virtue lives we must examine how
- Also arises from friendship technology can contribute to the good
- And others goods such as health, life. Again, we must turn to
wealth, beauty and power philosophy for answers
Plato considered virtue as the only and
necessary requirement to eudaimonia
- Virtue refers to excellence and can
either be intellectual or moral
- Intellectual Virtue (virtues of
thought) arises from teaching while
Moral Virtue (virtues of character)
arises from practice or habit
Martin Heidegger is one of the most However according to Heidegger, the way of
influential philosophers, he mostly studied revealing in modern technology is not
ontology or the philosophical study of being bringing forth but it reveals by challenging
- His essay Questions Concerning Heidegger (1977) suggested that many of our
Technology discussed the nature of modern technologies are essentially
technology and how it relates to challenging or enframing. If humans
human activity continue to utilize technology in a way that
enframes nature we will lead to self-
Heidegger’s main points in his analysis of
destruction and this is the danger of
technology are the following:
technology.
1. Technology is not an instrument; it is
a. It is not the essence of technology
a wat of revealing the truth about the
itself that is dangerous but the way
world
humans interact with the world from
2. Technology is not controlled by
a technological point-of-view.
humans; it is technology that can
control human activity - to change the way we view the world,
3. Technology is dangerous in the sense we must change our way of thinking
that it frames our thinking about the
In a speech given by Heidegger in 1955
world
Memorial Address he called for humans to
- The term technology is derived from
practice meditative thinking over calculative
the Greek word techne (refers to both
thinking.
manufacturing and the arts). Techne
is a part of poiesis which means a. Calculative thinking emphasized
“bringing forth”. numbers ad categories; it only works
- Poiesis therefore is related to aletheia to satisfy our material desires
which is the Greek word for “truth”
b. Meditative thinking elucidates the
- If technology is to be understood meaning of things, we allow nature to
according to the notion of techne and reveal itself to us ; it allows us to be
poiesis, it is neither a machine, nor a open to the truth as nature reveals it
process of production but technology thus we can approach poiesis.
is a way of revealing and this way is a
poiesis or “bringing forth”. c. To encourage meditative thinking
Heidegger suggested art as a solution
- Technology that brings forth
contributes to good because truth is in a. When artists and poets
the side of good. practice art, they see the world
as it is thus what they create
are reflections of the truth of
the world, if we could
incorporate an artists vision
into how we view the world
we can prevent the destruction
brought by enframing.
6.5 The Good Life and Science and
Technology
- Remember that the aim of science is
to understand the world we are in thus
leads us closer to the truth
a. Truth is ultimately tied to good
and science can also contribute
to good
b. In terms of human flourishing,
we can only achieve our
greatest potential if we have
our basic needs covered; the
advancements in science helps
us to those basic needs such as
food, water, medicine, shelter
and safety
On the side of technology, we borrow from
Heidegger, technology and by extension
science is a way of revealing the truth about
this world.
a. Truth is desirable because people
need it to thrive therefore truth leads
us to good
As with science advancements in technology
ensure that human’s basic needs are covered.
We need to remember that science and
technology are not capable of giving insights
about morality: what is right and wrong. We
can use it to achieve the different components
of good life. It is up to us where we steer our
lives in the face of science and technology.