CHAPTER - 1

THE FACTORIES ACT 1948(AMENDED IN 1976 &1987) AND RULES:

The Factories Act 1948: The above Act was subsequently amended in 1935, 1936, 1937, 1940, 1941,
1944, 1945, 1946 and 1947 before its major amendment in 1948.
During the Interim Congress Regime, a five year plan was drawn up to ameliorate the labour conditions in India
and also to revise the Factories Act of 1934 on the line of the UK Factories Act 1937 and latest ILO
conventions in the matters of safety, health, welfare, working hours, industrial hygiene, medical examination of
young persons and submission of plans of factory buildings.
The 1942 Conference was important as being the first attempt at collaboration between Government, employers
and workers in matters pertaining to Labour. Arising there from, a Plenary Tripartite Conference and a
Standing Labour Committee had been set up to advice Government on Labour matters and this resulted in
smoothening the way for introduction of legislative measures including the draft Bill.
The Factories Bill was introduced in the Constituent Assembly on 30-1-1948 passed by it on 28-8-1948,
received the assent of the Governor General of India on 23-9-1948 and came into force from 1-41949.
Statement of Objects and Reasons:
It was stated in this part that the Factories Act 1934 revealed a number of defects and weaknesses and the
provisions for safety, health and welfare were found inadequate and unsatisfactory. The large mass of workers
was not covered by the Act and in view of the large and growing industrial activities in the country; radical
overhauling of the Factories law was essentially called for and cannot be delayed.
It was also mentioned that "the present Act (of 1934) leaves important and complex points to the discretion of
Inspectors placing heavy responsibility on them. In view of the specialized and hazardous nature of the
processes employed in the factories, it is too much to expect Inspectors to possess an expert knowledge of all
these matters. The detailed provisions contained in the Bill will go a long way in lightening their burden".
The Labour Minister explained in the Legislature on 30-1-1948 an admirable summary of the New Law and
pointed out the broad changes that were brought about.

SECTION-2:
a) ADUIT- means a person who has completed his 18th year of age.
b) ADLESCENT- means a person who has completed his 15th year of age but has not completed his 18th year.
c) CHILD -means a person who has not completed his 15th year of age.

ca) Competent person – means a person or an institution recognized as such by the Director of Industrial
Safety & Health (DISH) for the purpose of carrying out inspection /testing required to be done under
the provision of this Act.
cb) Hazardous process - Any process or activity carried out in a factory cause impairment to health of the
person engaged in or connected to such process, result in a the pollution of general environment.
LIST OF INDUSTRIES INVOLVING HAZARDOUS PRZARDOUS PROCESSES (THE FIRST
SCHEDULE -THE FACTORIES ACT, 1948), 29 INDUSTRIES ARE LISTED IN THIS SCHEDULE.
1. Ferrous Metallurgical Industries
2. Non- Ferrous Metallurgical Industries
3. Foundries
4. Power Generating Industries
5. Fertilizer Industries
6. Cement Industries
7. Petroleum Industries
8. Petro – Chemical Industries
9. Chemical Industries
10. Highly flammable Liquids and gases
d) YOUNG PERSON – means a person who is either a child or an adolescent.
k) MANUFACTURING PROCESS
Means any process for-
 Making, altering, repairing ornamenting finishing, packing, oiling washing, cleaning, breakin up,
demolishing. any article or substance.
 Pumping oil, water, sewage or any other substance.
 Generating, transforming, transmitting power.
 Printing, book binding.
 Constructing, reconstructing, repairing, refitting, finishing, or breaking up ships or vessels
 Preserving, or storing any article in cold storage.
l) Worker – means a person a person employed directly or by/through any agency (including contractor) in
any manufacturing process or connected with the manufacturing process.
m) FACTORY
 Ten or more workers are working or were working on any day of the preceding 12 months, and in any
part of which a manufacturing process is being carried out with the aid of power.
 Twenty or more workers are workers are working or were working on any day of the preceding 12
months, and in any part of which a manufacturing process is being carried out without the aid of
power.(Health officer means municipal Health officer or District Health officer or officer appointed by
state Govt. Factory Manager means the person responsible to the occupier for the occupier for the
working of the factory for the purpose of this act.)

SECTION 6- APPROVAL, LICENSING AND REQISTRATION OF FACTORIES

3—APPROVAL OF PLANS
Permission for the site on which factory is to be situated – Application such permission shall be
made in Form 1.

3A-CERTIFICATE STABILITY

NO manufacturing process shall be carried out in a factory until a certificate of stability (Form 1-A)
issued by a competent person. Once in each period of 5 years stability test is to be done and
certificate of stability (Form 1-A) by a competent person is to be obtained.

5-APPLICATION FOR REQISTRATION AND GRAT OF LICENSE

The occupier or factory manager shall submit to DISH an application in Form 2 for registration of
the factory and application in Form 3 for grant of license.

SECTON 7-A GENERAL DUTIES OF OCCUPIER

(Occupier of factory means the person who has ultimate control over the affairs of the factory) Every occupier
shall ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, the health, safety and welfare of all workers while they are at
work in the factory.
THE INSPECTING STAFF
SECTION 8- (RULE 17) INSPECTORS(DIRECTORS OF INDUSTRIAL SAFETY & HEALTH)
The State Government may appoint such persons for the purposes of this act.
State Government may appoint:-
Chief Inspector (DISH)
Additional Chief Inspector (ADSH)
Joint Chief Inspector (JT DISH)
Deputy Chief Inspector (DY. DISH)
Inspectors (Assistant DISH)
SECTION 9 – POWER OF INSPECTORS –
Make examination of factories
Inquiry and investigation of accidents
Suggest/recommends corrective measures

SECTION10 – (RULE 18) CERTIFYING SURGEONS

The State Government may appoint qualified medical practitioners to be Certifying Surgeons for the purpose of
this act.
State Government may appoint:-
Dy Director (Medical)
Any qualified medical practitioner (Area wise) to exercise powers of Dy Director (Medical)

POWER OF CERTIFYING SURGEONS

The examination and certification of young person
The examination of person engaged in dangerous occupation/process
Medical supervision/surveys
Examination of young person (From 6)
Visit the factories (carrying dangerous operations), examine the person employed and record the result in health
register (form7

SECTION 11 (RULE 19) – CLEANLINESS

White washing and colour washing – at least once in every period of 14 months.
Where they are painted or varnished – repainted or revarnished once in every period of five years.

SECTION 12 (RULE 22) – DISPOSAL OF WASTED AND EFFLUENTS

In the factory where the drainage system is proposed to be connected to public sewerage system, prior
permission shall be obtained from Local Authority.
For the areas notified under Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act – Approval to arrangement made
for the treatment & disposal of trade wasted and effluents shall be obtained from MPCB.

SECTION 13 (RULE 22A) – VENTILATION AND TEMPERATURE

Adequate ventilation by circulating fresh air, such temp to give comfort and prevent injury to workers.
Max. Wet-bulb temp. of air in work room at a height of 1.5m above the floor level – Max 3000C (Wet-bulb
temp. shall not exceed dry-bulb temp.)
Air movement at least 30m/minute. The amount of fresh air supplied by mechanical means of ventilation in an
hour shall be equivalent to at least 6 times the cubic capacity of work room and distributed evenly throughout
the work room.

SECTION 14 – DUST AND FUME

Dust and fumes likely to be injurious to the workers – exhaust appliance shall be applied as near as possible to
the point of origin of dusts and fumes or such point shall be enclosed (provide scrubber system to collect
fumes).

SECTION 16 – OVER-CROWDING
In every work room of factory – 14.2m3 spaces for every worker is required.

SECTION 17 (RULE 35/36) – LIGHTING

Where natural lighting is not sufficient – additional lighting (uniform level, widely distributed, free from glare)
shall be provided.
Stock-yard, entrance/exit roads, cat-walk, storage area Minimum intensity of illumination – 20 Lux
Passage-way, stairways, basement – 50 Lux
Boiler room, elevators, store rooms, toilet/wash rooms – 100Lux
Where discrimination of detail (for such jobs) is not essential to where discrimination of extremely fine detail is
involved – 50 to 1000 Lux
Any source of artificial light is less than 5 meters above floor level or any light is producing glare shall be
provided with suitable shade of opaque material or effective means to screen the light.

SECTION 18 (RULE 39) DRINKING WATER

The quantity of drinking water to be provided for the workers shall be at least 5 lit a day per worker.
In every factory where in more than 250 workers are employed, the drinking water shall be cooled by ice or
effective methods. Water centre shall be provided on canteen, lunch room, rest room and on each floor if the
factory has more than one floor.
One water centre for every 150 workers is to be provided.
SECTION 21 (RULE 57) FENCING OF MACHINERY (GUARDS)
Every moving part of prime mover
Every flywheel connected to prime mover
Headrace & tailrace of every water wheel & water turbine
Any part of stock-bar which project beyond the head stock of lathe
Every part of an electric generator, a motor or rotary converter
Every part of transmission machinery
Every dangerous part of any other machinery shall be securely fenced by safeguards of substantial construction
Combined openers & scutchers, lap machines, hard waste breakers, cleaners, blenders, hopper moter and similar
machines.
The border covers and doors shall be fitted with effective interlocking arrangements.

Carding Machine: - All Cylinder doors shall be secured by an automatic locking device which shall prevent the
door being opened until the cylinder ceased to revolve and shall render it impossible to restart the machine, until
the door is closed.

Drawing Frame: - The gearing for driving the draft rollers shall be effectively guard by a cover which shall be
so interlocked that it cannot be raised until the machine is stopped and the machine is stopped and the machine
cannot be restarted until the cover is closed.

Speed Frame: - Headstocks shall be fitted with automatic locking arrangement.

Combers & similar machines: - The gearing shall be effectively guarded by a cover which shall be so
interlocked that it cannot be raised until the machine is stopped and the machine cannot be restarted until the
cover is closed.

Self-acting Mules: - The drive shall be from countershaft which shall be provided with fast & loose pulley and
efficient belt shifting devices.

Shearing & Cropping Machines: - the dangerous moving outer blades shall be provided with an efficient
interlock arrangement that prevent the complete cover or guard to be opened until the cutter blade has come to
rest and would also make it impossible to restart the machine until the guard is closed.

Singeing Machines: - Effective arrangement such as solenoid valve or other effective device shall be provided
to cut off instantaneously supply of gas or electricity to machine in case of power failure.
Cotton Ginning Machinery:-
The line shaft or second motion in cotton ginning factories when below floor level shall be completely enclosed
by a continuous wall or un-climbable fencing.
The bare portion of the line shaft between the bearing and also of the projection at the end of line shaft shall be
provided with inverted “U” or sleeve type guards.

Wood Working Machinery :- (Wood working Machinery means a circular saw, band saw, planning machine,
chair mortising machine or vertical spindle molding machine operating on wood or cork. Circular Saw means
working in a bench which is moved towards the wood for cutting operation. Band Saw means a band saw, the
cutting portion of which runs vertical direction. Planning Machine means a machine for overhead planning or
for thickening or for both operations).
An efficient stopping and starting device shall be provided on every wood-working machine.

Every Circular Saw Shall Be fenced as follows:

Behind and in direct line with the saw there shall be an arriving knife, which shall have smooth surface, shall
be strong, rigid and easily adjustable. The distance between the front edge of the knife and the teeth of the saw
shall not exceed 10mms. For a saw having dia. Of <60cms, the knife shall extend upwards from the bench table
to within 25mms, of the ton of the saw, for a saw having dia. Of 60cms or over, shall extend upwards from the
bench table to a height of at least 22,5cms.
The top of the saw shall be covered by a strong and easily adjustable guard, with a flange at the side of the saw
farthest from the fence. The part of the saw below the bench table shall be protected by two plates of metal one
on each side of the saw. Such plate shall not be more than 15 cm apart and shall extend from the axis of the saw
outwards to a distance of not less than 5 cm. beyond the teeth of the saw.
Push Sticks – A push stick shall be provided for use at every circular saw and at every vertical spindle molding
machine.
Vertical Spindle Molding Machine – The cutter of every vertical spindle moulding machine shall be guarded by
the most efficient guard.
Planning Machine – shall not be used for overhead planning unless it is fitted with a cylindrical cutter block.
Every planning machine used for overhead planning shall be provided with a “bridge” guard capable of
covering the full length and breadth of the cutting slot in the bench.
The feed roller shall be provided with efficient guard.
Chain Mortising Machine – The chain of every Chain Mortising Machine shall be provided with a guard which
shall enclose the cutter.
Rubber and plastic Mills – (Rubber and plastic Mills means machine with rollers used in breaking down,
cracking washing. Grating, mixing, refining and warming of rubber, and plastics. A calendar means machine
with rolls used for fractioning sheeting, coating and breading of rubber. compounds and plastic or plastic
compounds)
Rubber and plastic Mills shall be equipped with Hoppers so guarded that it is impossible to come into contact in
any manner with the nip of rolls.Safety – trip rods shall extend across the entire. Length of the face of the face
of the rolls and shall be located not more than 170cms above the floor or working level. Colander machines
shall be equipped with Horizontal Safety – trip rods across both front and rear, which will when pushed or
pulled operate instantly, to disconnect the power and apply the brakes or to reverse the roll.
Injunction Molding Machine – An electrical interlock arrangement shall be provided so that the mould cannot
be closed unless the front safety gate is fully closed and on opening the front safety gate, the moulds will stop
automatically.
Centrifugal Machines – (Centrifugal Machine includes centrifugal extractors, de-extractors, separators and
driers).Centrifugal Machines shall be provided with efficient interlocking devices that will physically prevent
the lids from being opened white the rotating drums or baskets are in motion under power and would also
prevent the starting of the drums or baskets under power while the lids are open.
Centrifugal Machines – (Centrifugal Machine includes centrifugal extractors, de-extractors, separators and
driers. )Centrifugal Machines shall not be operated at a speed in excess of the manufacture’s rating All
Centrifugal Machines shall be provided with effective braking arrangement to bring cage, drum or basket to
rest within short period of time after the power is cut off.
The cages, drums or baskets shall be thoroughly examined by a competent person regularty to check their
balance.

Shears, Slitters and Guillotine Machines – (Shears, Slitters and Guillotine Machines means a machine. Whether
driven by power or otherwise, equipped with a straight blade operating vertically against a resisting edge and
used for shearing metals or non-metallic substances)
A barrier metal guard shall be provided at the front of the knife, fastened to the machine frame and shall be so
fixed as would prevent any part of the operator’s body to reach the descending blade from above, below or
through the barrier guard or from the sides.
At the back end of such machines, an inclined guard shall be provided over which the slit pieces would slide
and be collected at a safe distance in a manner as would prevent a person at the back from reaching the
descending blade.

Slitting machines- (Slitter or Slitting Machine means a machine equipped with circular disc-type knives and
used for trimming or cutting into metal or non -metallic substances or slitting them into narrow strips)
Circular disc-type knives shall be provided with guards enclosing the knife edges.

Index Cutters and Vertical Paper Slotters – (Index Cutters and Vertical Paper Slotters used for cutting strips
from the ends of books). Shall be provided with fixed guards so arranged that the fingers of operators cannot
come between the blades and blades and the tables.

Corner Cutters- (Corner Cutters used in the manufacture of paper boxes) shall be equipped with suitable guards
fastened to the machine in front of the knives and provided with slots or perforations to afford visibility of the
operation.

Band Knives -Band wheels or band knives and all portion of the blades shall be completely enclosed with
hinged guards of sheet metal not less than 1mm in thickness.

Aoitators and Mixing Machines – (Agitators and Mixing Machines means a tank or other container equipped
with power driven mixing arms, blades or paddle wheels fixed to revolving shafts or other simple mechanical
devices for blending, stirring liquids with other liquids or with solid substances or combinations of these).
When the top of an open agitator tank, beater tank, or paddle tank is less than 1m above the adjacent floor or
working level, adequate standard railing shall be installed on all open sides.

Agitator & mixing machines shall be provided with an efficient interlock arrangement for the top lid, to prevent
access to the agitating stirring or similar devices, while in motion and would prevent restart under power with
the lid in open position.

Openings at the top or sides of the containers vessels of the agitator and mixing machines provided for
inspection & examinations shall be provided with standard grill guards as would prevent access of any part of
operator’s body coming in contact with agitating, stirring while in motion.

When discharge holes, openings are provided at the bottom or at the sides of containers vessels of the agitator
and mixing machines, they shall be so guarded as would prevent access of any part of operator’s body coming
in contact with agitating, stirring while in motion inside the vessel.
LEATHER, PLASTIC AND RUBBER STRIPPER MACHINES-
Strippers for trimming or punching tanned hides, plastic or rubber sheets in either making, footwear
manufacturing shall be provided with suitable devices which require simultaneous action of both the hands of
the operator or an automatic device which will remove both the hands of the operator from the danger zone at
every descent of the blade, punch or stripper cutter.
All couplings with projecting bolt heads and similar projections shall be completely encased or effectively
guarded as to prevent danger.

SAFE GUARDING THE POINT OF OPERATION

DEVICS BARRIER
GUARDS (BAR ACCESS TO THE POINT OF OPERATION)
(CONTROL ACCESS TO THE POINT OF OPERATION)

EMPLOYEE CONTROLLING MACHINE CONTROLLING EMPLOYEE CONTROLLING AND

MACHINE CONTROLLING

PULL BACK OR PULL OUT PRESENCE SENSING TWO HAND CONTROL

RESTRAINT

FIXED BARRIER GUARDS ENCLOSURE GUARDS ADJESTIBLE BARRIER GUARDS INTERLOCK BARRIER
BARRIER GUARDS

(Guards are made up of woven wire, expanded metal, perforated metal, sheet metal, wood or metal strips
(crossed) wood or metal strips (not crossed), plywood/ plastic, standard railing)

SECTION 22 (RULE 58/59) - WORKING ON OR NEAR MACHINERY IN MOTION

Examination of any part of machinery or its operation shall be carried out by specially trained adult male
worker wearing tight fitting clothing and register is to be maintained in form 10.
Specially trained adult male worker shall not handle a belt at moving pulleys unless:
The belt is not more than 15cms in width.
The pulley is normally for the purpose of drive.
There is reasonable clearance between the pulley and any fixed structure.
Footholds and handholds are provided.
No woman or young person shall be allowed to clean, lubricate or adjust any part of prime mover or any
transmission machinery while in motion.

SECTION 28 (RULE62/63) HOIST AND LIFTS

Every Hoist and lift shall be of good mechanical construction, sound material, and adequate strength and
properly maintained.
Thoroughly examined by a competent person atleast once in every period of six months and register is to be
maintained.
Every Hoist and Lift shall be protected by an enclosure fitted. With gates and so constructed as to prevent any
person from being trapped between any part of it and any fixed structure or moving part.
Maximum Safe Working Load (SWL) shall be marked on Every Hoist and Lift.
The cage of every Hoist and Lift used for carrying persons shall be fitted with a gate on each side from which
access is afforded to a landing.
Every gate shall be fitted with inter-locking to secure that the gate cannot be opened except when the cage is at
the landing and cage cannot be moved unless the gate is closed.
There shall be at least two ropes or chains separately connected with the cage and balance weight and each
roper pr chain shall be capable of carrying the whole weight of the cage together with its maximum load.
Efficient device shall be provided capable of supporting the cage together with its maximum load in the event
of breakage of the ropes, chains or attachments.
Efficient automatic device shall be provided to prevent the cage from over-running.
Register shall be maintained to record particulars of examinations as shown in Form 11.

SECTION 29 (RULE 64) – LIFTING MACNINES, CHAINS, ROPES AND LIFTING TACKLES
Lifting Machines – means a crane, crab, winch, pulley block, gin wheel, runway.
Lifting Tackles – means any chain, sling, rope sling, hook, shackle, swivel, coupling, socket, clamp, tray,
whether fixed or moving used in the raising or lowering of persons, loads by use of lifting machines.
All parts of Lifting Machine and every Chain, Rope or Lifting Tackle shall be of good mechanical construction,
sound material, and adequate strength and properly maintained.
Thoroughly examined by a competent person at least once in every period of twelve months and register is to be
maintained.
No Lifting Machines, Chains, Ropes and Lifting Tackles shall be loaded beyond the SWL, Safe working Load
shall be marked on it or displayed in prominent position.
Ensure that the crane does not approach within 6m of the place where any person is working on or near wheel
track of traveling crane.
A register in Form 2 containing the particulars shall be maintained.

SECTION 30 – REVOLVING MACHINERY

In every factory in which the process of grinding is carried out there shall be permanently affixed or placed near
each machine a notice indicating the maximum safe working peripheral speed of every grind stone or abrasive
wheel, the speed of the shaft or spindle on which the wheel is mounted, and the diameter of the pulley upon
which such shaft or spindle necessary to secure safe working peripheral speed.

SECTION 31 (RULE 65) – PRESSURE PLANT

Pressure Plant means the pressure vessel along with the piping and other fittings operated at a pressure greater
than the atmospheric pressure.
Pressure Vessel means any vessel subjected to or operated at a pressure greater than the atmospheric pressure.
 SAFETY MEASURES FOR EVERY PRESSURE PLANT OR PRESSURE VESSEL
Property designed
Good mechanical construction
Sound material
Sound material
Adequate strength free from any defect and property maintained.

 {Section 32} Floors, stairs and means of access should be soundly constructed and properly maintained.
 {Section 33} Pits, sumps opening in floor etc., should be either securely covered or fenced.
 {Section 34} No workman shall be employed in any factory to lift, carry or move any load so heavy as to be
likely to cause him injury.
 {Section 35} Necessary protective equipment should be provided to protect the eyes of the workman, where
the working involves risk of injury to the eyes.

 {Section 36} Suitable precautionary arrangements should be taken against dangerous fumes, gases etc.
 {Section 37} Every practicable measures should be taken to prevent any explosion where the manufacturing
process produces dust, gas, fume or vapour etc.
 {Section 38}Every practicable measures should be taken to prevent the outbreak of fire and its spread, both
internally and externally.
 {Section 39} The Inspector of Factories can ask the Occupier or the Manager of the Factory to furnish
drawings, specification etc., of any building, machinery or a plant, in case he feels that condition of such
building, machinery or the plant may likely to cause danger to human life.
 {Section 40}The Inspector of Factories can suggest suitable measures of steps to take by the Occupier or
Manager for implementation, when he feels the condition of any building, machinery or a plant may likely to
cause danger to human life. Wherein 1000 or more workmen are employed in a factory, the
Occupier should appoint a Safety Officer to look after the safety aspects of the factory. {Section 40-B}
The Factories (Amendment) Act 1954:

The Government of India ratified the ILO Conventions No. 89 & 90 prohibiting employment
of women and young person’s during night in factories. Therefore sections 66, 70 and 71 of the
Factories Act 1948 were to be amended. Simultaneously opportunity was taken to amend other
provisions also. Therefore the Factories (Amendment) Act, 1954 (25th of 1954) came into force with
following major amendments:
1. Type composing for printing was included in the definition of manufacturing process.
2. Amendment of Section 4.
3. Prohibition of women and young persons from cleaning, lubricating and machinery in motion.
4. Encasement of machines.
5. Amendment of section 29 to prescribe clearly the safety requirements of lifting machines.
6. Allowing working 6 hours at a stretch without any interval when the shift is of 6 hours.
7. Exempting overtime work in case a shift worker does not turn up in time.
8. Amendment of sections 66, 70 & 71 in conformity with the ILO Convention No. 89 & 90
prohibiting employment of women and Chilean during night in factories.
9. Revision of Chapter-VIII relating to leave with wages to fix 240 days attendance, to raise the limit
of carried forward leaves etc.
10. Recasting of section 93 to clarify the responsibility of the owner and occupier. Few minor
changes were also incorporated.

The Factories (Amendment) Act 1976:

After 1948 and 1954, industrial growth was continued and need have Safety Officer was felt to
advise management in the matters of industrial safety and health. Due to so many judgments on the
definition of 'worker' and tendency to not include 'contract labour' therein in want of proof of 'Master
Servant relationship' and feeling need of changes in many other sections including penal section, the
Factories (Amendment) Act 1976 (94 of 1976) was enacted and brought into force from 26-10—1976.
Its main amendments were:
1. Changes in the definitions of manufacturing process, worker, factory and occupier. Contract
labour was included in 'worker'.
2. Approval of the plan and prior permission for the site.
3. Alterations in the provisions 'for inspector, certifying surgeons, cleanliness, disposal of
waste and effluents, fencing of machinery, work on or near machinery in motion, striking gear
and devices for cutting off power, pressure plant, floors, stairs and means of access,
precautions against dangerous fumes, precautions in case of fire, specifications of defective
parts, safety of building and machinery, first aid appliances, crèches, spread over, overtime
wages, register of child workers, leave with wages, dangerous operation, notice of accidents,
penalty for offences, determination of occupier in certain cases, limitation of prosecutions etc.
In above alterations the posts of Additional, Joint and Deputy Chief Inspectors of Factories
were added, more conditions for cleanliness, fire escape, first-aid etc. were imposed, women
strength for crèche was reduced to 30, time limit of rules u/s 64 was extended to 5 years, more
particulars of attendance in register and no permission to work without that was required by
sections 62 (I-A) and 73 (I-A), carry forwarding of 'refused leave with wages', training and
research institutes were included in section 86 for exemption purpose, the words
'manufacturing process or operation' were substituted in section 87 and requiring more welfare
facilities including protective equipment and clothing under that section, time limit of one
month for inquiry into fatal accident was fixed u/s 88(2), fine limit raised to Rs. 2000 from Rs.
500 u/s 92, and for enhanced penalty to Rs. 5000 from Rs. 1000 u/s 94 and provision of
minimum fine in case of fatal accident and serious bodily injury (Rs. 1000 for death and Rs.
 500 for serious bodily injury, these figures were doubled in case of enhanced penalty) was also
made.
4. New additions were made by section 36A regarding use of portable electric light, section
40A for maintenance of building, 40B for Safety Officers, 62(1-A) and 73(1-A) for more
particulars in muster roll, 88A for notice of dangerous occurrences and section 91A for safety
and health surveys.
In new section 40-A power to give order to carry out measures suggested by Inspector for
maintenance of buildings was given and u/s 40B Safety Officers were required for factories
employing workers 1000 or more, and the State Government was empowered to notify
factories for this requirement and to prescribe rules for the duties, qualifications and conditions
of service of Safety Officers. These rules were prescribed in 1983. For these S.0. Rules, 1983

The Factories (Amendment) Act 1987:

The Bhopal accident created world-wide safety awareness and moved the governments to
provide more stringent requirements for health and safety of workers and public. Therefore the Central
and State Governments made necessary amendments in their Acts and Rules. A new Act 'the
Environment (Protection) Act 1986' was enacted and the Factories (Amendment) Act 1987 was also
enacted on 23-5-1987 providing a new chapter IV A on hazardous processes, many other
requirements and severe penalties and imprisonment for breaches.
In its Statement of Objects and Reasons it was stated that -
"There has been substantial modernization and innovation in the industrial field. Several
chemical industries have come up which deal with hazardous and toxic substances. This has brought
problems of industrial safety and occupational health hazards. It is therefore, necessary to amend the
Act to provide specially for the safeguards against use and handling of hazardous substances and
laying down emergency standards and measures. The amendments also include procedures for sitting
of hazardous industries for the safety of general public. Provision has been made for workers'
participation in safety management, and making the punishment stricter."
The Factories (Amendment) Bill, 1986 (Bill No. 141 of 1986) was introduced in Lok Sabah on
2-121986 and received the assent of the President on 235-1987 as the Factories (Amendment) Act
1987 (No. 20 of 1987), and published in the Gazette of India on 25-5-1987. By the Notification dated
29-10-1987, Ministry of Labour, Govt. of India, the Act came into force from 1-12-1987 except
sections 7B, 41F and the 2nd Schedule which came into force from 1-6-1988.
Its major provisions are :
1. Amendment of Section 2 adding the definitions of competent person, hazardous process
and also clarifying the occupier for a firm, a company and government factories.
2. Insertions of section 7A and 7B for general duties of the occupier, manufacturers etc.,
section 87A giving power to prohibit employment on account of serious hazard, section
96A for penalty for breaches of section 41B, 41C and 41H, section 104A for proving limits
of what is practicable etc., section 106A for jurisdiction of a court, section IIIA for right of
workers, section II 8A for restriction on disclosure of information and insertion of new
Schedules I & II for the list of hazardous industries and permissible levels of certain
chemicals.
3. Insertion of a new Chapter IV-A regarding hazardous processes adding section 41 A for
constitution of Site Appraisal Committee, section 41 B for compulsory disclosure of
information including safety policy and on-site emergency plan and disaster control
measures, section 41 C for medical examination, health, records & qualified supervisors,
section 41D for Government's power to appoint inquiry committee, section 41E for
emergency standards, section 41F for permissible limits of toxic exposures, section 41G for
worker's participation in safety management and section 41H for right of workers to warn
about imminent danger.
 4. Amendments of sections 4, 9 (raising the powers of inspectors), 13, 16, 18, 19, 23, 25, 28,
29, 30, 31, 32, 36A, 64, 70, 71, 80, 87, 89, 90, 91A, 92, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 115 and 119.
The remarkable amendment is the heavy increase in penalties extending up to Rs. 2 lakhs
and Rs. 5000 daily fine, imprisonment up to 10 years and minimum fine of Rs 5000 in case
of serious injuries and Rs. 25000 in case of death.
5. Substitutions of section 36 and 38.
6. Omission of section 100 for nomination of occupier.
Therefore, now, looking to the passing of above Act of 1987, the factory managers and occupiers must
run their factories strictly according to the law to avoid dire consequences.

SAFETY AUDIT RULE 2014

The Factories Act, 1948

No. FAC-2013/C.R.212/Lab-4 – In exercise of the powers conferred by section 112 and 115
read with section 41 of the Factories Act, 1948 (63 of 1948), in its application to the State of
Maharashtra and clause (3) of section 23 of the General Clauses Act, 1897 (X of 1897) and of all
other powers enabling it in that behalf, and in supersession of the Government Notification,
Industries, Energy and Labour Department, No. FAC-2009/C.R.309/Lab-4, dated the 3rd January
2012; and to supplement the provisions of Chapter IV of the said Act as a measure for securing the
safety of persons employed in certain class of factories, the Government of Maharashtra hereby
proposes to make the following rules, the same having been previously published as required by
sub-section (1) of section 115 of the said Act, as follows, namely:-
1. (1) These rules may be called the Maharashtra Factories (Safety Audit) Rules, 2013.
(2) They shall apply to the factories,-
(i) in which manufacturing processes, which involves use, storage, handling or
processing of toxic or highly inflammable or explosive or hazardous chemicals or wherein such
toxic or highly inflammable or explosive substances are likely to be generated or given out, are
carried out, or
(ii) in which the hazardous processes as listed in First Schedule appended to clause (b)
of section 2 of the Factories Act, 1948 (LXIII of 1948) is carried out; or
(iii) Employing more than 250workers.
2. (1) In these rules unless the context otherwise requires,-
(i) “Act” means the Factories Act, 1948 (LXIII of 1948), as applicable to the State of
Maharashtra;
(ii) “Chief Inspector” means any person who is appointed by the State Government as a
Chief Inspector, under sub- section (2) of section 8 of the Act;
(iii) “Degree” means the degree of statutory university;
(iv) “Diploma” means a diploma awarded by a statutory university or a recognized
institution;
(v) “Form” means a form appended to these rules;
(vi) “the Government” or “the State Government” means the Government of
Maharashtra;
(vii) “safety audit” means a systematic, objective and document evaluation of the
 occupational safety and health systems and procedures in a factory,
(viii) “Safety Auditor” means a person recognized by a committee constituted by State
Government as per rule 5 to carry out safety audit in accordance with these rules and include
the safety auditors mentioned in sub- rule (3) of rule 5;
(ix) “Schedule” means the Schedule appended to these rules;
(x) “Section” means section of the Act.
(xi) “hazardous chemical” means any chemical as defined in sub-rule
(a) of Rule 2 of Maharashtra Factories (Control of Industrial Major Accident Hazards)
Rules, 2003.
(xii) “Institution” means a firm, association, body, corporate, society or a trust, whether
registered in accordance with the law for the time being force or not, and dealing mainly with
the object of ensuring safety and health of workers engaged in factories.
(2) Words or expressions used but not defined herein, shall have their respective meanings
as assigned to them in the Act or rules made there under.

3. The occupier of the class of factories mentioned in Sub rule (2) of rule 1 shall arrange to carry
out the safety audit to supplement the provisions of
Chapter IV of the said Act as a measure for securing the safety of persons employed therein,
the following manner, namely:-
(a) internally, once in a year by a team of Plant personnel;
(b) externally, once in two years by the Safety Auditor:
Provided that, in the year, when an external audit is carried out, it shall not be necessary to
carry out an internal audit:
Provided further that, in case of any changes, total or partial, in the manufacturing process,
the occupier shall, within one month prior to such change, carry out the safety audit externally
by the Safety Auditor.
4. The Safety Audit shall be carried out as per the standards laid down as IS 14489: 1998 in the
Indian Standard Code of Practice on Occupational Safety and Health Audit or any such
standards prevailing at the relevant time whichever is latest by the Safety Auditor or in case of
an institution, by the person or employee possessing the qualification, experience and other
requirements as set out in Schedule I as a Safety Auditor.
5. (1) The State Government may recognize any person possessing the qualifications, experience
and other requirements as set out in the Schedule I hereto as a Safety Auditor for the purpose of
carrying out Safety Audit as provided by these rules:
(2) The State Government may recognize any institution, employing at least three persons
possessing the qualifications, experience and other requirements as set out in the Schedule I as a
Safety Auditor for the purpose of carrying out Safety Audit as provided by these rules.
Provided that, where the institute to which such recognition has been granted ceases to
employ at least three persons possessing the qualifications, experience and other requirements
set out in the Schedule I, the recognition granted to such institute shall stand cancelled;
Provided further that, State Government may for reasons to be recorded in writing, relax the
requirements of qualification, if such institute is exceptionally specialized in the field of
carrying out Safety Audit for not less than 5years.
(3) Director General Factory Advise Services &Labour Institute (DGFASLI) and National
Safety Council (NSC) or an Officer having working experience of not less than 15 years in the
office of the DGFASLI or NSC or Directorate of Industrial Safety and Health, Maharashtra
State (DISH) notebook the rank of Deputy Director shall be deemed to be Safety Auditor for
carried out Safety Audit under these rules.
(4) The State Government may from time to time fix the total number of such Safety
Auditors to be appointed depending on the total quantum of work available in the State and also
the manner in which applications are to be invited.
6. (1) An application for grant or renewal, of certificate of recognition as a Safety Auditor for
carrying out safety audit shall be made to the Chief Inspector by an individual in Form A and
by an institution in Form B.
(2) (a) On receipt of an application duly made in accordance with these rules, the Chief
Inspector shall register such application and recommend it to the Government for its approval,
after having satisfied itself as regards the competence and facilities available at the disposal of
the applicant or recommend to the Government for rejecting the application, after specifying the
reasons therefore within 30days.
(b) For giving an approval to the applicant as a Safety Auditor, the State Government may
constitute a committee, if required, consisting of such members as it may deem fit, to advise it.
The application shall be scrutinized by such committee and recommend it to the Government
for its approval, after having satisfied itself as regards the competence and facilities available at
the disposal of the applicant or recommend to the Government for rejecting the application,
after specifying the reasons therefor within 30days.
(c) On receipt of the recommendation of the Chief Inspector or such committee, if constituted
under paragraph (b), the State Government may grant recognition to the applicant as Safety
Auditor or reject the application, after specifying the reasons there for within 45days.
(d) After the State Government grants approval to the applicant as the Safety Auditor, the Chief
Inspector shall issue certificate of recognition in Form C, within 15 days subject to the
following conditions and any other condition as may be specified by the State Government,
namely:-
(i) Safety Auditor shall maintain a log book of all safety audits undertaken by him indicating the
name and address of the audited factory, name of the person who has carried out safety audit,
contact persons, date of the audit and date of submission of the audit report to the Occupier. It
shall be produced as and when required by officers of the Directorate of Industrial Safety and
Health.
(ii) Safety Auditor and the person authorized to carry out shall not conduct a Safety Audit of any
factory where such auditor or person is employed, or an occupier, partner, director, or manager
of that factory, or of any factory owned, operated, managed, or conducted by immediate family
members, relatives or extended family members or wherein that auditor or such person has any
direct or indirect interest whatsoever. An auditor or such person shall not carry out the safety
audit of those factories to which that auditor or such person supplies any plant, machinery, raw
material, safety equipments or other materials or equipment.
(iii) Safety Auditor and the person authorized to carry out safety audit shall not disclose, even
after he ceasing to be a recognized auditor or employee of the institution, any manufacturing or
commercial secrets or working processes or other confidential information which may come to
his knowledge in the course of their duties as an auditor. Any failure in this regard may make
such auditor or person liable for criminal or civil proceedings, in accordance with the law for
the time being in force.
(3) The recognition granted under sub-rule (2) shall be valid for two years from the date of issue
of Certificate of Recognition.
(4) The application for renewal of recognition as a safety auditor shall be made at least three
months before the expiry of the period of recognition and the procedure stated in sub-rule (2)
shall apply mutatis mutandis for its renewal.
(5) The applicant shall not be eligible for renewal of recognition as a Safety Auditor if,-

(i) the State Government has revoked such recognition in the past on two occasions; or
(ii) he has not carried out at least three safety audits of factories in past two years; or
(6) The State Government may, after giving an opportunity to the Safety Auditor of being
heard, revoke the certificate of recognition, if it has a reasons to believe that,-
(i) the Safety Auditor has violated any of the conditions stipulated in the certificate of
 recognition or renewal of recognition; or
(ii) the Safety Auditor has carried out the safety audit in violation of the provisions of the Act
or these rules or has acted in a manner inconsistent with the intent or the purpose of the Act or
rules made there under or has omitted or failed to act as required under the Act and rules made
there under; or
(iii) for any other like reason;
7. The Occupier of the factory as well as the Safety Auditor shall inform in writing to the
concerned office of the Directorate of Industrial Safety and Health, fifteen days in advance
before commencement of the safety audit in a factory.
8. The Safety Auditor shall within one month from the date of completion of safety audit forward
to the Occupier of the factory a Safety Audit Report in Performa prescribed under Schedule II
on the letter head and his recommendations regarding improvement of the occupational safety
and health in a factory.
Provided that if during safety audit, auditor finds any hazard posing danger of causing an
accident, he shall immediately communicate in writing to the occupier as well as to the
inspector concerned. In such case the occupier in such case shall take immediate corrective
action.
9. The Occupier shall, within thirty days of the receipt of the Safety Audit Report in Performa
prescribed under Schedule II, forward the same to the concerned office of the Directorate of
Industrial Safety and Health along with the action taken report in pursuant to the
recommendations made in the Safety Audit Report.

10. On scrutiny of the Safety Audit Report, if it is found that the safety audit is not carried out in
accordance with rule 4, the Chief Inspector may communicate the discrepancies to the occupier
and Safety Auditor and shall direct the occupier to carry out re-audit only with respect to the
discrepancies pointed out by him. Re-audit shall be completed within thirty days from the date
of such direction. The provisions of rules 4, 8 and 9 shall apply to such mutatis mutandis apply
to such re-audit.
11. (1) Subject to the provisions of sub-rule (2), the State Government may, by order in writing,
exempt any factory or category of factories from all or any of the provisions of these rules,
subject to such conditions as it may specify in such order.
(2) No order under sub-rule (1) shall be issued unless, in the opinion of the State Government,
the requirements of these rules, having regard to the frequency or the nature of manufacturing
process carried out in that factory, which involves use, storage, handling or processing of
hazardous chemicals or which involves generation of such substances, are impracticable or
otherwise not necessary for the safety, health and protection of workers.
(3) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-rule (1) and (2), the State Government may, in
its discretion, by order, revoke the exemption granted under sub-rule (1), at any time.

SCHEDULE I
(See rule 5)
The applicant, for being recognized as Safety Auditor, shall possess the following qualifications and
experience, etc.:-

1. Academic Qualification and Experience.- The applicant shall hold,-

(i) degree in branch of Chemical, Mechanical, Electrical or Production Engineering and having
five years’ experience in manufacturing, maintenance, design, project or safety department in
 the supervisory or above capacity in factories; or
(ii) diploma in branch of Chemical, Mechanical, Electrical or Production branch Engineering and
having seven years’ experience in manufacturing, maintenance, design, project or safety
department in the supervisory or above capacity in factories; or
(iii) degree of Bachelor of Science with Physics and/or Chemistry and having ten years’ experience
in, manufacturing or safety Department of any factory in the supervisory or above capacity in
factories, and one year full time Diploma in Industrial Safety recognized by the Board of
Technical Education or All India Council of Technical Education or recognized University; or
(iv) degree or diploma in any branch of Engineering and having fifteen years of experience in
Factory Inspectorate or Directorate of Industrial Safety and Health or fifteen years of
experience in the Director General Factory Advisory Services and Labour Institute or Regional
Labour Institute or National Safety Council in the capacity of Assistant Director or above.
2. The applicant shall not be directly or indirectly interested in the factory or in any process or
business carried on therein or in any patent or machine connected therewith, in respect of which
the safety audit is to be conducted.
3. If the age of applicant is more than 62 years, he shall submit a certificate of physical fitness for
carrying out safety audit of factories issued by civil surgeon or certifying surgeon along with
the application for recognition or renewal of recognition.
SCHEDULE II
(See rule 8 & 9)
Performa for Safety Audit Report

1. Name and address of the factory,

2. Name of the Occupier,

3. Date of Audit,

4. List of raw material with maximum storage quantity,

5. List of finished products with maximum storage quantity,

6. Manufacturing process flowchart,

7. P I Diagram of all plants (Chemical Factories),

8. Name of the Safety Auditor and Certificate No. and name of the person who has carried out
safety audit,
9. Whether enclosed Safety Audit Report as per IS 14489, or any such standards prevailing at the
relevant time, whichever is latest:

Date: Signature of Safety Auditor/

Person or employee of an Institution authorized to carry out
safety audit

I (Occupier) undertake to submit the action taken report on recommendations of Safety

Audit on or before ………………

Date: Signature of the Occupier.

 FORM– A
[See rule 6(1)]
Application Form For recognition or renewal of recognition of Safety Auditor (to be filled in
by individuals)
(In Duplicate)

Applicant’s
1. Name : Latest
Photograph
2. Father/Husband Name : signed

3. Date of Birth and Age : across.

4. Permanent Address:

5. Address for : Correspondence

Telephone No. :

Mobile No. :

Fax :

E-mail :

6. Educational Qualification : (Attach Certified copies)

Sr Degr College/Institution/U Year of
.N ee/D niversity completion
o. iplo
ma

7. Technical Qualification in Safety (Attach certified copies)

Sr.No. Degree/Dipl College/Instituti Year of

oma on/University completi
on

8. Work Experience (Attach certified copies)

Sr. Employ Name and Desi Na

No. ment address of gnati tur
Date Employer on e
of
wo
rk
From To

9. For renewal of recognition.- Certificate No. and date:

10. DECLARATION

I hereby declared that,

a) my recognition as a Safety Auditor was not revoked or cancelled by the State Government in
the past;
b) my recognition as a Safety Auditor was revoked or cancelled in the past, and its details are as
follows:-

Date of revocation or Period

cancellation and its
order number, if any Fro To
m
 Note.-If the recognition was cancelled or revoked twice in the past the Safety Auditor is not
eligible for recognition.
c) I have carried out three or more than three, Safety Audits in the past two years, the list
showing the name, address of the factory and date of audits are attached herewith.
d) I, ------------------------------------------ hereby declare that the information furnished above
are correct to the best of my knowledge. I undertake to:
(i) maintain the facilities in good working order, and
(ii) Ful fill and abide by the conditions, if any, stipulated in the certificate of recognition.

Signature of the Applicant: Full Name:

Date : Place :
 FORM – B
[See rule 6(1)]

Form of Application for recognition or renewal of recognition to

an institution as Safety Auditor

Name and full address of

the Institution:
Institution status (specify
whether Government,
autonomous,
co-operative, corporate
or private) with
registration number:
a) Name of head of
Institution
b) Phone/Mobile No.
c) E-Mail address
d) Fax
Whether the Institution
has been declared as a
Safety Auditor by this
State or any other State?
If so, give details.
Attach bio-data of at least
three employed persons,
in the Annexure attached
to this application :
Any other relevant
information
Certificate No. (in case
of renewal)

.DECLARATION

I hereby declare that,-

(a) Recognition of the institution as Safety Auditor was not revoked or cancelled by
the State Government in the past;
the recognition of the institution as Safety Auditor was revoked or cancelled in the past, its
details are as follows:–
 Date of revocation or cancellation Period
and its order number, if any Form To

Note.-If the recognition was cancelled or revoked twice in the past the institution is not
eligible for recognition.
(c) The institution has carried out three or more than three, Safety Audits in the past
two years, the list showing the name, address of the factory and date of audits are attached
here with.I, hereby declare that the persons whose bio-data it attached to the application
are employees of the institution whose copies of appointment letters are attached herewith.
(e) I, --------------------------------------- hereby declare that the information
furnished above for -------------------------------------- (name of the institution) is correct
to the best of my knowledge. I undertake to,-
(i) notify to the Chief Inspector immediately, in case the employed person on the
basis of which this recognition was procured leaves the employment,
(ii) Maintain the facilities in good working order,
(iii) Fulfil and abide by all the conditions stipulated in the certificate of recognition.
Signature of the Head of the Institution: -------------------------------

Designation: ----------------------------------

Place: ---------------------------

Date: ----------------------------
THE CASE LAW

Before studying any law and citations on it (ie case law) it is important to know the
meaning of following legal words. -
1. Law, common law and natural justice.
2. Legislation, legislative process, enactment, statute, statutory, mandatory, notification
and ordinance.
3. Bill and statement of objects and reasons.
4. Act, preamble and code.
5. Sections, rules, regulations, schedules & forms.
6. Proviso, exception, exemption, explanation, not withstanding that and save as
otherwise provided.
7. Penal section, fine, imprisonment, responsibility, occupier and manager.

All offences under the Factories Act and Rules fall under the category of absolute
criminal liability, which requires no menses or guilty intention to be proved (AIR 1966
Mad 448 and 1964 Vol.2 LLJ, 456). Out of many decided cases a few citations on safety and
health matters are mentioned below to highlight the case law.

1. Citations under the Factories Act :

5.3 Object of the Act is for the benefit and welfare of the labour class only. AIR 1956
Born. 219.
5.4 Interpretation of the Act should be liberal and beneficial AIR 1956 Born. 33, AIR
1966 Guj. 96, AIR 1965, SC 639.
5.5 Limitation of prosecution u/s 106 - Knowledge of offence - Date of receipt of
accident report by the Inspector is not the date of knowledge of dangerous
occurrence. It is the actual date of his personal knowledge. AIR 1973 SC 309.
5.6 Where the word 'managei, is used specifically, generally he should be taken as
accused though the occupier can be selected instead of manager u/s 52, SC ruling
1965 Vol. I LLJ 419.
5.7 Power presses : 1965 Vol. 2 LLJ 472 where section 21- was discussed, 1966 Vol. 2
LLJ 10, 1972 LIC 949, 1966 Vol. I LLJ 280.
1. Transmission Machinery : Height above 15 feet was considered safe by position for
which no fencing necessary. 1965 Vol. 2 LLJ 200. In another case height of 9 feet
was considered safe for which no-under guard was necessary 1966 Vol. I LLJ 304.
2. Drill machine : Defence that the factory inspector had not pointed out or suggested
for guard, it was not provided, cannot be accepted. It was an absolute duty to provide
the guard. 1966 Vol. 1 LLJ 705.
3. Calendar machine : Nip guard was necessary, 1966 Vol. 2 LLJ 867.

Spur-gear wheel in oil mill : Defence that the guard was provided but some one else
removed it, was not accepted. The words "while the machinery is in motion its
dangerous parts shall be securely fenced." were sufficient to constitute the offence u/s
21(l)(iv)(c). State of Gujarat v/ s Jethalal Ghelabhai. SC ruling, 1964, Vol. I LLJ 389.
1 It is the duty of the employer who is running a factory to make every sort of
protections for the safety of the employees. AIR 1966 Mad 380.
2 It cannot be said that if something goes wrong with the machinery while it is in
 motion and a part of it slips down, there is no obligation on the employer to protect
aworkman from injury arising under such circumstances. The basic idea is that the
safeguard must be in position so that the rotating or moving part of the machinery is
incapable or causing any injury. 1966 Vol. I LLJ 304.
3 It is an absolute obligation under the Factories Act to securely fence dangerous parts
of machinery. The statute does not say that they should be fenced only if it is
commercially practicable or mechanically possible. AIR 1966 MP 324, (1966) 2LLJ
867.
4 The obligation that a dangerous machine shall be securely fenced by safeguards of
substantial construction is absolute, and should be complied with regard to all parts
of the machinery. (1965) 2 LLJ 472.
5 Manager/Occupier cannot escape conviction for failure in securely fencing every
dangerous part of machinery unless he has satisfied all requirements of section 22 (1)
of the Act. (1965) I LLJ 528.
6 Mere fact that the die was not provided with any guard by its manufacture, no
effective safety guards could be provided to the die without impairing the working of
the machine, cannot affect the employer's responsibility under the law to securely
fence the die by safety guards of substantial construction. (196465) 26 FJR 162.
7 Section 21(1) (iv) (c) of the Act requires not only that the dangerous part of a
machine shall be securely fenced by safeguards, but also that the safeguards are kept
in position when the machine is working. AIR 1964 SC 779, (1964) I LLJ 389.
8 The obligation of the occupier to securely fence the dangerous parts of the machinery
is absolute whether those parts may be in motion or use or not. (1962) I LLJ 607.
9 Transmission machinery must be securely fenced unless the same, by reason of its
position or construction is safe to every person employed in the factory as it would be
if it were securely fenced. AIR 1960 Born. 1.
10 In order to claim the benefit of proviso to section 21 (1) (iv) of the .Act for getting
the occasion excluded, it is a necessary condition that on such occasion the necessary
adjustment operation to the moving part of the machinery must be done by a worker
specified in section 22 of the Act in the manner provided therein. (1965) I LLJ 528.
11 Where instead of complying with the statutory requirements contained in section 24
of the Act and providing the equipment indicated therein, it had been the practice in
the concerned factory to effect the movement of the belt with some rod, or crude
contrivance which was unsafe, the employer was guilty of negligence under the said
section. (1964-65) 26 FJR 153.
12 An owner or occupier of a factory cannot plead in his favour ignorance of the law as
contained in the provisions of section 28(1) (e) of the Act. He was bound to provide
interlocking arrangement required., (1964) 1"LLJ 689.
1. Only two diagonally opposite chains are necessary and sufficient for working of the
tackle. If fourth chain of tackle is allowed to remain in a state of disrepair, the
manager of the factory does not contravene the provisions of section 29 (1) (a) (ii) of
the Act. (1969) Lab I.C. 783.
4. Failure to cover a pit inside the factory having inherent danger amounts to violation
of section 33 of the Act (1967) 2 LLJ 616.
5. No manufacturing process shall be carried on in any building until a certificate of
stability of the building has been obtained. Failure to do this is an offence. AIR 1957
 Allh. 343.
6. The defence undersection 101 of the Act will not be available to an owner of a
factory unless he has proved that he had used due diligence to enforce the execution
of the Act. AIR 1964 SC 779.
7. Any person found working in the factory can be taken as employed in the factory
until it is proved contrary. 1964 (1) LLJ 575.
8. Failure to comply with the provision of sec. 14 is a 'continuing offence'. Prior
knowledge of the offence by the Inspector is not a bar in filing a complaint
subsequently (1952-53) 4 FJR 231.
Failure to construct a dustproof husk chamber as required under section 14 is a
continuing offence. AIR 1962 MP 311. Omission to securely fence fermenting vats is
a continuing offence. AIR 1964 Guj. 125, (1964) 5 GLR 29. Omission to provide a
canteen is a continuing offence. AIR 1957 All ere (DB). Carrying on a manufacturing
process in a building in the absence of a certificate of suitability of the. building as
required by the rules is also a continuing offence. AIR 1955 Born.161 (DB.)
9. The plea of ignorance of law is not available to the accused under section 28(1) of the
Act. 1964
(1) LLJ. 689.
10. Fencing and safeguard should not be such as can be disturbed and removed by a
workman. 1972 Mah LJ. 279, 41 FJR 165.
11. A machinery or part thereof is dangerous if in the ordinary course of its working,
danger may reasonably be anticipated from it when working without protection,
taking into account the various factors incidental to its working, including the
carelessness of the workman, AIR 1969 MP 110.
12. S.2 (m), 2 (k)(i) and 2(1) - Factory", meaning of - Sun cured tobacco leaves subjected
to processes of moistening, stripping and packing in a company's premises with a
view to their use and transport to company's main factory for manufacturing
cigarettes- More than 20 persons under supervision of management working in
premises - Held that the manufacturing process was carried on in premises and the
persons employed Were workers and premises a factory. Lab IC 1970 S C 56A.
13. S. 2 (k)- "Manufacturing process" - Process of cleaning Water and storing and
supplying it by pumping is a manufacturing process. Lab IC 1972 970F Raj.
14. Ss. 33 &2 (m) - Contravention of Section 33 in regard to a pit which is in the
environments of the factory - Necessary proof. Lab IC 1972 772 Born.
15. S. 2 (k) (i) - "Manufacturing process" - Rice mill - Use of huller and sheller for
converting paddy into rice and polishing it* is a manufacturing process Lab IC 1976,
1387 (Kant).
16. S. 92 - Karnataka Factories Rules. 1969 Allegation that first aid box was not
maintained according to Rules - Prosecution must prove what was wanting in
contents of box Lab IC 1976,538D (Kant).
17. S. 21 (1) (iv) (c) read with Bombay Factory Rules (1950), Sch. I, Chap. IV, R. 54 (2)
and (3) - Compliance with safety measures is mandatory- Whether employer had
foreseen casualty is totally irrelevent Lab IC 1978, 1220 Born.
18. S. 2 (m) and S. 103 - Ten workers found inside an automobile workshop during
working hours - Plea that two of them were workers in a rice mill not acceptable Lab
 IC 1979, 159A Mad NOC.

S. 2(m), 92 and Rule 4, GFR-'Factory'- meaning of - Construction work - Temporary work

done with aid of power at certain places do not amount to 'factory' within meaning of
Section 2(m) - Prevailing nature of work to be taken into account- Contract between
company and contractor regarding work and labour manufacture of certain materials on
same premises - Temporary use for manufacturing such articles with aid of power will not
include premises in the term factory. FLR 1980(41)75, Gujarat.
7 S. 2(g), 2(k), 2(m) - Manufacturing process Meaning of-lroning of stitched clothes
with the aid of power by tailoring firms, held, is an integral part of manufacturing
process LLN 1985 Vol-ll 101.
8 S. 21(l)(iv)(c) & 92- Injury to worker due to alleged failure to securely fence
dangerous part of machinery- Evidence of Factory Inspector silent on vital point- In
the circumstances order of conviction of appellant- manager set aside LLN 1986 Vol
1 332.
9 S. 2(k) - Petrol pump service station carrying on business of sale of petrol, diesel,
lubricants etc. and servicing of vehicles is a manufacturing process LLN 1987 Vol 1
912.
10 S 2(k)- Dairy farm- filling of milk pots for distribution- Also electric pump used for
lifting water in farm- Held, manufacturing process 1987 Vol II 704.
11 S.2(l) - Effect of addition of words "including a contractor".
The effect of including the said words in the definition of "worker" is that
even a worker engaged through a contractor and working in a factory falls within the
definition of worker for the purposes of Factories Act. This was done evidently with
a view to ensure that the benefits of the several regulatory and welfare measures
provided by the Act extends to such contract labour also.
Govt. of A.P. vs. Bhadrachalam Paper Boards Ltd., 1990 (60) FLR 517 (A.P. -
D.B.).
1. Workers-Staff engaged in the clerical work in the factory premises- Whether
'workers' within the meaning of section 2(1) of the Act? Yes. State (By Inspector of
Factories, Guddalore) vs. A.K. GangllU, 1993 LLR 701 = 1993(67) FLR 627 = 1993
II CLR 57 = 1993 I LLN 791 (Mad. HC).
2. Conviction and sentence of respondent on his pleading of offence under section 92
providing minimum sentence of fine not less than 25000Trial court imposed fine of
Rs. 200 onlyWhether order is illegal and perverse? Yes.
State of Glljarat vs. B.S. "niakkar, Manager, Diguijay Cement Co. Ltd., 1993
LLR 843 = 1993 (67) FLR 1134 (Guj.HC). See also 1991 (1) 32 (1) GLR71 and 1992
II GLR 229 for State of Gujarat v/s Dr. CK Patel
1. The period of limitation for prosecution in contravening provisions of the Factory
Act will be computed from the date of inspection and disclosure of offence.
State of Gujarat vs MIT & MIR Pvt. Ltd. Surat, ,1994 LLR 116 (Guj. HC)
6. Appointment of certain number of safety officers in a factory having chemical plant
and blast furnace is a statutory obligation on the part of the employer.
 Tata Iron and Steel Co. Ltd. vs Inspector of Factories, Jamshedpur Circle
No.I, Jamshedpur and .Others, 1995 LLR 684=1995 II LLN 474 (Pat.HC).
2. Employees of administrative accounts section of a factory will be eligible for
overtime.
Chief General Manager, Telecom Factory, Bombay & Ors.vs. All India Telecom
Engg. Employees Union & Ors., 1996 LLR 333 (Born.HC).
3. In the event of conflict between the provisions of standing orders and Factories Act,
the latter will prevail.

Maharashtra General Kampar Union vs. Bharat Petroleum Corp. Ltd. &Ors., 1996 LLR 900
(Born. HC).
1.
2. Failure to provide safety electrical devices (earthing, rubber gloves, shoes etc.)
resulting into death of a casual worker will make the employer liable for prosecution
and fine. The High Court converted the order of acquittal into a fine of Rs. 50000 (in
default, impris.onment for 3 months) each to the manager and occupier, accused, and
directed to pay Rs. 50000 to the legal representatives of the deceased worker u/s
357(4) of the Cr. P. C.
State of Karnataka vs. M. Siddappaq &Amr., 1997 LLR 411 (Karn. HC).
3. Factories Act, 1948 - S.2 (n) - Occupier in case of a company.
Occupier in case of a company must be one of the Directors. As such relief
claiming appointment of a person other than a Director as an occupier cannot be
granted.
Tata Oil Mills Co. Ltd. vs. State of U.P., 1997 (2) LLN 681 (All- D.B.).
1. Factories Act, 1948-S.92 read with Rule 61(1)(c)(i) – Punishment for breach of
safety measures.
Respondent runs a factory and the Factory Inspector found that the plant was
not fitted with necessary safely valve in contravention of the aforesaid statutory
provisions. On a complaint. Metropolitan Magistrate fined him Rs. 500/- on his
pleading guilty. Hence this appeal for enhancement of sentence.
Held: Factory owner guilty of contravention of safety measures has to be dealt
with severally and seriously even on his pleading guilty to the charge. The workmen
exposed to such unsafe working conditions in such factories can be said to be their
exploitation by owner of such factories. The sentence of fine of Rs.500/- is enhanced
to Rs. 5000/-.
State of Gujarat vs. Sandeep Bhandari 1997 I CLR 1048 (Guj. H.C.).
1. Factories Act, 1948- S.92- Karnataka Factories Rules, 1969- Rule 86- Statutory duty
not compiled with.
This is an appeal against an order of acquittal of respondent accused for an
offence under S.92 of the Act for contravention of Rule 86. Facts are that worker in
the factory of the respondent received electrical shock and died on the spot. It is held
that there was sufficient and clinching evidence on record to show that the accused
did not provide for rubber gloves and rubber shoes to deceased worker and further
that electric installations were not properly maintained by the accused, there was no
justification on the part of Magistrate to hold accused not guilty.
 State of Karnataka v. M. siddappa 1997 I CLR 705 (Kam.H.C.). 54 How it should be
interpreted.
The Act is meant to provide protection to the workers from being exploited by
greedy business establishments and it also provides for the improvement of working
conditions within the factory premises. Hence a beneficial construction should be
given and the provisions of the Act should be so constructed/interpreted so as to
achieve its objects i.e., welfare of the workers and their protection from exploitation
and unhygienic working conditions in the factory premises. It is also a cardinal
principle of interpretation to give effect to the plain, fair and ordinary meaning to the
words if such interpretation is not opposed to the intention of the legislature.
Ravi Shankar Sharma vs. State of Rajasthan 1993 L.LC.987 (Raj.H.C.). 55
S.2(m) - & 2(k)(i) - Stone crashing unit is a factory.
As per the definition of "manufacturing process" as .given in the Act, there
can be no doubt that breaking of boulders into chips would be a manufacturing
process. For this purpose
coming into existence of a new product is not necessary. If that be so, the premises where
ten or more persons are working and the operation is carried on with the aid of power has to
be regarded as a factory.
M/s. Larsen & Toubro Ltd. vs. State of Orissa 1992 LIC 1513 (On. - D.B.). 56
S.21(l)(i)(iv)(c) and S.92 - Enhancement of sentence.
This criminal appeal is filed for enhancement of sentence of fine of
Rs.2000/for an offence punishable under S.92 qf the Factories Act, 1948. It is
unfortunate and shocking that the Magistrate failed to note the minimum sentence of
fine of Rs.5000/- for the offence. He was even not conscious of the object underlying
the beneficial piece of legislation viz. Factories Act, 1948. Such gross defiance of
law, prima facie, is serious dereliction of duty and unbecoming on the part of any
learned Magistrate. The sentence of fine is enhanced to Rs.5000/-. Action is directed
against the Magistrate.
State of Gujarat vs. Ishwarbhai Harkflabhai Patel 1994 II CLR 721(Giij.H.C.).
1. S.36 - (as it stood before its amendment by Act 20 of 1987) - Interpretation of sub-
section (5) of S.36 -
There is no absolute duty cast on employer to prevent entry - Burden is on
prosecution to prove that employer had not taken all reasonable steps for preventing
entry and not on employer to prove that he had taken all reasonable steps. If
necessary instructions are issued by employer and worker acts in contravention of
those instructions, employer cannot be held responsible for violation of S.36(5).
State of Gujarat vs. Dilipkumar Dahyabhai Patel & Anr.1995 II CLR 497 (Guj
H.C.).
6.1 S.40-B and W.B. Factories, (Safety Officers) Rules, 1978 - Rule 3(b) - Appointment
- Compliance of two pre-conditions
The petitioner, who was appointed as safety officer, challenges, termination of
his service to be against the provisions of the Rules.
High Court has not accepted the challenge observing as follows :
Appointment of safety officers, is mandatory on existence of two conditions :
(i) wherein 1000 or more workers are ordinarily employed and the State Government
 issues notification requiring the occupier to appoint safety officer or officers and (ii)
wherein the State Government is of opinion wherein manufacturing process is carried
which involves risk etc. and issuance of notification in above manner. Issuance of
notification is a indispensable condition for employment of safety officers in terms of
S.40-B of the Factories Act. In the instant case no such notification was issued. Thus
the mandatory requirement of S.40-B cannot be said to have been fulfilled to make
employment of the petitioner as Safety Officer within the meaning of clause 3(b) of
the Rules of 1978. The termination was thus not violative of the Rules.
Debesh Kumar Bhattacharya vs. Rishra Steel Ltd. & Ors.1994 II CLR
944 (CaL H.C.).59 S.41-A - Safety precautions in handling chemicals.
The Union of employees filed writ petition to direct Chief Inspector of
Factories to enforce safety precautions in the factory. Inspector of Factories had
given certain directions to the management of the factory and thereafter he again
visited the factory and submitted report. High Court considered the same and
accepted the report and dismissed writ petition. The Union filed this appeal against
said order. In appeal it is observed that new complaints regarding atmosphere
pollution and provision of insurance cover to employees cannot be entertained as they
are not the grievances in the main writ petition.

Addision Paints and Chemicals Ltd. vs. Chief Inspector of Factories 1993 II
L.L.N. 728 (Mad.D.B.).
2. Ss82 and 106 - Magistrate dismissing complaint made by Inspector under S.92 on
preliminary contention that it was filed beyond period of limitation of three months
as prescribed under S.106. In fact complaint was filed within three months of the date
on which commission of offence came to knowledge of Inspector - Matter remanded
- Practice of disposing of cases on grounds such as (i)complainant absent, (ii) no
witnesses examined, or (iii) accused pleading guilty, deprecated.
State ofGujarat vs. Mit and Mir Private Ltd., Swat 1994-1 CLR 149
(Guj.H.C.).
6.3 S.92 - Karnataka Factor Rules, 1969 - Rules 84 and 88 - Negligent shunting of
carriages Occupier not responsible.
Accident took place in Railway Workshop due to negligent shunting of
carriages. Occupier is prosecuted for contravention of Rules 84 and 88. He filed this
petition praying for quashing of proceedings against him.
Held : Rule 84 prohibits any process of work which is likely to cause risk of
bodily injury to be carried on in the factory. It is not complainant's case that the work
of shunting which was done within the factory premises was likely to cause risk of
bodily injury. Rule 84 is therefore not affected. If due to negligence in carrying out a
work which is permissible, an accident takes place, the occupier cannot be held
responsible for contravention of Rule 84. So far as Rule 88 is concerned, if bodily
injury is caused to a worker not on account of any inherent defect in the construction,
situation, operation or maintenance of the means of transport, but on account of
negligence of another employee, then it cannot be said that there -is any
contravention of Rule 88.
Proceeding of prosecution against petitioner occupier is quashed. Ramchandra
vs. A.R. Vijendra 1994 II CLR 946 (Kar.H.C.).
62 S.92 - Proviso - Minimum sentence is prescribed.
The accused pleaded guilty for having committed offence under S.29(l)(a) and
S.29(l)(b) of the Act and was awarded fine of RS.IOO/-. Proviso to S.92 provides
that the fine shall not be less than RS.IOOO/-. Merely because the accused pleaded
guilty is no reason to award punishment lesser than the minimum.
State of Gujarat vs. Mahavir Prasad Jain 1992 I CLR 863 (Guj. H.C.).
63 Ss.92, 52, 2(m)(ii) and 6 - Opportunity of hearing to find if establishment is a factory.
Prosecution is lodged against the petitioner as failed to comply with the
provisions of the Act and Rules. In a challenge against the same, it is urged that
before filing the complaint opportunity for hearing should have been given to the
petitioner.
Rejecting the submission, it is observed that there is no provision under the
Act that before launching prosecution, there should be first determination of the fact
whether the establishment is a factory or not. This is a question of fact which can be
gone into only during the course of hearing.
Prabhu dayal Gupta vs. State of Bihar 1993 (66) F.L.R. 398 (Pat.H.C.).
64 S.92 and Gujarat Factories Rules - Rule IIO-A Not providing identity cards is serious
breach.
Offence of not providing identity cards to workers under S.92 read with Rule
IIO-A is not trivial or technical but is grave and serious. For such an offence fine of
Rs.20/- is not only unduly lenient and manifestly unjust but is quite ridiculous and
travesty of justice. In the circumstances, sentence is enhanced to fine of Rs.l020/-
State of Gujarat vs. Lallubimi T1iakorb1im Desai 1994 I CLR 610 (Guj.
H.C:). S.94 - Plea of guilty not proper.
1. Accused repeated the offence under S.92 of the Act within span of two years. Under
S.94 for such repeated offence, the punishment of fine is not less than Rs.10000/-.
Accused pleaded guilty but in the said plea, the element of defence and justification
for wrong doing were incorporated. Such a plea cannot be acted upon. Proceeding
remanded.
State of Gujarat vs. Dineshchandra Hirabhai Patel 1993 II CLR 607
(Guj.H.C.). 66 S..94 - Plea of guilty.
The accused gave a plea of guilty in writing wherein he cleverly put some
more facts either by way explaining away or justifying the alleged wrong committed
by him. Such a plea cannot be said to be plea of guilty at all. Proceeding remanded.
State of Gujarat vs. Harishbhai Veljibhai Tilakkar 1994 II L.L.N. 342
(Guj.H.C.). 67 S.94 - Repeated offences - Judicial Magistrate F.C. has no jurisdiction.
S.94 provides a higher punishment viz. 3 years imprisonment and fine which
shall not be less than RS. 10000/- when the offence is repeated. The Judicial
Magistrate F.C. cannot impose such sentence and as such he has no jurisdiction to try
the said offence. Chief Judicial magistrate is required to try the same.
State of Gujarat vs. Harishbhai Veljibhai TJlakkar 1994 II L.L.N. 342
(Guj.H.C.).
3. High court or Supreme court will not quash FIR lodged by the Factory inspector.
S.M. Datta v. State of Gujarat & Anr., 2001 LLR 1076 (SC).
4. An occupier of a factory owned by Government need not be Director of the company.
Container Corporation of India Ltd. V. Lt. Governor, Delhi & Ors., 2002 LLR 1068:
2002 LIC 2649: 2002-111 LLJ 447 (Del. HC).
1 Section wise Citations :
Table 27.4 is useful to find out section wise citations. Only a few citations are given
and many more can be added:

Table 27.4 :Section wise Citations

Section
of Subject in Brief Citation.
the
Factories
Act.
Lab.
2 (m) Substations and zonal stations are not factories. 1972 I.C.
1438 (SC)
( L
1 L
2 (n) Difference between occupier and owner. 1968 ) J
12

21 1 Shifting or repairs of machinery are not normal AIR 1960 Bom

operation in the working go machinery. Therefore the 1
section does not apply.
1
2
6 S
2 Removable guards are not secured guards, Employer AIR 4 C
is
guilty. 779
(1)
3 Grinding Wheel, dangerous part 1955 ALL
ER 870
( L
1 L
4 Dangerous parts. 1966 ) J
705.
( L
2 L
5 Risk must be reasonably foreseeable. 1965 ) J
200
( L
1 L
6 Failure of inspector to point out guard is no defence. 1966 ) J
705

29 Chains: Number necessary for launder. 1969, L.I.C.783

49 Meaning of ‘ordinarily’ Section 49 can apply to sugar 6 DRL All 297.

factories.
( L
2 L
62 Failure to maintain register is one offence. If name of any one 1952 ) J
worker is not therein then, it is failure to maintain register. 80
( L
1 L
101 Any one means any one and not more of the partners/ 1960 ) J
directors. 42,

105 CIF can file complaint as an inspector. AIR 1960 ALL

1 (
373, 9 1
 6 )
0
LLJ 288
( L
2 L
106 1 Period of limitation 1961 ) J
717.
L 2
I 7
2 Report of accident 1947 C 4
(SC)

CHAPTER - 2
2.1 LAWS ON CONSTRUCTION SAFETY :
Building and other Construction Workers (Regulation of Employment and Conditions
of Service) Act, 1996;
This Act (No. 27 of 1996) came into force from 1-3-1996. It extends to the whole of India,.
The Act has II chapters and 64 sections.
Preamble: It states that this Act is to regulate the employment and conditions of service of
building and other construction workers and to provide for their safety, health and welfare
measures and for other matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.
Amenability: The Act applies to every establishment (an individual, firm, association,
company, contractor. Government etc.) which employs or had employed on any day of past
one year ten or more building workers in any building or other construction work.
It does not apply to an individual who constructs his own residence costing less than Rs. 10
lakhs.
Definitions : Section 2 defines appropriate government (means Central or State Govt),
Board, building or other construction work, building worker, Chief Inspector, Director-
General, employer (Govt authority, contractor), establishment, fund, wages etc.
Scope : The' Act has chapters on advisory and expert committees, registration of
establishments and building workers as beneficiaries, welfare boards, working hours,
welfare and other conditions, safety and health measures, inspecting staff, special
provisions, penalties (max. Rs. 2000 or 3 months or both) and procedure and miscellaneous.
Welfare: Powers are given to the States to constitute a Welfare Board and the Central/State
Government can make rules for prescribing working hours, intervals, rest day, double
wages if worked on rest day, overtime wages at twice the ordinary wages, records &
registers, latrines & urinals for more than 50 workers, temporary living accommodation
(free of charge) which shall be removed or demolished after the work is over, first aid and
canteen facilities for employing more 'than 250 workers.
The Act prohibits to employ person who is deaf or has a defective vision or a tendency to
giddiness to avoid accident,
The Act provides for drinking water points situated 6 mt. away from any washing place,
urinal or latrine, and crèche rooms for more than 50 female workers for their children under
the age of six years.
Safety and Health Measures (Chapter 7, Sec. 3841):
They are as under :
1. For 500 or more workers. Safety Committee is necessary.
2. For 500 or more workers qualified Safety Officer is necessary.
3. Notice of accident is required for disablement of more than 48 hours. If 5 or more
persons die, inquiry within one month is required.
4. Central/State Government has power to make rules pertaining to
 a) Scaffolding at various stages, means of support and safe means of access.
b) Precautions while demolition, shoring etc.
c) Competent person to control hazards of explosion or flying material.
d) Competent persons to drive or operate transport equipment such as locomotives,
trucks, wagons, cranes, trailers, etc.
e) Hoists, lifts, lifting gear, their testing, heat treatment and precautions while rising
or lowering loads etc. and requirement of competent persons.
f) Sufficient .and suitable lighting.
g) Adequate ventilation at work place, confined space and prevention of dust, fumes,
gases, vapours etc.
h) Precautions while stacking, unstacking, stowing, unstowing and handling of
materials or goods.
i) Safeguarding of- machinery.
j) Safe handling and use of pneumatic tools, equipment, etc.
k) Fire precautions.
l) Maximum weight to be lifted or moved.
m) Safety of workers while transporting them by water and their rescue from
drowning.
n) Safety of workers from live electric wires, overhead wires and electrical
machinery, apparatus and tools.
o) Safety nets, safety sheets and safety belts as per need.
p) Standards of compliance with regard to scaffolding, ladders, stairs, lifting
appliances, ropes, chains, & accessories, earth moving equipment and floating
operational equipment.
q) Precautions while pile driving, concrete work, work with hot asphalt, tar etc.
insulation work, demolition, excavation, underground construction and handling
materials.
r) Safety policy.
s) Information of Bureau of Indian Standards under the Bureau of Indian Standards
Act, 1986, (63 of 1986). Regarding use of any articles or process covered under
that Act.
t) Medical facilities for building workers.
u) Any matter concerning the safety and health of building/construction workers.
5 The Central Government may frame model rules in respect .of matters stated above
which shall be followed by the State while making their rules.
Inspection Staff (Chapter-8, S.42,43) : The Central Govt. may appoint the Director-
General of Inspection and the State Govt. may appoint the Chief Inspector of Inspection of
Building and Construction and both the Governments may appoint necessary Inspectors for
local limits. All such Inspectors are public servants u/ s 21 of the IPC. Any document or
information shall be produced to the Inspector u/s 175 & 176 of the IPC, and Sec. 94 of the
Cr. P. C. is also applicable for the power of search & seizure. Wide powers are prescribed
u/s 43 for the Inspectors.
Special Provisions (Chapter-9, S.44 to 46) : An employer is responsible to provide
constant and adequate supervision to prevent accidents and to comply safety provisions
under this Act (S.44), to pay wages and compensation to building workers (S.45) and to
give notice of commencement of building or other construction work at least 30 days before
to the Inspector concerned (S.46).
Next Chapter-10 (S.47 to 51) provides for penalties and procedure and Chapter-11
(S.56 to 64) for delegation of powers, returns, protection of action taken in good faith and
power' of Central Government to give directions, to remove difficulties and to make rules.
 The Building and other Construction Workers" Welfares Act, 1996 (No. 28 of 1996),
received the assent of the President on 19-8-1996 and came into force from 3-11-1995. An
employer is required to pay more than 1% but less than 2% of the cost of construction for
the purposes of the Act No. 27 of 1996. The local authority or the State Government can
collect the in advance while giving approval of a building or construction and shall pay to
the Board after deducting the cost of collection not exceeding 1% of the amount collected.
Late payment interest is 2% per month on the unpaid amount and a penalty not exceeding
the amount of is also chargeable after giving opportunity to be heard.

Building and other Construction Workers (Regulation of Employment and

Conditions of Service) Central Rules, 1998:
U/s. 62 and Sec. 40 of the Act (previous Part 7.1), the Central Government made these
rules. They came into force from 19-11-1998.
They apply to the work under the jurisdiction of the central Government. They have 5 parts,
30 chapters, 252 rules, 12 schedules and 26 forms. Section-2 gives 74 definitions most of
which are technical terms. Thus these rules are very exhaustive and contain many technical
details.

Part wise subject division is as under:

Part I Chap I II R. I to 9.
Preliminary
Part II Central Registration of Chap III to V R. 10 to
Advisory Committee Establishments 33.
Part III Safety & Chap VI to XXV R. 34 to 233.
Health
Part IV Hours of Payment of Wages Registers & Records
work. Welfare etc. Chap XXVI to XXIX
R. 234 to 249.
Part V Chap Miscellaneous R. 250 to 252.
XXX provisions.
Thus out of 252 rules, 200 are pertaining to Safety & Health and mostly require engineering
knowledge.
Chapter wise subject matter is as under :
Chapter-1 Preliminary (R. I to 4) :Short title, application, commencement, definitions,
interpretation of words not defined and savings.
Chapter-11 Responsibilities and Duties of Employers, Architects, Project engineers &
Designers, Building workers etc. (R. 5 to 9): Rule 5 pertaining to duties of employer and
Rule 8 regarding duties of workers are important They have to comply with the provisions
of these rules, maintain lifting appliance, transport equipment and all safety devices
conforming to safety standards, testing etc., discover and report defects if any, not to
remove or interfere with fencing, gangway, gear, ladder, life saving appliances etc., to use
only safe means of access and to keep latrines, urinals, washing facilities and canteen in
clean and hygienic condition.
Chapter-111 Central Advisory Committee (R. 10 to 22): Constitution of the Committee,
terms of office, membership, staff, meetings, quorum etc. are prescribed.
Chapter-IV Registration of Establishment (R. 23 to 27): Application for registration in
triplicate in Form1, with fees (by DD) to the Registering Officer, grant of certificate of
registration (Form-11), Register of Registration (Form-111), and conditions of registration.
Fees as under:
Building workers up to 100 - Rs. 100
101 to 500 - Rs. 500
501 and more - Rs. 1000
Chapter-V Appeals, Copies of Orders, Payment of Fees, etc. (R. 28 to 33): Appeal and
hearing procedure is prescribed. All fees are to be paid by a crossed DD.
Chapter-VI Safety & Health, General Provisions (R. 34 to 54): Noise level within limits
(Sch. VI), fire protection, emergency action plan for site employing more than 500 workers,
fencing of machinery, manual lifting within limits (adult man 55 kg, adult woman or
adolescent male 30 kg and adolescent female 20 kg), Health & Safety policy for employing
50 or more workers. Carbon monoxide below 50 ppm and removal of hazardous dust, gas,
fumes and oxygen deficiency from any confined space, overhead protection for a building
under construction of 15 mt or more in height, the width of protection should be more than
2 mt and height less than 5 mt above the base of the building, protection against slipping,
tripping, cutting, drowning and falling hazards, safety net and other adequate equipment to
prevent fall, PPE for protection of eye, head and safety from corrosive chemicals, control of
electrical hazards, vehicular traffic, stability of structures, illumination of passageways,
stacking of materials, disposal of debris, numbering and marking of floors and use of safety
helmets and shoes conforming to IS.
Chapter-VII Lifting Appliances and Gear (R. 55 to 81):All lifting appliances including
their parts and working gear, whether fixed or movable should be of sound construction,
sound material, adequate strength and maintained in good repair and working condition (R.
55). Provisions for test and examination by a competent person at every 5 years in the
manner specified in Sch.I, automatic safe load indicators, safe installation, winches,
buckets, safe working load, loading safely and within SWL, operator's cabin, operating
instructions, hoists, fencing, rigging of derricks, securing of derrick foot, yearly
examination of lifting gears, ropes, heat treatment, register of testing (Form V to X and
XXVI), vacuum and magnetic lifting gear, knotting of chains & wire ropes, carrying of
persons, attachment of loads, tower cranes and qualification of operator are also prescribed.
Chapter-VIII Runways and Ramps (R. 82 to 85): Runways or ramps to be used by
building workers should have width more than 43 cm, plank thickness 2.5 cm or more,
open sides above 3 mt should have guard rail of I mt height and sufficient strength. Runway
or ramp to be used by transport equipment should have a width more than 37 mt with
timber curbs of 20 cm x 20 cm in width and placed parallel to and secured to the sides of
such runway or ramp. Slop of ramps less than I in 4, continuous rise less than 3.7 mt and no
more rise without broken by horizontal landing of length 1.2 mt or more. Runway or ramp
to be used for wheel-barrows, hand carts or hand trucks should have width more than a
metre with plank thickness more than 5 cm.
Chapter-IX Work on or adjacent to Water (R. 86, 87): Water transport vessel with
responsible person, life buoys on deck, prevention from drowning by fencing and suitable
rescue equipment etc. are prescribed.
Chapter-X Transport and Earth moving equipment (R. 88 to 95) : They should be of
sound construction and sufficiently strong for the purpose, of sufficient size, duly certified,
inspected weekly and safe carrying capacity marked. Power trucks and tractors with
effective brakes, head lights, tail lamps, tie chains etc.
 Power shovels and excavators, bulldozers, scrappers, mobile asphalt layers and
finishers, pavers and road rollers should have silencers, tail lights, power and hand brakes,
reversing alarm and search light for forward and backward movement. Pavers should have
guards to prevent workers walking under their skip. While moving downhill the engine
should be in gear. Open light is not permitted to see level of asphalt. Load bearing capacity
of the ground should be examined before using a road roller.
Chapter-XI Concrete Work (R. 96 to 107) : In addition to general provisions regarding
use of concrete, specific safety and health provisions are prescribed for preparation and
pouring, erection of concrete structures, buckets, pipes & pumps, mixing and " pouring of
concrete, panels & slabs, stressed and tensioned elements, vibrators, inspection &
supervision, beams, floors and roofs, stripping and re-shoring.
Chapter-XII Demolition (R. 108 to 118) :Provisions are made for preparation before
demolition, protection of adjacent structures, demolition of walls, partitions etc., method of
operation, access to floor, demolition of structural steel, storage of material, floor openings,
inspection, warning signs, barricades and mechanical methods of demolition (i.e. by
swinging weight, clamshell bucket, power shovel, bulldozer etc.).
Chapter-XIII Evacuation and Tunneling Works (R. 119 to 168): Subjects prescribed are
notification of intention to carry out such work, project engineer, responsible person,
warning signs and notices, register of employment, illumination, stability of structure;
pilling, shoring & bracing, safe access, trenches, depth of trenches, positioning and use of
machinery, breathing apparatus, safety measures for tunneling operation, pneumatic tools,
shafts, lift for shaft, means of communication, signals, clearances, shelters, use of internal
combustion engine, inflammable oils, coupling and hoses, hose installation, fire resistant
hoses, flameproof equipment, storing of oil and fuel underground, use of gases
underground, water for fire fighting, flooding, steel curtains, rest shelters, permissible limit
of exposure of chemicals (Sch. XII), ventilation, air supply intake point, emergency
generators, air mains, bulk head and air-locks, diaphragms, portable electric hand tools (up
to 24 volts), circuit breaker, transformer, live wires, welding sets, quality and quantity of air
(more than 0.3 m3/ min/person), working temperature (less than 29"C), man-locks and
working in compressed air environment, safety instruction and medical lock.
Chapter-XIV Steep Roof (R. 169 to 171):Safety measures are prescribed for work on
steep roofs, construction and installation of roofing brackets and crawling boards.
Chapter-XV Ladders & Step-ladders (R. 172 to 174):Provisions are made for their
construction and safe use, rungs and materials.
Chapter-XVI Catch platform and Hoarding, Chutes, Safety belts & Nets (R. 175 to
180) : Provisions are made for catch platforms (minimum width 2 mt, inclined height 1.5
mt and open end with fencing of 1 mt height), hoarding for protection of workers, chutes
and its use, safety belts, • nets, their use and storage.
Chapter-XVII Structural Frame & Frame work (R. 181 to 185) :Provisions are made
for trained workers for erection of structural-frame and framework, formwork, false work,
shoring and deshoring, erection and dismantling of steel and prefabricated structure.
Chapter-XVIII Stacking & Unstacking (R. 186, 187) : This should be in a safe way, on
firm foundation, not against weak partition or wall, safe means of access for a height above
1.5 mt, under supervision, 10 cement (lime etc.) bags in a pile and adequate support for
more height, storing of cement or lime in dry place, bricks, tiles or blocks on firm ground,
steel according to its shape, size and length and at the lowest level, pipe should not fall by
rolling, angle of repose (See Table-21 of Chapter32) of loose materials to be maintained
and dust mask for handling of dust laden material.
Chapter-XIX Scaffold (R. 188 to 205) : Provisions are made for scaffold construction
(bamboo or metal), supervision by a responsible person, maintenance, standards, ledger,
putlogs, working platform, board, plank and decking, repair of damaged scaffold, opening,
guardrails, scaffold used by building workers of different employers, protection against
electric power line, screening net and wire nets, tower scaffold, gear for suspension of
scaffold, trestle scaffold and cantilever scaffold, scaffold supported by building, use of
winches and climbers for suspended scaffold and safety devices for suspended scaffold.
Chapter-XX Cofferdams and Caissons (R. 206,207): These should be of good
construction, sound material, of adequate strength and inspected by a responsible person.
Safe means of access, work under supervision and work in compressed air as per standard
laid down procedure. Pressure plant and equipment should be examined by a competent
person and maintained in good repairs and working condition. Safety valve, pressure gauge
(dial range within 1.5 to 2 times the maximum working pressure) and stop or isolation
valve are also necessary.
Chapter-XXI Safety Organization (R: 208 to 211): Safety Committee is necessary where
500 or more building workers work. Equal number of members from employer and
employees Meeting monthly. Senior person having overall control over the affairs of the
construction site should be the chairman. Main function prescribed. Agenda and minutes
should be circulated and shown to the Inspector on demand.
Safety Officer is necessary where 500 or more building workers work. Their
number, qualification, condition of service (including status and scale), duties and facilities
are prescribed in Sch. VIII.

Requirement of Safety officers is as under :

Up to 1000 building workers - 1 Safety Officer
Up to 2000 - 2 Safety Officer
Up to 5000 - 3 Safety Officer
Up to 10000 - 4 Safety Officer
For every additional 5000 workers, one more safety officer is required.
Qualification required is B.E., B. Tech or B. Arch with 2 years experience or Diploma
holder with 5 years experience and a degree or diploma in industrial safety with an elective
subject of construction safety. Other experience is also prescribed. Their duties are
reproduced below from Sch. VIII.
I. To advise the building workers in planning and organizing measures necessary for
effective control of personal injuries;
II. To advise on safety aspects in a building or other construction work and to carry out
detailed safety studies of selected activities;
III. To check and evaluate the effectiveness of action taken or proposed to be taken to
prevent personal injuries;
IV. To advise purchasing and ensuring quality of personal protective equipment
confirming to national standards;
V. To carry out safety inspections of building or other construction work in order to
observe the physical conditions of work, the work practices and procedures
followed by building workers and to render advice on measures to be adopted for
removing unsafe physical conditions and preventing unsafe actions by building
workers;
VI. To investigate all fatal and other selected accidents;
VII. To investigate the cases of occupational diseases contracted and reportable
dangerous occurrences;
VIII. To advise on the maintenance of such records as are necessary with regard to
accidents, dangerous occurrence and occupational diseases;
IX. To promote the working of safety committees and to act as an advisor to such
committees;
X. To organize, in association with concerned departments, campaigns, competitions,
contents and other activities which will develop and maintain the interest of
building workers in establishing and maintaining safe conditions of work and
procedures;
XI. To design and conduct, either independently or in collaboration with other agencies,
suitable training and educational programmes for prevention of accidents to
building workers;
XII. To frame safe rules and safe working practices in consultation with senior officials
of the establishment;
XIII. Supervise and guide safety precautions to be taken in building and other
construction work of the establishment.
Fatal accident shall be reported - within 4 hours and non-fatal - causing disability of more
than 48 hours - accident shall be reported within 72 hours to the Regional Labour
Commissioner (Central), Board, Director General and the near relative of the deceased. It
should be in the Form No. XIV. Procedure for enquiry into cases of accident or dangerous
occurrence is also prescribed u/r 211,
Chapter-XXII Explosives (R. 212, 213): All explosives at construction site should be used,
stored or handled as per MSDS and provisions of the Explosives Act and Rules. Prohibition
of smoking and sources of ignition, safe distance and use of Non sparking tools while
opening packing, prior warning and danger signals before use, avoiding injury and use under
supervision are all necessary.
Chapter-XXIII Piling (R. 214 to 222): Provisions are made for good design,
construction, operation, inspection and maintenance of pile driving equipment, considering
ergonomic principles, electrical safety, air or steam hammer, stability of adjacent structure,
protection of operator, instruction and supervision, entry of unauthorized person, working
platform on piling frames and pile testing.
Chapter-XXIV Medical Facilities (R. 223 to 232): Provisions are made for pre and
periodical medical examination of workers as per Sch-VII, by the doctors and hospitals
approved by the Central Government, certificate of medical examination in Form No. XI,
record in Form No. XII, duties of construction medical officers, occupational health centre
for hazardous processes mentioned in Sch. IX with services and facilities laid down in Sch.
X and qualification of a Construction Medical Officer in Sch. XI, ambulance room
equipped with the articles specified in Sch. IV with necessary staff and records, ambulance
van specified in Sch. V, stretchers, occupational health services, notice of poisoning or
occupational diseases specified in Sch. II and notice in Form No. XIII, first-aid boxes with
articles specified in Sch. Ill and emergency care services or treatment with essential life
saving aids and appliances as mentioned in R. 232.
Chapter-XXV Information to Bureau of Indian Standards (R. 233): Details regarding
performance, deviation or shortcomings of the building materials, articles or processes
against IS prescribed shall be furnished to the Bureau of Indian Standards. In case of no IS
prescribed, suggestions for improvement shall be given to the Bureau to consider and form
necessary standards.
Chapter-XXVI Hours of work. Rest intervals and Weekly off etc. (R. 234 to 237) :
Provisions are made for 9 hours a day or 48 hours a week, rest interval of at least half an
hour before more than 5 hours work, spread-over 12 hours on any day, double wages for
overtime work or working on rest day, weekly rest day with its previous intimation notice,
substituted holiday on one of the five days immediately before or after such rest day and to
be given before ten days continuous working.
Chapter-XXVII Notices, Registers, Records and Collection of Statistics (R. 238 to 242)
: Notices of rates of wages, hours of work, wage period, date of payment of wages, names
and addresses of the concerned Inspectors and date of payment of unpaid wages in English,
Hindi and local language with a copy to the concerned Inspector are required.
Notice of commencement and completion of work in Form No. IV before 30 days and
notice of change in this notice within 2 days of the change are also necessary.

Following registers are required:

Register Form
No.
Register of workers XV
Muster roll XVI
Register of wages XVII
Wage –cum-muster roll where a wage period is 15 days or less XVIII

Register of deductions for damage or loss XIX

Register of fines XX
Register of advances XXI
Register of overtime XXII
Wage book (for a wage period one week or more) XXIII

Service certificate XXIV

Registers under Payment of Wages Act, Maternity Benefit Act and Contract Labour
Act shall be deemed to be the respective registers. A combined or alternative form in lieu of
above Forms shall require -prior approval of the Central Government. All registers/records
should be maintained up-to-date, kept at the workplace, preserved for 3 years and produced
on demand before the authority.
An annual return in Form Number XXV shall be sent before 15th February to the
registering authority with a copy to the Inspector concerned.
Chapter-XXVIII Welfare (R. 243 to 247): Separate latrines or urinals (as required u/s 33
of the Act) for male and female workers, canteen for more than 250 workers at a distance
15.2 mt away from any latrine, urinal or source of dust, smoke or obnoxious fumes. Tea
and snacks shall be served at a workplace 200 mt from the canteen.
Chapter-XXIX Wages (R. 248, 249):Wages shall be paid before 7th day (workers<1000)
or 10th day (workers>1000) of the wage period concerned. In case of termination it shall be
paid before the expiry of the second working day from the date of termination. A notice of
wage period, date, time and place of payment shall be displayed in English, Hindi and the
local language.
Chapter-XXX Powers of Director General and Inspectors (R. 250 to 252) :Powers to
engage experts and agencies and powers of Inspectors including prohibition order are
prescribed.
The Building and other Construction Workers' Welfare Act 1996 and Rules 1998
provide for levy and collection of on the cost of construction to generate fund for Building
and other Construction Workers Welfare Board constituted under the main Act (Part 7.1).

THE BUILDING AND OTHER CONSTRUCTION WORKERS’ WELFARE CESS

ACT, 1996
ACT NO. 28 OF 1996
[19th August, 1996.]
An Act to provide for the levy and collection of a cess on the cost of construction incurred
by employers with a view to augmenting the resources of the Building and Other
Construction Workers’ Welfare Boards constituted under the Building and Other
Construction Workers (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act,
1996.
BE it enacted by Parliament in the Forty-seventh Year of the Republic of India as
follows:—
1. Short title, extent and commencement.—(1) This Act may be called the Building
and Other Construction Workers’ Welfare Cess Act, 1996.
(2) It extends to the whole of India.
(3) It shall be deemed to have come into force on the 3rd day of November, 1995.
2. Definitions.—In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires,—
(a) “Board” means a Building and Other Construction Workers’ Welfare Board
constituted by a State Government under sub-section (1) of section 18 of the Building
and Other Construction Workers (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of
Service) Act, 1996 (27 of1996);
(b) “Fund” means the Building and Other Construction Workers’ Welfare Fund
constituted by a Board;
(c) “prescribed” means prescribed by rules made under this Act;
(d) words and expressions used herein but not defined and defined in the Building
and Other Construction Workers (Regulation of Employment and Conditions of
Service) Act, 1996 (27 of 1996) shall have the meanings respectively assigned to them
in that Act.
3. Levy and collection of cess.—(1) There shall be levied and collected a cess for the
purposes of the Building and Other Construction Workers (Regulation of Employment and
Conditions of Service) Act, 1996 (27 of 1996), at such rate not exceeding two per cent. but
not less than one per cent. of the cost of construction incurred by an employer, as the
Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, from time to time specify.
 (2) The cess levied under sub-section (1) shall be collected from every employer in such
manner and at such time, including deduction at source in relation to a building or other
construction work of a Government or of a public sector undertaking or advance collection
through a local authority where an approval of such building or other construction work by
such local authority is required, as may be prescribed.
(3) The proceeds of the cess collected under sub-section (2) shall be paid by the local
authority or the State Government collecting the cess to the Board after deducting the cost
of collection of such cess not exceeding one per cent. Of the amount collected.
(4) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1) or sub-section (2), the cess
liveable under this Act including payment of such cess in advance may, subject to final
assessment to be made, be collected at a uniform rate or rates as may be prescribed on the
basis of the quantum of the building or other construction work involved.
4. Furnishing of returns.—(1) Every employer shall furnish such return to such officer
or authority, in such manner and at such time as may be prescribed.
(2) If any person carrying on the building or other construction work, liable to pay the
cess under section 3, fails to furnish any return under sub-section (1), the officer or the
authority shall give a notice requiring such person to furnish such return before such date as
may be specified in the notice.
5. Assessment of cess.—(1) The officer or authority to whom or to which the return
has been furnished under section 4 shall, after making or causing to be made such inquiry
as he or it thinks fit and after satisfying himself or itself that the particulars stated in the
return are correct, by order, assess the amount of cess payable by the employer.
(2) If the return has not been furnished to the officer or authority under sub-section (2)
of section 4, he or it shall, after making or causing to be made such inquiry as he or it
thinks fit, by order, assess the amount of cess payable by the employer.
(3) An order of assessment made under sub-section (1) or sub-section (2) shall specify
the date within which the cess shall be paid by the employer.
6. Power to exempt.—notwithstanding anything contained in this Act, the Central
Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, exempt any employer or class of
employers in a State from the payment of cess payable under this Act where such cess is
already levied and payable under any corresponding law in force in that State.
7. Power of entry.—Any officer or authority of the State Government specially
empowered in this behalf by that Government may—
(a) with such assistance, if any, as he or it may think fit, enter at any reasonable
time any place where he or it considers it necessary to enter for carrying out the
purposes of this Act including verification of the correctness of any particulars
furnished by any employer under section4;
(b) do within such place anything necessary for the proper discharge of his or its
duties under this Act; and
(c) Exercise such other powers as may be prescribed.
8. Interest payable on delay in payment of cess.—If any employer fails to pay any
amount of cess payable under section 3 within the time specified in the order of assessment,
such employer shall be liable to pay interest on the amount to be paid at the rate of two per
cent. for every month or part of a month comprised in the period from the date on which
such payment is due till such amount is actually paid.
 9. Penalty for non-payment of cess within the specified time.—If any amount of cess
payable by any employer under section 3 is not paid within the date specified in the order
of assessment made under section 5, it shall be deemed to be in arrears and the authority
prescribed in this behalf may, after making such inquiry as it deems fit, impose on such
employer a penalty not exceeding the amount of cess:
Provided that, before imposing any such penalty, such employer shall be given a
reasonable opportunity of being heard and if after such hearing the said authority is
satisfied that the default was for any good and sufficient reason, no penalty shall be
imposed under this section.
10. Recovery of amount due under the Act.—any amount due under this Act
(including any interest or penalty) from an employer may be recovered in the same manner
as an arrear of land revenue.
11. Appeals.—(1) Any employer aggrieved by an order of assessment made under
section 5 or by an order imposing penalty made under section 9 may, within such time as
may be prescribed, appeal to such appellate authority in such form and in such manner as
may be prescribed.
(2) Every appeal preferred under sub-section (1) shall be accompanied by such fees as
may be prescribed.
(3) After the receipt of any appeal under sub-section (1), the appellate authority shall,
after giving the appellant an opportunity of being heard in the matter, dispose of the appeal
as expeditiously as possible.
(4) Every order passed in appeal under this section shall be final and shall not be called
in question in any court of law.
12. Penalty.—(1) Whoever, being under an obligation to furnish a return under this
Act, furnishes any return knowing, or having reason to believe, the same to be false shall be
punishable with imprisonment which may extend to six months, or with fine which may
extend to one thousand rupees, or with both.
(2) Whoever, being liable to pay cess under this Act, wilfully or intentionally evades or
attempts to evade the payment of such cess shall be punishable with imprisonment which
may extend to six months, or with fine, or with both.
(3) No court shall take cognizance of an offence punishable under this section save on a
complaint made by or under the authority of the Central Government.
13. Offences by companies.—(1) Where an offence under this Act has been
committed by a company, every person who, at the time the offence was committed, was in
charge of, and was responsible to, the company for the conduct of the business of the
company, as well as the company, shall be deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be
liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly:
Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such person liable
to any punishment if he proves that the offence was committed without his knowledge or
that he had exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.
(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence under this
Act has been committed with the consent or connivance of, or is attributable to any neglect
on the part of, any director, manager, secretary or other officer of the company, such
director, manager, secretary or other officer shall also be deemed to be guilty of that
offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly.
 Explanation.—For the purposes of this section,—

(a) “company” means anybody corporate and includes a firm or other associationof
individuals;
and
(b) “director”, in relation to a firm, means a partner in the firm.
14. Power to make rules.—(1) The Central Government may, by notification in the
Official Gazette, make rules for carrying out the provisions of this Act.
(2) Without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing power, such rules may provide
for all or any of the following matters, namely:—
(a) the manner in which and the time within which the cess shall be collected
under sub-section (2) of section3;
(b) the rate or rates of advance cess liveable under sub-section (4) of section3;
(c) the particulars of the returns to be furnished, the officer or authority to whom or
to which such returns shall be furnished and the manner and time of furnishing such
returns under sub-section (1) of section4;
(d) the powers which may be exercised by the officer or authority under section7;
(e) the authority which may impose penalty under section9;
(f) the authority to which an appeal may be filed under sub-section (1) of section 11
and the time within which and the form and manner in which such appeal may be filed;
(g) the fees which shall accompany an appeal under sub-section (2) of section
11;and
(h) Any other matter which has to be, or may be, prescribed.
(3) Every rule made under this Act shall be laid, as soon as may be after it is made,
before each House of Parliament, while it is in session for a total period of thirty days
which may be comprised in one session or in two or more successive sessions, and if,
before the expiry of the session immediately following the session or the successive
sessions aforesaid, both Houses agree in making any modification in the rule or both
Houses agree that the rule should not be made, the rule shall thereafter have effect only in
such modified form or be of no effect, as the case may be; so, however, that any such
modification or annulment shall be without prejudice to the validity of anything previously
done under that rule.
15. Repeal and saving.—(1) The Building and Other Construction Workers’ Welfare
Cess Third Ordinance, 1996 (Ord. 26 of 1996), is herebyrepealed.
(2) Notwithstanding such repeal, anything done or any action taken under the said
Ordinance shall be deemed to have been done or taken under the corresponding provisions
of this Act.
THE BUILDING AND OTHER CONSTRUCTION WORKERS’ WELFARE CESS
RULES, 1998

In exercise of the powers conferred by sub-section (1) of section 14 of the Building

and Other Construction Workers’ Welfare Cess Act, 1996 (Act 8 of 1996), the
Central Government hereby makes the following rules, namely:—
1 Short title and commencement.—(1) These rules may be called the
Building and Other Construction Workers’ Welfare Cess Rules, 1998. (2)
They shall come into force on the date of their publication in the Official
Gazette.
2 Definitions.—In these rules, unless the context otherwise requires,—
(a) “Act” means the Building and Other Construction Workers’ Welfare Cess
Act, 1996 (Act 28 of 1996);
(b) “Main Act” means the Building and Other Construction Workers
(Regulation of Employment and Conditions of Service) Act, 1996 (Act 27 of
1996);
(c) “Form” means the form annexed to these rules;
(d) all other words and expressions used in these rules but not defined and
defined in the Act or in the main Act shall have the meanings respectively
assigned to them in those Acts;
(e) “specified” means specified by a State Government by an order published
in the Official Gazette;
(f) “Cess Collector” means an officer appointed by the State Government for
collection of cess under the Act;
(g) “Assessing Officer” means a gazetted officer of a State Government or an
officer of a local authority holding an equivalent post to a gazetted officer of
the State Government appointed by such State Government for assessment of
Cess under the Act;
(h) “Appellate Authority” means an officer, senior in rank to the Assessing
Officer, appointed by the State Government for the purposes of section 11 of
the Act.
3. Levy of cess.—For the purpose of levy of cess under sub-section (1) of
section 3 of the Act, cost of construction shall include all expenditure incurred
by an employer in connection with the building or other construction work but
shall not include— —cost of land; —any compensation paid or payable to a
worker or his kin under the Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923
4. Time and manner of collection.—(1) The cess levied under sub-section (1)
of section 3 of the Act shall be paid by an employer, within thirty days of
completion of the construction project or within thirty days of the date on
which assessment of cess payable is finalised, whichever is earlier, to the cess
collector.
(2) Notwithstanding the provisions of sub-rule (1), where the duration of the
project or construction work exceeds one year, cess shall be paid within thirty
days of completion of one year from the date of commencement of work and
every year thereafter at the notified rates on the cost of construction incurred
during the relevant period.
 (3) Notwithstanding the provisions of sub-rule (1) and sub-rule (2), where the
levy of cess pertains to building and other construction work of a Government
or of a Public Sector Undertaking, such Government or the Public Sector
Undertaking shall deduct or cause to be deducted the cess payable at the
notified rates from the bills paid for such works.
(4) Notwithstanding the provisions of sub-rule (1) and sub-rule (2), where the
approval of a construction work by a local authority is required, every
application for such approval shall be accompanied by a crossed demand draft
in favour of the Board and payable at the station at which the Board is located
for an amount of cess payable at the notified rates on the estimated cost of
construction:
Provided that if the duration of the project is likely to exceed one year, the demand
draft may be for the amount of cess payable on cost of construction estimated to be
incurred during one year from the date of commencement and further payments of
cess due shall be made as per the provisions of sub-rule (2).
(5) An employer may pay in advance an amount of cess calculated on the
basis of the estimated cost of construction along with the notice of
commencement of work under section 46 of the Main Act by a crossed
demand draft in favour of the Board and payable at the station at which the
Board is located:
Provided that if the duration of the project is likely to exceed one year, the demand
draft may be for the amount of cess payable on cost of construction estimated to be
incurred during one year from the date of such commencement and further payment
of cess due shall be made as per the provisions of sub-rule (2).
(6) Advance cess paid under sub-rules (3), (4) and (5), shall be adjusted in the
final assessment made by the Assessing Officer.
5. Transfer of the proceeds of the cess to the Board.—(1) The proceeds of the
cess collected under rule 4 shall be transferred by such Government office,
Public Sector Undertakings, local authority, or cess collector, to the Board
alongwith the form of challan prescribed (and in the head of account of the
Board) under the accountings procedures of the State, by whatever name they
are known.
(2) Such government office of Public Sector Undertaking may deduct from the
cess collected, or claim from the Board, as the case may be, actual collection
expenses not exceeding one per cent, of the total amount collected.
(3) The amount collected shall be transferred to the Board within thirty days of
its collection.
6. Information to be furnished by the employer.—(1) Every employer, within
thirty days of commencement of his work of payment of cess, as the case may
be, furnish to the Assessing Officer, information in Form I.
(2) Any change or modification in the information furnished under sub-rule
(1) shall be communicated to the Assessing Officer immediately but not
later than thirty days from the date of affecting the modification or
change.
7. Assessment.—(1) The Assessing Officer, on receipt of information in Form I
from an employer shall make a scrutiny of such information furnished and, if he
is satisfied about the correctness of the particulars so furnished, he shall make an
order of assessment within a period not exceeding six months from the date of
 receipt of such information in Form I, indicating the amount of cess payable by
the employer and endorse a copy thereof to the employer, to the Board and to the
cess collector and despatch such order within five days of the date on which such
order is made.
(2) The order shall inter-alia specify the amount of cess due, cess already paid
by the employer or deducted at source and the balance amount payable and the
date, consistent with the provision of rule 4, by which the cess shall be paid to
the cess collector.
(3) If on scrutiny of information furnished, the Assessing Officer is of the
opinion that employer has under-calculated or miscalculated the cost of
construction or has calculated less amount of cess payable, he shall issue notice
to the employer for assessment of the cess.
(4) On receipt of such notice the employer shall furnish to the Assessing Officer
a reply together with copies of documentary or other evidence in support of his
claim, within fifteen days of the receipt of the notice: Provided that the
Assessing Officer may, in the course of assessment, afford an opportunity to the
assessed to be heard in person, if he so requests to substantiate his claim.
(5) If the employer fails to furnish the reply within the period specified under
sub-rule (4), or where an employer fails to furnish information in Form I, the
Assessing Officer shall proceed to make the assessment on the basis of
available records, and other information incidental thereto.
(6) The Assessing Officer may, at anytime while the work is in progress,
authorise such officer to make such enquiry at the work site or from
documentary evidence or in any other manner as he may think fit for the
purpose of estimating the cost of construction as accurately as possible.
8. Return of overpaid cess.—(1) Where the Assessing Officer has passed an order
of assessment and the employer decides to withdraw from or foreclose the works
or modifies the plan of construction thereby reducing the cost of construction
undertaken or has been forced by other circumstances to call off the completion
of the work undertaken, he may seek revision of the assessment order by making
an information in Form II to the Assessing Officer giving details of such
reduction or stoppage of work.
(2) Revision of order of assessment shall be made by the Assessing Officer, in
the same manner as the original order, within thirty days of receipt of such
information in Form II. (3) Following the revision of assessment as per sub-
rule (2), the Assessing Officer shall, wherever necessary, endorse a copy of the
revised assessment to the Board or cess collector, as the case may be, for
making the refund of excess cess as ordered in the revised assessment.
(4) The Board shall, within thirty days of receipt of the endorsement from the
Assessing Officer under sub-rule (3), refund the amount specified in the order
to the employer through a demand draft payable at the station where the
establishment is located.
(5) Where the Appellate Authority has modified the order of assessment
reducing the amount of cess, refund shall be made within such time as may be
specified in that order.
9. Exemption.—(1) Any employer or class of employers in a State seeking
exemption under section 6 of the Act may make an application to the Director
 General of Labour Welfare, Ministry of Labour, Government of India, stating the
details of works undertaken, name of the Act or corresponding law in force in
that State under which he is liable to pay cess for the welfare of the construction
workers and amount of cess actually paid along with the date of such payment
and proof thereof. A copy of such application shall be endorsed to each of the
Assessing Officer and the board concerned.
(2) On receipt of such application the Central Government may, if it feels
necessary, seek a report from the State Government concerned.
(3) On examining the grounds, facts and merits of such application the Central
Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, issue an order
exempting the employer or class of employers, as the case may be, from
payment of cess payable under the Act where such cess is already levied and
payable under such corresponding law.
(4) Assessment proceedings shall be stopped by the Assessing Officer for a
period of thirty days commencing from the date of the receipt of a copy of the
application under sub-rule (1) to him, or till the order of the Central
Government under sub-rule (3) is conveyed to an employer or class of
employers who made the application under sub-rule (1), whichever is earlier.
10. Powers of Assessing Officer and other officers.—(1) An Assessing Officer, or
an officer authorised under sub-rule (6) of rule 7, if empowered by the State
Government under section 7 of the Act, may,—
(a) enter any establishment where building and other construction work is
going on;
(b) make an inventory of materials, machinery or other articles lying at the
work place;
(c) enquire about the number of workers engaged in various activities;
(d) require the production of any prescribed register or any other documents
relevant to the assessment of cost of construction or number of workers
employed;
(e) seize or take copies of any such records;
(f) make general assessment of the stage of the construction work having
been completed;
(g) direct the employer or any other person in charge of the place that no
material or machinery shall be removed or disturbed for so long as is
necessary for the purpose of any examination;
(h) take measurement, notes or photographs;
(i) exercise such other powers considered absolutely necessary for
reasonable assessment of cost of construction.
11. Date of payment.—Date of payment of cess shall be the date on which the
amount is deposited with the cess collector under sub-rule (1) of rule 4, or the
date of deduction at source under sub-rule (3) of rule 4, or the date on which the
draft has been deposited with the local authority under sub-rule (4) of rule 4, as
the case may be.
12. Penalty for non-payment.—(1) An Assessing Officer, if it appears to him that
an employer has not paid the cess within the date as specified in the assessment
order or has paid less cess, including the cess deducted at source or paid in
advance, shall issue a notice to such employer that it shall be deemed to be in
 arrears and such Assessing Officer may, after such inquiry as it deems fit, impose
on such employer, a penalty not exceeding such amount of cess:
Provided that before imposing any such penalty, such employer shall be given a
reasonable opportunity of being heard and if after such hearing the Assessing Officer is
satisfied that the default was for any good and sufficient reason, no penalty shall be
imposed on such employer.
13. Recovery of overdue amount.—For the purpose of recovery of sums due on
account of unpaid cess, interest for overdue payment or, penalty under these
rules, the assessing officer shall prepare a certificate signed by him, specifying
the amount due and send it to the collector of the district concerned who shall
proceed to recover from the said employer the amount specified thereunder as if
it were an arrear of land revenue.
14. Appeal.—(1) An employer aggrieved by an order of the assessment made under
rule 7 or by an order imposing penalty made under rule 12 may appeal against
such order, within three months of the receipt of such order, to the Appellate
Authority.
(2) The appeal shall be accompanied with—
(a) the order appealed against;
(b) a certificate from the cess collector to the effect that the amount of
cess or penalty or both, as the case may be, relating to such appeal
has been deposited;
(c) a fee equivalent to one per cent, of the amount in dispute or penalty
or both, as the case may be, under such appeal;
(d) a statement of points in dispute;
(e) documentary evidence relied upon.
(3) On receipt of the appeal the Appellate Authority may call from the
Assessing Officer a statement on the basis of his assessment order
appealed against, as such Appellate Authority may consider necessary for
the disposal of such appeal.
(4) The Appellate Authority shall give the appellant an opportunity of
being heard in the matter and dispose of the appeal as expeditiously as
possible.
(5) On being satisfied on the quantum of cess the Appellate Authority
shall confirm the order of the Assessing Officer or if in his opinion the
assessment was wrong; or on the higher side shall modify the order of
assessment or if in his opinion the assessment is on the lower side or if
the basis of assessment is wrong, it shall remand back the assessment
order to the Assessing Officer alongwith his observations to rectify the
wrong.
(6) An order remanded back under sub-rule (5) shall be disposed of by
the Assessing Officer within one month in view of the observation made
by the Appellate Authority: Provided that if the amount of cess is
proposed to be enhanced the assessee shall be given an opportunity of
being heard.
(7) No appeal shall lie against the order of the Appellate Authority under
this rule.
 (8) If the Appellate Authority is of the opinion that the quantum of
penalty imposed is on the higher side or not correctly made it shall
suitably modify or set aside the order of the Assessing Officer, as the
case may be.
(9) The appeal under this rule shall be disposed of by making a speaking
order and a copy of such order shall be sent to each of ‘the appellant, the
Assessing Officer and the Board within five days of the date on which
such order is made.
(10) An order in appeal reducing the amount of cess shall also ask the
Board to refund the excess cess.
(11) An order in appeal reducing, enhancing or confirming the orders of
penalty, as the case may be, shall also specify the date by which the
amount of penalty should be paid/refunded.

15. Filing of complaints.—(1) The Assessing Officer, or any inspector under the
main Act, or a Trade Union, having come to know of violation of an obligation to
furnish return, furnishing of false information, intentionally or wilfully evading
or attempting to evade the payment of cess may make a complaint to the Board.
The Board on receiving such complaint shall examine the complaint and if it so
decide may refer such complaint to the Central Government for taking legal
action against the offender. (2) The Central Government on receiving such
reference may make such inquiry as may be considered necessary and authorise
an inspector of appropriate jurisdiction to file a complaint in the court of law
furnish return, furnishing of false information, intentionally or wilfully evading or
attempting to evade the payment of cess may make a complaint to the Board. The Board
on receiving such complaint shall examine the complaint and if it so decide may refer
such complaint to the Central Government for taking legal action against the offender.
(2) The Central Government on receiving such reference may make such
inquiry as may be considered necessary and authorise an inspector of appropriate
jurisdiction to file a complaint in the court of law.
 FORM I
(See rule 7)

1. Name of Establishment Registration No. under Building and

Other Construction Construction Workers’ (Regulation
of Employment Employment and Conditions of
Service) Act, Act 1996. Registering Authority

2. Address

3. Name of Work
4. No. of workers employed
5. Date of commencement of work Estimated period of work:
Month Month Year Date Month Year
6. Estimated cost of construction Details of payment of cess
…Stages Cost Amount Challan No. Advance—A
…………………..and date Deduction at Source—D
……………………………………………………………………………...Final—F
1st Year
2nd Year
3rd Year
4th Year
Total: Signature of Employer
………………………………………………………………………………Name of Employer
Date .................

TO BE FILLED BYASSESSING OFFICER

7. Date of completion
8. Final Cost
9. Date of assessment
10. Amount assessed
11. Date of Appeal, if any,
12. Date of order in Appeal
13. Amount as per Order in Appeal
14. Date of transfer of cess to the Board
15. Amount transferred Challan No. and date

Signature
Designation
 FORMII
[See rule 9(1)]

1. Name of Establishment Registration No. under Building and Other

………………………………………… Construction Workers’ (Regulation of
…………………………………… Employment and Condi-tions of Service) Act,
1996. Address
II. Date of commencement of work Estimated period of work:
………Month Year Date Month Year
Estimated cost of work (original) Advance Cess/ Deduction at source
………………………………………………… Date of Assessment order Amount of Cess assessed
III. Modification to the original
estimates Revised date of Reason
completion/ Date of stoppage
Actual cost estimates Actual cost
incurred
Whether work is being handed Yes/No.
over to any other person/agency for completion.
If yes, Name/ Address of such person/agency.
…………………………………………………………………….Signature of Employer
Name of Employer
Date

TO BE FILLED BYASSESSING OFFICER

Date of revision of assessment
Amount of cess after revision
Cess already received Cess to be recovered
Cess to be refunded, if any Reference to Board for refund;
Date /number
Signature
Designation

Maharashtra fire prevention and Life Saving acts 2007 and rules:
DRAFT RULES
1. Short Title and commencement –
(1) These rules may be called The Maharashtra Fire Prevention and Life Safety Measures
Rules, 2008.
(2) They extend to the whole State of Maharashtra.
(3) They shall come into force –
 (a) in the areas of the local authorities and the planning authorities, on such date as the
State Government may, by notification in the Official
Gazette, appoint;
(b) in other areas or part of the areas, on such date as the State Government may, by the
same or like notification appoint; and different dates may be appointed for different
provisions thereof and for different areas or part of the areas; and
(c) any reference in these rules to the commencement of the rules shall, in relation to a
provision or an area, be constructed as a reference to the coming into force of these rules or
any provision thereof in that area.
2. Definitions.- In these rules, unless the context otherwise requires, -
(a) “Act” means The Maharashtra Fire Prevention and Life Safety Measures Act, 2006;
(b) “form” means the form appended to these rules;
(c) “regular fire service” means a service rendered, for the administration, prevention or
protection of fire, with the State Government, local authority or planning authority;
(d) “section” means the section of the Act;
(e) the words and expressions used in these rules but not defined shall have the same
meaning as assigned to them in the Act.
3. Appointment and qualifications of nominated officer.- (1) The nominated officer to be
appointed under clause (9) of section 2 of the Act shall be from amongst the fire officers
mentioned in clauses (a) and (b) of sub-section (3) of section 21, in each of the respective
Municipal Corporation, Municipal Council, Nagar Panchayat, Industrial Township or
Planning Authority; and where the cadre of such fire officers is not yet be established, the
nominated officer shall be appointed by the Director, Maharashtra Fire services from
amongst fire officers or fire personnel in the Municipal Corporation, Municipal Council,
Nagar Panchayat, Industrial Township or Planning Authority, possessing the following
qualifications, namely :-
(a) for “ A” and “B” class Municipal Corporations, the nominated officer shall be a fire
officer who, -
i) possesses an Advance Diploma in Fire Engineering from the National Fire Service
College, Nagpur, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India or the State Fire
Academy, Government of Maharashtra; and at least two years’ experience of regular fire
service for inspection and testing of fire prevention and protection work ; or
(ii) has passed the Graduate ship Examination( Fire ) of Institute of Fire Engineers, India or
the Institution of Fire Engineers of United Kingdom and at least two years’ experience of
regular fire service; and of fire prevention and protection work.
(b) for “C” and “D” class Municipal Corporations, the nominated officer shall be a fire
officer who, -
(i) possesses Diploma in Fire Engineering from the aforesaid National Fire Service College,
Nagpur or the State Fire Academy, Government of Maharashtra; and at least two years’
experience of regular fire service and of fire prevention and protection work ; or
(ii) has passed the Graduate ship Examination (Fire) of Institute of Fire Engineers India or
the Institution of Fire Engineers of United Kingdom; and at least two years’ experience of
regular fire service for inspection and testing of fire prevention and protection work.
(c) for Municipal Councils, Nagar Panchayats or Industrial Townships, the nominated
officer shall be a fire officer who, - possesses a Diploma in Fire Engineering from the
aforesaid National Fire Service College, Nagpur or the State Fire Academy, Government of
Maharashtra; and at least two years’ experience of regular fire service ;
(d) for Special Planning Authorities and Special Economic Zones (SEZs), Private
Townships and Hill Station Projects, the nominated officer shall be a fire officer who.-
(j) possesses an Advance Diploma in Fire Engineering from the National Fire Service
College, Nagpur, Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India or the State Fire
Academy, Government of Maharashtra; and at least two years’ experience of regular fire
service for inspection and testing of fire prevention and protection work ; or
(ii) has passed the Membership Examination of Institute of Fire Engineers India or the
Institution of Fire Engineers of United Kingdom; and at least two years’ experience of
regular fire service and of fire prevention and protection work.
(2) In any area or areas not covered by sub-rule (1), the nominated officer shall be appointed
by the Director from amongst fire officers from the office of the Director or from any
adjoining local authority or planning authority, who possesses qualifications specified in
clauses (a) or (b) of sub-rule (1), having regard to the potential of the fire hazard in the
buildings or the project concerned.
(3) Notwithstanding anything contained in clauses (a), (b), (c) or (d) of sub rule (1), where
any special, high-rise, or mega project is coming up within or without the areas covered by
the said clauses of sub-rule (1), the scrutiny and the inspection of the building will be carried
out by the Chief Fire Officer or qualified nominated officer, if any, from the nearby
Municipal Corporation or by any Fire Officer as the Director may, by any general or special
order in that behalf, specify.
(4) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-rules (1), (2) and (3), a fire officer shall be
required to have acquired a certificate of fire prevention course of the State Fire Academy,
Government of Maharashtra, before his appointment as a nominated officer.
4. Certificates to be issued by Licensed Agency.- (1) A certificate regarding the
compliance of the fire prevention and life safety measures in a building or a part thereof as
required by or under the provisions of the Act, to be issued by a Licensed Agency, shall be
in “Form – A”.
(2) A certificate which is to be issued by a Licensed Agency twice a year in the months of
January and July regarding the maintenance of fire prevention and life safety measures in a
building or premises being in good repair and efficient condition as specified in sub-section
(1) of section 3 of the Act, shall be in “Form-B”
5. Notice directing the removal of objects or goods likely to cause the risk of fire.- (1)
The notice to be given under sub-section (2) of section 4 to the owner or occupier of a
building or premises, directing the removal of objects or goods likely to cause the risk of
fire, to a place of safety shall be in “Form C”.
(2) On failure of the owner or occupier to comply with the notice issued under sub-rule (1),
he shall be given a further notice under sub-section (2) of section 4 to submit his say as to
why the objects or goods should not be seized, detained or removed. Such notice shall be in
the “Form-D”.
6. Memorandum of seizure, etc. and panchanama.- Where any objects or goodsinvolving
risk of fire are required to be seized, detained or removed under subsection (2) of section 4,
the memorandum of seizure etc. to be prepared in that behalf shall be in the “Form E” ; and
the panchanama to be made in that behalf shall be in the “Form-F”
7. Notice to be given for entry and inspection. - (1) The notice for entering and inspection
required to be given under sub-section (1) of section 5 for ascertaining the adequacy or
contravention of fire prevention and life safety measures in any place or building or part
thereof, shall be in “Form-G”.
(2) The notice required to be given under sub-section (4) of section 5 to a woman, who,
according to the custom does not appear in public, shall be in the “Form-H”.
8. Report of inspection by nominated officer: - Where the inspection is carried out by the
nominated officer under section 5, he shall give the report of such inspection in the “Form-I”
.
9. Notice to be given to the owner or occupier of a building or part thereof to undertake
certain measures.- (1)Where on completion of the inspection of the place or building or part
thereof, any deviation from, or contravention of, the requirements with regard to the fire
prevention and life safety measures or any inadequacy or non-compliance of such measures
provided or to be provided therein with reference to the height of the building or the nature
of the activities carried on in such place or building or part thereof, is noticed, the owner or
occupier of such place or building or part thereof shall be given a notice thereof under
section 6 of the Act in “Form J”, directing him to undertake the requisite measures within 7
days.
(2) The time to be specified in the notice given to the owner or the occupier under sub-rule
(1) shall be specified having regard to the nature of the measures to be taken but such time
shall not exceed 120 days.
10. Procedure to be followed for sealing of a place or building or part thereof.- The Director
or Chief Fire Officer shall follow the following procedure in respect of the sealing of any
place or building or part thereof, required to be sealed under sub-section (3) of section 8,
namely:-
(a) he shall require persons, in possession or occupation of the place or building or part
thereof to be sealed, to remove themselves from there forthwith;
(b) in case of non-compliance of the said order, he shall direct any police officer having
jurisdiction in the area to remove such persons from such place or building or part thereof;
(c) after the removal of persons in possession or in occupation from such place or building
or part thereof, he shall cause such place or building or part thereof to be sealed by such
police officer forthwith in the manner which he deems fit;
(d) the seal used to seal as aforesaid shall remain in the custody of the Director or, as the
case may be, the Chief Fire Officer;
(e) (i) if the place or building or part thereof required to be sealed on receipt of the report of
the nominated officer, is found to be locked or inaccessible, he may cause the lock to be
broken by the police officer and enter the premises and after taking all necessary steps
required to be
taken under the Act, or under these rules, relock and cause it to be sealed as afore said;
(ii) where a place or building or part thereof is sealed under sub clause (i), an inventory of
the material found in such place or building or part thereof shall be prepared in the presence
of two independent witnesses and a copy thereof shall be delivered to the owner or occupier,
if present at the site. The forms “E” and “F” shall, respectively, be used mutatis mutandis for
such inventory and the panchanama to be prepared in that regard.
(f) The Director or, the Chief Fire Officer or as the case may be an Officer nominated shall
report in writing to the Police Station concerned if the seal so fixed on any place or building
or part thereof is found to be broken or tampered.
11. Orders to Authorities responsible for supply of electricity or water to disconnect supply
or to a Police Officer to remove persons from, a place or building or part thereof which is in
imminent danger.- (1) An order under clause
(a) of sub-section (2) of section 8, directing the authority responsible for supply of
electricity, or as the case may be, water, to a place or building or a part thereof, which is
dangerous to any person or property, to disconnect the supply of electricity, or as the case
may be, water, shall be in “Form – K”.
(2) An order under clause (b) of sub-section (2) of section 8, directing any Police Officer
having jurisdiction in the area, to remove persons from any place or building or part thereof
which is dangerous to any person or property shall be in “Form-L”.
12. Eligibility to act as Licensed Agency.- No person shall be eligible to apply for grant of
licence to act as a Licensed Agency ; and shall be granted a license to act as Licensed
Agency, unless he .-
(1) (a) possesses - (i) at least any of the qualifications mentioned in clause (b) of sub-rule (1)
of this rule; or (ii) a degree or diploma in Mechanical, Electrical, Electronics or
Civil Engineering or Computer applications; and (iii) experience in executing fire prevention
and fire protection system as laid down in National Building Code 2005 or code published
by National Fire Protection Association (NFPA, USA) 2008, as amended from time to time,
or
(b) has in his employment, for the purpose of execution and supervision of the work relating
to fire protection and life safety measures in a building or a project, an officer or supervisory
officer holding any of the qualifications mentioned in clause (a), so however that, a degree
or diploma in fire engineering or any other qualifications in relation to fire protection,
prevention and safety measures shall be an essential qualification.
(2) holds a solvency certificate for an amount as may be specified by the Director, with prior
approval of the Government.
(3) has, during the period of 3 years immediately preceding the year of making the
application, executed the work in relation to fire prevention and fire protection system; or
holds a certificate of fire protection specialist awarded by the State Fire Academy,
Government of Maharashtra.
(4) has adequate machinery, tools and other requisite equipment in relation to fire prevention
and fire protection systems ; and
(5) has not been black- listed by any Government Department or Organization or any other
state.
13. Application to be made for Licensed Agency, manner of making it and fees in respect
thereof.- (1) Every application for licence to act as Licensed Agency for the purposes of the
Act under section 9 shall be in “Form-M”.
(2) Such application may be presented in person or sent by registered post or through courier
agency or online.
(3) Every such application shall be accompanied by.-
(a) the following fees :-
Clas Mini Presc Cost of annual works minimum Regist
s of mum ribed executed in the last three years ration
local solve limit rupees in lakh free in
or ncy for rupee
plan certif exec s
ning icate ution Fire Dete Passiv
auth for of fighti ction e
ority (rup the ng & fire prote
ees work syste separ ction
in s as m ation such
lakh) per install syste as
estim ation m cable
ated such prote
cost as ction,
(rupe hydra fire
es in nt doors
lakh) sprin etc.
klers
pump
ing
etc.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
A 150. Unli 500.0 200.0 200.0 25000
00 mite 0 0 0
d
B 10.0 1000. 300.0 100.0 100.0 15000
0 00 0 0 0
C 05.0 600.0 200.0 50.00 50.00 5000
0 0 0
D 02.5 300.0 100.0 25.00 25.00 2500
0 0 0

(b) documents as may be specified by the Director; and which shall include the following,
namely:-
(1) solvency certificate for an appropriate amount as specified under sub-rule (2) of rule 12.
(2) attested copy of deed of partnership and power of attorney or articles of memorandum of
association or affidavit on stamp paper in case the individual is the sole proprietor of the
firm;
(3) last three years’ certificates from the concerned department regarding satisfactory
completion of works;
(4) orders of works in hand in current year (up to the prescribed amount for that class);
(5) certificate from the chartered accountant or registered income tax practitioner in the
prescribed form in case of private works;
(6) if the application for registration is made for the first time for a specific class, one has to
execute at least one work up to the maximum amount in the class, which falls one class
below the
specific class, applied for;
(7) certificate regarding appointment of at least one officer possessing any of the
qualifications specified in clause (b) of sub-rule (1) of rule 12;
(8) attested passport size photographs of partners or directors or individual proprietor and
also of the officer or officers referred to in item (8);
(9) attested copy of VAT registration certificate;
(10) affidavit on appropriate stamp paper, stating that his or her firm is not black listed in the
Government or any semi Government organization; and
(11) list of technical staff with their qualifications. 14. Licence to act as Licensed Agency.-
The Licence to act as a Licensed Agency shall be granted in “Form-N” and shall be subject
to the following conditions, namely :-
1. The licence shall be (a) non transferable (b) valid for one year from the date of issue,
unless suspended or cancelled earlier,
(c) renewable, if so desired , before expiry of the licence; 2. Changes, if any, in respect of
the :-
(a) Partners, Directors or Members, (b) address of the office of the licensed Agency shall be
forthwith reported to the Authority issuing the licence.
3. The Licensed Agency shall always keep the work , being executed, or executed by it,
open for inspection by the Director, Chief Fire Officer or any fire officer authorized by the
Director or Chief Fire Officer.
15. Renewal of Licence.- An application for renewal of a licence granted under section 9,
read with rule 14, shall also be made in “Form-M” and shall be accompanied by a fee
specified under clause (a) of sub rule (3) of rule 13 and also documents as mentioned in
clause (b) of sub-rule (3) of rule 13.
16. Additions to Licence held by Licensed Agency.- (1) Any person holding a licence to act
as a Licensed Agency for any class or description as granted or renewed under section 9,
read with rule 14, and who is also eligible to act as a Licensed Agency for any other class or
description, may apply in “Form M” for the addition of such other class or description to the
licence.
(2) The provisions of rule 13 shall apply to an application made under subrule (1) as if the
said application were for grant of a licence under section 9, read with rule 14, for the class or
description which the applicant desires to be added to his licence.
17. Notice to show cause why licence be not suspended or cancelled.- Where any person to
whom the Licence has been granted contravenes any provisions of the Act or of the rules or
fails to comply with the conditions of the licence or is unfit by reason of incompetency,
misconduct or any other grave reason, a notice to show cause as to why the licence granted
to him to act as
Licensed Agency should not be suspended or cancelled, to be given to such person, shall be
in “Form-O”.
18. Application for assessment of fire service fees.- (1) An Application under sub-section (1)
of section 14 for assessment of fire service fees payable by a person, who intends to
construct a building or who has commenced construction of a building in the manner
provided in the sub-section (1), shall make an application to the authority in “Form P”.
(2) Such application shall be made at the time of making an application to the Authority for
permission to construct a building and in any case, before the Authority grants such
permission; and a person who has commenced construction of a building without making an
application for such permission of the Authority, shall make an application for assessment of
fees payable in
respect of such building within 30 days from the date of commencement of the Act.
(3) Such application may be presented in person or sent by registered post or through courier
agency or online.
19. Notice of hearing.- The authority shall give a notice in “Form-Q” to the person, who has
made an application under sub-section (1) of section 14 or a person who has constructed a
building without permission, in respect of assessment of fire service fees livable in case of a
building intended to be constructed by the applicant or the construction made without
permission; and having regard to the matters to be considered as specified in sub-section (2)
of section 14 and also to the following guidelines, assess the fees, so livable and payable by
such person :-
Guidelines.-
1. In the case of - (1) Residential Buildings: (a) Lodging or Rooming Houses, (b) One or
Two family private dwellings, dormitory, apartment houses, (c) Hotels, (d) starred Hotels.
(2) Educational Buildings: (3) Institutional Buildings: (a) Hospitals, Sanatoriums, Nursing
Homes (b) Custodial, penal and plantal (4) Assembly Buildings: (5) Business Buildings:
(6) Mercantile Buildings: (a) F-1 and F-2 buildings, (b) Underground Shopping Complexes
– (i) If the building consists of different wings or has an annex, being contiguous and
forming part of the building, the total area of the main building, wings thereof and annex
shall together be calculated as that of one building.
(ii) If any additions are made to the existing buildings, the entire area of the building shall be
calculated and the fire service fee leviable and payable in respect thereof shall be for the
entire such area less the fire service fee, if any, paid earlier.
(iii) If the interior of a building is changed by internal alterations including construction of
loft or mezzanine floor which are carried out there in, without any addition in the gross
built-up, then fire service fee shall be levied thereon.
2. In the case of – (1) Industrial Buildings (a) – Low Hazard, (b) Moderate Hazard , (c) High
Hazard (2) Storage Buildings: (3) Hazardous Buildings;,
(i) Where a building is having mixed occupancy, fire service fee shall be levied having
regard to the nature of each of the occupancies;
(ii) If a building is compartmentalized, then the compartment which is newly built or if any
additions or alterations are made to an existing compartment, the fire service fee shall be
levied on such new or added compartment, irrespective of the fact that such compartment is
contiguous
or forming a part of the same building;
(iii) If the interior of a building is changed by internal alterations including construction of
loft or mezzanine floor which are carried out therein, without any addition in the gross built-
up area, then fire service fee shall be levied thereon.
20. Notice of assessment of fire service fee and collection thereof.- (1) After the assessment
of fees made under rule 19, a notice in “Form R” of such assessment shall be served upon
the applicant or the person concerned.
(2) The provisions of rule 19 and sub-rule (1) of this rule shall apply mutatis mutandis to
assessment of fire service fees in respect of a building, the construction of which has been
completed on or after the date of coming into force of the Act.
(3) Save as otherwise provided in the Act or under these rules, the procedure followed by the
authority in respect of collection of the taxes or fees levied by it under any relevant law or
instrument applicable to it, shall apply also to collection of fire service fees assessed under
these rules.
21. The Director of Fire Services appointed under section 18.- Without prejudice to the
rules, if any, regulating recruitment to the post of Director, Maharashtra Fire Services,
Group-A for the time being in force, the Director of Fire Services to be appointed under
section 18 shall always be a person possessing academic qualifications and practical
experiences in fire services.
22. Duties and responsibilities of fire officers and staff.- (1) Subject to the provisions of
sub-rule (2), the duties and responsibilities of fire officers and staff shall be as specified in
the Fire Service Manual.
(2) The Director, with the approval of the Government, may, by general or special order, add
to, or delete from, or modify the duties and responsibilities of the fire officers or fire staff;
and there upon the Fire Service Manual shall stand amended accordingly.
23. Order of requisition of firefighting equipment.- Order of requisition of firefighting
equipment or property of any Authority or any institutions or individual to be issued under
sub-section (1) of section 26 shall be in “Form-S”.
24. Report on damage caused to premises during fire fighting operations and assessment and
payment of compensation.- (1) The Director or the Chief Fire Officer or any other fire
officer who is in-charge of fire fighting operations on the spot, shall make a report in “Form-
T” to the respective Local Authority or as the case may be, the planning Authority, on the
damage, if any, caused to premises by fire officers or fire personnel during fire fighting and
rescue operations as referred to in sub-section (2) of section 27. (2) On receipt of report
under sub-rule (1), the damage caused to any premises or any other property shall be
assessed by an officer of the respective Local Authority or case may be planning Authority,
as the Authority may nominated in that behalf and such nominated officer shall, after giving
an opportunity of being heard to the owner or occupier concerned, assess the damage and
submit his recommendations in that behalf to the authority for its consideration.
(3) Having regard to the recommendation made by such fire officer nominated by the
Director or the Chief Fire Officer, as the case may be, and where the building or property to
which such damage is caused is insured, the Insurance Company shall while determining
and granting compensation to be paid to the owner or occupier take into account the damage
caused to the premises or any other property by the fire officers or fire personnel during the
conduct of fire fighting and rescue operations.
25. Report of accident to fire officer or fire personnel during fire; and payment of
compensation.- The fire officer in-charge of fire or natural calamity operations, shall submit
a report of any accident occurring during such operation to the Director and also to the Chief
Fire Officer; and the compensation payable to any fire officer, or fire personnel in the case
of such accident, or to their dependents in the case of death or permanent disability, shall be
such as the Director may, with the approval of the State Government, by any general or
special order, determine.
26. Disciplinary or other action against fire officer or fire personnel.- Every fire officer
or fire personnel who violates his duty or commits willful breach of any provisions of the
Act or the rules or any order made by his superior officer, or exhibits or indulges in any
cowardice or withdraws from duties of his office without permission or being absent on
leave, fails without reasonable cause to report himself for duty on the expiry of such leave,
or engages, without authority, in any employment other than his duty, shall be liable to be
proceeded against for breach of discipline, and shall be liable for such disciplinary action,
including action for breach of this rule.
27. Employment of fire officer or fire personnel for purposes other than fire fighting
within or outside the sphere of their duties.- The fire officers or fire personnel may be
engaged for the purposes other than fire fighting at the discretion of the Director or the Chief
Fire Officer or any subordinate officer authorized by the Director or the Chief Fire Officer,
in the case of all calls relating to natural calamities and rescue of life;
28. Rates for supply of water required on the occasion of fire fighting operations.-
Where the officer in-charge of the fire fighting operations draws water, from any source in
the area, which he considers necessary for such operations, the authority or owner or
occupier having control over such water source shall be paid for the water so utilized,-
(a) if water is drawn from an authority, then at the lowest rate of supply of water which is
usually charged from the users of water in such area by such authority;
(b) if water is drawn from any owner or occupier, then at the rate which shall not exceed the
lowest rate referred to in clause (a),and where such rate is not available, then at such rate as
may be determined by negotiation, subject, however, to the condition that where any dispute
arises as to such rate, in the case of an authority, the decision of the Chief Executive Officer
of the Authority concerned, and in the case of an owner or occupier, the decision of the
Director, shall be final.
29. Terms for securing personnel or equipment or both for firefighting purposes.- The
terms on which the Director or the Chief Fire Officer or any other fire officer authorized by
any Authority may secure, by agreement, firefighting equipment or personnel from any
person who employs and maintains personnel or equipment or both, for firefighting
purposes, shall be as follows:-
(1) As soon as may be, after the fire fighting operation is over, the Director or Chief Fire
Officer or Fire Officer in charge of the fire fighting operation, as the case may be, shall
release the personnel or equipment so secured and restore the same to the person (including
the local authority, firm and institution or individual) from whose possession such personnel
or equipment was secured.
(2) There shall be paid to the employer of such personnel or owner of such equipment,
compensation, the amount which is determined in accordance with the principles hereinafter
set out, that is to say _ (a) where the amount of compensation is determined under the
agreement, it shall be paid in accordance with such agreement;
(b) where such compensation is not settled in the agreement or where no such agreement
with regard to compensation can be reached, the matter shall be referred to the State
Government and the decision of the State Government in that regard shall be final.
(c) if any injury is caused to any personnel or any damage is caused to any equipment and
the employee or the owner of the equipment, as the case may be, demands any compensation
separately in respect thereof, and no agreement can be reached , the matter shall likewise be
referred to the State Government for determination and the decision of the State Government
in that regard shall be final.
30. Appeal under section 32.- (1) Any aggrieved person may prefer an appeal in “Form-U”
within 30 days from the date of receipt of notice or order or communication of refusal, as the
case may be, as mentioned in clauses (a), (b) or (c) of sub-section (1) of section 32.
(2) Such appeal shall bear a court-fee stamp of Rs.10 and shall be accompanied by a fee of
Rs.500 to be paid in the office of the respective Local Authority or case may be planning
Authority and a receipt in respect thereof shall be appended to the form of appeal.
(3) Such appeal may be presented in person or may be sent by registered post or through
courier agency.
(4) On receipt of such an appeal, the nominated officer shall, as far as may be practicable,
issue a notice of hearing to the appellant and the respective Local Authority or the planning
Authority as the case may be, within 15 days from the date of receipt of such appeal and
shall finally dispose of the appeal within 30 days after the date of hearing.

\
 FORM – A
{(see section 3 (3) and rule 4 (1)}

Certificate by the Licensed Agency regarding the compliance of the

Fire Prevention and Life Safety Measures.

CERTIFICATE
Certified that I / We have executed the works towards compliance in
relation to Fire Prevention and Life Safety Measures to be provided, and
performed other related activities required to be carried out, in the following
building or premises as required under the provisions of the Maharashtra Fire
Prevention and Life Safety Measures Act,2006 (Mah.III of 2007).

Description of building or premises.

…………………………………………………………………………………
………….
…………………………………………………………………………………
………….
The details of the work and related activities which I or we have executed
or performed are mentioned in the list appended herewith.

Place :
Date :
Signature and address of the
Licensed Agency.
Licence No………………...
 FORM – B

{(see section 3 (3) and rule 4 (2)}

Six monthly certificate to be given in every January and July by the owner or the
occupier for compliance of the Fire Prevention and Life Safety Measures

CERTIFICATE

Certified that I / We have carried out inspection of the Fire Prevention and
Life Safety Measures installed in the following building or premises, namely :-.
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………….
I / We further certify that these installations in the above mentioned
buildings are maintained in good repair and efficient conditions during the period
-------------------------------------, as required under the provisions of the Maharashtra
Fire Prevention and Life Safety Measures Act, 2006 (Mah-III of 2007). The
details of the inspection of installations carried out by me / us are mentioned in
the report appended herewith.

Place :
Date :

Signature and address of the

Licensed Agency.
Licence No………………...
 FORM – C

{(see section 4 (2) and rule 5 (1)}

Notice for removal of objects or goods likely to cause the risk of fire.
To,
Shri / M/s _________________
________________________
________________________
WHEREAS Government has, by notification, _______________
Department, Notification No.___________________ dated __________,
published in the Maharashtra Govt. Gazette, Part_____ dated_________,
required that the owners or occupiers of premises or any class of premises used
in the following area, which in its opinion, are likely to cause risk of fire, take such
precautions as have been specified in the said notifications and as are
reproduced herebelow-
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………………
AND WHEREAS you are the owner or occupier of the following premises,
which fall in the area mentioned in the said Government notification -
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………..
AND WHEREAS on inspection of the aforesaid premises, it is noticed
that the objects or goods mentioned in the list appended herewith are such as
are likely to cause risk of fire and are required to be removed to a place of safety;
NOW,THEREFORE, in exercise of the powers conferred on me under subsection
(2) of section 4 of the Maharashtra Fire Prevention and Life Safety
22
Measures Act, 2006 (Mah.III of 2007), I, ____________________________
hereby give you notice that you shall forthwith remove the said objects or goods
to a place of safety and submit the report in respect of your having done so to the
undersigned within ................ days.

Place:

Signature and
Designation of the Officer.
Date:
 FORM – D
{(see section 4 (2) and rule 5 (2)}
Notice to make representation on failure of the owner or occupier to comply with
the notice issued under sub-rule (1) of rule 5.
To,
……………………………….
……………………………….
WHEREAS, by notice No.____________ dated _______ issued to you by
______________________and received by you on __________________, you
were required to remove forthwith the objects or goods specified in the list
appended to the said notice, to a place of safety and to submit a report in respect
of you having done so to the undersigned.
AND WHEREAS it is found that you have not complied with the said
notice and have not removed forthwith the said objects or goods to a place of
safety and they are still lying where they were which is likely to cause the risk of
fire;
NOW, THEREFORE, in exercise of the powers conferred by sub-section
(2) of section 4 of the Maharashtra Fire Prevention and Life Safety Measures act,
2006 (Mah.III of 2007), I, _____________________________________ hereby
call upon you to submit your say, if any, addressed to the undersigned so as to
reach by or before 5.00 p.m. on__________________ , as to why the said
objects or goods should not be seized or detained or removed by taking
assistance of a Police Officer.

Place:
Signature and
Designation of the
Officer.
Date:
 CHAPTER - 3
Environment Protection Legislations

LAWS ON ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION:

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act 1974 :
This Act (No. 6 of 1974) was enacted by the Parliament on 23-3-1974. It is applicable to
the States from their dates of their adoption. It was amended in 1978 and 1988. '
It has 8 chapters and 64 sections. It applies to certain States and the States who adopt it.
The Act intends to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution, maintaining or
restoring of wholesomeness of water. Boards, its powers and functions for matters
connected therewith.
Chapter-1 gives following definitions :
Board means the Central or a State Board.
Outlet includes any conduit pipe or channel, open or closed, carrying sewage or trade effluent
or any other holding arrangement which causes or is likely to cause pollution.
Pollution means such contamination of water or such alteration of the physical, chemical or
biological properties of water or such discharge of any sewage or trade effluent or of any
other liquid, gaseous or solid substance into water (directly or indirectly) as may is likely
to create a nuisance or render such water harmful or injurious to public health or safety or
to domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural or other legitimate uses, or to the life and
health of animals or plants or of aquatic organisms.
Central Board, State Board, Sewage effluent and Trade effluent are also defined and
distinguished.
Stream includes river, water course, inland water, sub-terranean waters and sea or tidal
waters to the extent notified.
Sewer means any conduit pipe or channel, open or closed, carrying sewage or trade
effluent.
Subjects of other chapters are as under :
Chapter I : Preliminary (S. 1,2)
Chapter II : Central & State Boards (S.3 to 12) Chapter ID : Joint Board (S. 13 to
15).

Chapter IV : Powers & Functions of Boards (S. 16 to 18).

Chapter V : Prevention and Control of water Pollution (S. 19 to 33A)

Chapter VI : Funds, Accounts & Audit (S. 34 to 40) Chapter VII : Penalties &
Procedure (S. 41 to 50)
Chapter VIII : Miscellaneous including rule making powers of the Central and State
Govt. (S. 51 to 64).

Functions of the State Board given u/s 17 are more important.

Some provision of Chapter-V are explained below -

A State Board can require from any industry, operation, process, treatment and disposal
system to furnish information regarding construction, installation or operation of such
establishment (S.20), can take samples of effluents in a manner prescribed for analysis at
the occupier's cost (S.21), shall send a copy of the report of analysis to the occupier (S.22),
has power of entry and inspection of plant, record, register, document, material etc. (S. 23)
and of prohibiting use of stream or well or sewer or on land for disposal of polluting matter
by prescribing standards and no person shall make water pollution (R. 24) or make any new
outlets or new discharges without previous consent of the State Board, which will make
inquiry and grant consent with conditions imposed (which shall be binding to the applicant)
or refuse it with reasons recorded in writing. If the consent is not given or refused within 4
months, it should be deemed to have been granted unconditionally (R. 25 & 26).
An aggrieved person has right to appeal u/s 28. Revision is possible u/s 29.
Any accident, act or event causing water pollution should be forthwith intimated to the
State Board (S. 31). The State Board can take steps to remove pollution or such discharges
(S. 32) or apply to courts for restraining apprehended water pollution and the court can
order the person to remove that pollution or authorize the Board to do it at the cost of that
person (S. 33). The State Board has power to give directions to any person, officer or
authority for closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process or the
stoppage or regulation of supply of electricity, water or any other service (S. 33A).
Annual report (financial year wise) to be submitted by SPCV to state Govt. and by CPCB
to Central Govt. (S. 39)

Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules 1975 :

The Central Government u/s 63 of the Water Act made these rules effective form 27-2-
1975. The) were amended in 1976, 1978, 1986, 1987 and 1989.
They have II chapters, 35 rules, 4 schedules and 15 forms under schedule 1. Their subject
matter is a; under.
Chap-1: Preliminary (R.1.2)
Chap-2: Service conditions of Members (R. 3 to 6)
Chap-3: Power & Duties of the Chairman and Member Secretary and appointments o
……………..officer and employees (R. 7 to 9)
Chap-4: Temporary association of persons with Central Board (R. 10)

Chap-5: Consulting Engineer (R. 11 to 16).

Chap-6: Budget of the Central Board (R. 17 to 23)
Chap-7: Annual Report of the Central Board (R. 24)
Chap-8: Account of the Central Board (R. 25)
Chap-9: Analyst of the Central Board (R. 26, 26A)
Chap-10 : Central water laboratory (R. 27, 28)
Chap-11 : Powers & functions of the Central Board in relation to Union territories (R.
29 to 35).
In addition to above mentioned Central Rules, State Rules are also available as under.
Gujarat Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules, 1976 :
They were notified and came into force from 268-1976. They have 25 Rules and Forms A
to H-V.
State water laboratory means that established u/ s 52 of the Act. Other provisions are
pertaining to fees and allowances to members, quorum, order of business, minutes,
appointment of consulting engineers, powers and duties of the chairman and those of
member secretary, application for consent and its investigation, budget, annual report and
statement of accounts etc.

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981:

This Act (No.l4 of 1981) was enacted on 293-1981. It came into force from 16-5-1981. It
extends to the whole of India. It has 7 chapters and 54 sections.
It was amended in l987.

Chapter-1 gives following definitions (S I and 2):

A. Air pollutant means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance including noise present in
the atmosphere in such concentration as to be injurious to human beings, other living
creatures, plants, property or environment
B. Air pollution means the presence of any air pollutant in the atmosphere.
C. Approved appliances means any equipment or gadget used for bringing of any
combustible material or for generating or consuming any fume, gas or particulate matter
and approved by the State Board for the purpose of this Act. Chimney includes any
structure with an opening or outlet from or through which any air pollutant may be
emitted.
D. Control equipment means any apparatus, device, equipment or system to control the
quality and manner of emission of any air pollutant and includes any device used for
securing the efficient operation of any industrial plant.
E. Emission means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance coming out of any chimney,
duct or flue or any other outlet.
F. Industrial plant means any plant used for any industrial or trade purposes and emitting
any air pollutant into the atmosphere.
The words 'approved fuel' and 'automobile' arc also defined. Other chapters are as
under:
Chapter - II: Central & State Board (S.3 to 15)
Chapter - III: Powers & functions of Boards (S.16 to 18)
Chapter – IV: Prevention & Control of Air pollution (S.19 to 31A)
Chapter – V: Funds, Accounts & Audit (S.32 to 36).
Chapter – VI: Penalties & procedure (S 37 to 46)
Chapter - VII: Miscellaneous including rule making powers of the Central and State
…………………… Govt. (S. 47 to 54).
Functions of the central and State Pollution Control, Boards are given in Chapter III.
Some provisions of Chapter-IV are as under:
The State Government may after consultation with the State Pollution Control Board,
notify any area as air pollution control area for the purposes of this Act, prohibit the use of
any polluting fuel in any area, require use of an approved appliance, prohibit burning of any
polluting material in any area (S.19) and instruct the motor vehicles authority to ensure
compliance of the standards of automobiles emission laid down by the State Board (S.20).
 No industrial plant shall be established or operated without the previous consent of
the State Board. An application for consent should be in a prescribed form. The State
Board can grant or refuse within 4 months, or cancel any existing consent or refuse further
consent after expiry if the conditions are not fulfilled.
Every person getting consent has to comply with the following conditions:
1. The control equipment approved by the State Board should be installed and
operated.
2. The existing control equipment shall be altered or replaced as per the directions of
the State Board.
3. The control equipment should be maintained at all times in good running condition.
4. Chimney, approved by the State Board shall be erected or re-erected.
5. Such other conditions as the State Board may specify.
6. The conditions should be fulfilled within a stipulated time.
Due to any technological improvement or otherwise the State Board can vary its
conditions. If the consent is transferred to another person, the transferee will be responsible
for compliance (S. 21).
Standards laid down by the State Board shall not be exceeded (S.22). The Board has
power to approach the court for restraining persons from causing air pollution. The court
can direct that person to stop pollution or authorize the Board to implement the direction at
the cost of that person (S.22A).
An accident, unforeseen act or event of emission beyond the prescribed standard
shall be forthwith intimated to the State Board and to the prescribed authorities, who shall
take, as early as practicable, remedial measures to mitigate that emission at the cost of the
person concerned (S.23).
Board officers have power of entry and inspection to check conditions, control
equipment, industrial plant, record, register, document, material etc. (S.24) and can call for
any information regarding types and level of emission and any compliance necessary
(S.25), can take samples of air or emission in the manner prescribed and can send the
sample to the laboratory for analysis (S.26). The Board analyst shall submit the report of
analysis in triplicate to the Board, of which one copy will be sent to the occupier by the
Board (S.27).
The State Government can establish one or more State Air Laboratories (S.28) and can
appoint analysts (Govt. analysts). The Board can also appoint analysts (Board analysts)
(S.29) whose report can be used as evidence in any proceeding under this Act (S.30).
An aggrieved person can appeal within 30 days to the prescribed authority (S.31).
Central or State Board has power to give directions to any person, officer or
authority who shall comply with such directions. Such power includes the power to direct
closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process or the stoppage or
regulation of supply of electricity, water or any other service (S. 31A).

Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules, 1982:

The Central Government u/s 53 of the Air Act made these rules effective from 18-11-1982.
They have 7 chapters, 17 rules, 3 schedules and 9 forms.
The subject matter is as under:
Chapter - I Preliminary (R.l,2)
Chapter - II Procedure for the Board and its committees (R.3 to II).
Chapter - III Allowances to a committee member to attend the meeting (R.12).
Chapter - IV Temporary association of persons with the Central Board (R.13, 14).
Chapter - V Budget of the Central Board (R.15).
Chapter- VI Annual Report of the Central Board (R.16).
Chapter - VII Account of the Central Board (R.17).
In addition to above mentioned Central Rules, State Rules are also available as under.
Gujarat Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules, 1983.

They were notified and came into force from II11-1983. They have 25 Rules, 2 Schedules
and Forms I to II.
Rule 2 gives 12 definitions.
A. Furnace means any structure or installation where any form or type of fuel is burnt
or otherwise a high temperature higher than ambient is maintained.
B. State Laboratory means that established u/s 17 of the Act.

Other provisions include terms, conditions and functions of the State Board, appointment,
fees and tours of consultant, air pollution control area, application for consent and its
inquiry, manner of taking samples of air, functions of state air laboratory, qualifications
for Govt. analyst and board analyst, appeals, budget, annual report and statement of
accounts etc.

Environment (Protection) Act, 1986:

This Act (29 of 1986) was enacted on 23-51986. It came into force, from 19-11-1986 in
the whole of India. It has 4 chapters and 26 sections.
The Statement of Objects and Reasons of the Act identifies the need for a general
legislation on environmental protection to enable co-ordination of activities of the various
regulatory agencies, creation of an authority which will assume a lead role for studying,
planning and implementing long-term requirements of environmental safety and give
direction to and co-ordinate a system of speedy and adequate response to emergency
situations threatening the environment.
Its preamble states that it is an Act to provide for the protection and improvement of
environment and for matters connected therewith
Chapter -I : Preliminary (S.I, 2) :
Some definitions are as under:
Environment includes water-air and land and the inter-relationship which exists among and
between , air and land and human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-organism and
property [S.2(a)].
Environmental pollutant means any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in such
concentration as to be injurious to environment, [S.2(b)].
Environmental pollution means the presence of any environmental pollutant in the
environment, [S.2(c)]
Handling in relation to any substance, means the manufacture, processing, treatment,
package, storage, transportation, use, collection, destruction, conversion, offering for sale,
transfer or the like of such substance [S.2 (d)].
Hazardous Substance means any substance or preparation which by reason of its chemical
or physiochemical properties or handling is liable to cause harm to human beings, other
living creatures, plant, microorganism, property or the environment. [S.2(e)].
Chapter - II: General Powers of the Central Government (S. 3 to 6 ):

The Central Govt. has power to take all necessary measures to protect and improve the
quality of environment and to prevent, control and abate environmental pollution, co-
ordinate action by the State Govt. officers and other authorities and has power of planning
and execution of a Nationwide programme, laying down standards for the quality of
environment, standards for emission of pollutants, procedures and safeguards for the
prevention of accidents which may cause environmental pollution and for the handling of
hazardous substances, examination of processes, materials and substances and empowering
officers for that, carrying out research and investigation, establishing environmental
laboratories, collection and dissemination of information, preparation of manuals, codes or
guides for prevention, control and abatement of environment pollution and constituting
authorities to carry out these functions (S.3).
The Central Govt. can appoint officers for above purposes (S.4), can give directions to
any person, officer or authority including direction of closure, prohibition or regulation of
any industry, operation or process or stoppage or regulation of supply of electricity, water
or any other service (S.5). It has power to make rules (S.6, 25, 26) and power to delegate its
powers and functions (S.23).
Chapter-III: Prevention, Control and Abatement of Pollution (S. 7 to 17):
Environmental pollutants in excess of .standard prescribed shall not be discharged (S. 7).
While handling hazardous substance prescribed procedure and safeguards shall be followed
(S. 8). Excess discharge shall be forthwith reported to the authorities and steps shall be
taken to prevent or mitigate such accidental pollution. The authorities shall also take
similar steps at the cost of the person concerned (S. 9).
Persons empowered by the Central Government have powers of entry and inspection,
examination and testing of any equipment, industrial plant, record, register, document,
material etc. (S. 10), to take samples of air, water, soil or other substance from any factory,
premises or other place in a manner prescribed and to send them to the laboratory for
analysis (S.ll), to establish environmental laboratories (S.12). Sec. 14 is regarding Central
Analysts (S. 13) whose report can be produced as evidence in proceeding under this Act,
(S. 14).
Provisions are made for penalty (S. 15) and offences by companies (S. 16) and Government
Departments (S. 17).
Chapter - IV: Miscellaneous (S. 18 to 26): Provisions are made for protection of action in
good faith (S.18). Cognizance of offences by the authority as well as any person who has
given notice of at least 60 days of the alleged offence and his intention to complain, to the
authority concerned (S.19). Information, reports or returns (S.20) and no civil court has
any jurisdiction in respect of anything done by the authority or the Central Government
(S.22). This Act has overriding effect notwithstanding anything inconsistent with any other
Act but if any offence is punishable under this Act and also under any other Act, then the
offender shall be punished under the other Act and not under this Act (S.24).
Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986 :
The Central Government u/s 6 & 25 of the Environment (protection) Act made these rules
effective from 19-11-1986. They were amended in 1987, 1988, 1989, 1991,1992, 1993 and
from 1996 to 2006 every year.
They have 14 rules, 7 schedules, (No.2 omitted) 4 Annexure under schedule IV, 5 Forms
under Annexure A and different Notifications dating from 212-1991 and onwards
specifying guidelines, area categories, requiring environmental clearance from the listed
projects (schedule) and forming the expert committees for environmental impact
assessment.
An abstract of provisions is as under:
A. Areas means all areas where the hazardous substances are handled.
B. Recipient system means the part of the environment such as soil, water, air or
other which receives the pollutants.
C. Central Board means the Central Pollution Control Board u/s 3 of the Water Act
and State Board means a State Pollution Control Board u/s 4 of the Water Act or
u/s 5 of the Air Act,
D. Standards : The standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants
are specified in schedule I to IV. The Central or State Board may specify more
stringent standards. These standards shall be complied with by an industry,
operation or process within a period of one year of being so specified. The board
can reduce this period. Industries, operations or processes not mentioned in Sch. I
shall not exceed the general standards specified in Sch. VI. No emission or
discharge shall exceed the relevant concentration set out in column (3) to (5) of
Sch. VH of National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) (R. 3).
See Parts (Tables) 10 to 14 of Chapter-32.
Others: All directions u/s 5 should be in writing and specify action to be taken and its time
of compliance. Procedure is prescribed (R.4). Factors to be considered while 'prohibiting or
restricting the location of industries are given in R.5. Procedure for taking samples (R.6),
Notice in Form I to take sample (R.7), Procedure for submission of samples along with
From n and form of laboratory report in Form III (R'8), Functions of laboratories (R.9),
Qualifications of Govt. Analyst (R.IO), Manner of giving notice of alleged offence in Form
IV (R. II), Notice, of accidental discharge to the authorities (R.I 2) and Sch. V, Factors to
be considered while prohibiting or restricting the handling of hazardous substances (R.13)
and submission of Environmental Statement for the financial year ending 31st March in
Form V before the next 30th September every year to the Board (R.14) are prescribed.
Schedule-1 (Rule-3) : gives industry wise pollution parameters and their standards for 98
types of industries including stack height and test method for some parameters and also
known as Minimum National Standards (MINAS).
Schedule-II (Rules-3) : was inserted on 12-9-1996 and omitted on 31-12-1993. thus now it
does not exist.
Schedule-III (Rule-3) : gives ambient air quality standards for noise for 4 categories of
area and time. Limits in dB vary from 40 to 75.
Schedule-IV (Rule-3) : specifies standards for vehicular emission, types of fuel and tests
and exhaust gas values in Annexure I to IV. Parameters considered are CO, HC and NO..

Schedule-V (Rule-12) : gives authorities to be informed in case of excessive discharge.

This includes authorities under the Atomic Energy Act, Factories Act, Mines and Minerals
Act, Ports Act, Plantations Labour Act, Motor Vehicles Act and Merchant Shipping Act.
Schedule-VI (Rule-3A) : gives general standards for discharge of pollutants in five parts :
(A) Effluents (B) Waste water generation (C) Load based standards for Oil Refinery and
large Pulp & Paper mill (D) General emission standards based -on concentration,
equipment and load/mass (E) Noise standards for automobiles and domestic appliances and
also gives guidelines in Annexure I fell for the purposes of Part A to D.

See Table-14 in Chapter-32.

Schedule-VII (Rule-SB) : gives National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) in

terms of time weighted average concentration in ambient air (ug or mg/nr") for six main
pollutants – SO2, NO2, Pb, CO, SPM (Suspended particulate matter) and RPM (respirable
particulate matter) with their method of measurement. This table may be useful in keeping
work environment record (e.g. Form 37 GFR). See 2nd Sch. under the Factories Act for in-
plant exposure limits.

See Table-15 in Chapter-32.

Appendix -A prescribes Form I (R.7), II & III (R.8), IV (R.11) and V, Annual
Environmental Statement (R.14).

Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules 1989 :

U/s 6, 8 and 25 of the Environment (Protection) Act. 1986, these rules were made
enforceable from 27-11-1989. They were amended in 1994 & 2000.
They have 20 Rules and 12 Schedules asunder:
R1 - Short- title and commencement.
R2 - Definitions.
R3 - Duties of Authorities: To inspect the industrial activity at least once in a
year ……………...and to perform duties mentioned in Sch. 5.
R4 - General responsibility of the occupier.
R5 - Notification of major accident.
R6 - Industrial activity to which rules 7 to 15 apply.
R7 - Approval & Notification of sites.
R8 - Updating of the site notification following changes in the threshold quantity.
R9 - Transitional provisions.
R10 - Safety Reports and Safety Audit Report.
R11 - Updating of reports u/r 10.
R12 - Requirement for further information to be sent to the authority.
R13 - Preparation of On Site emergency plan by the occupier.
R14 - Preparation of Off Site emergency plan by the authority.
R15 - Information to be given to persons liable to be affected by a major accident.
R16 - Disclosure of information.
R17 - Collection, Development and Dissemination of information.
R18 - Import of hazardous chemicals.
R19 - Improvement notices.
R20 - Power of the Central Government to modify the schedules.
Then schedules as under -
Sch.1 - Indicative criteria and list of chemicals.
Part-I Toxic, flammable & Explosive chemicals.
Part-II List of 684 hazardous chemicals.

Sch.2 - Isolated storage other than those covered by Sch. 4. Threshold quantities of
30 chemicals are given.
Sch. 3 - List of hazardous chemicals for application of R. 5 and 7 to' 15. Part - I
named chemicals, 179. Part - II classes of chemicals not named in Part - I (flammable
gases and liquids)
Sch.4 - Hazardous operations and processes.
Sch.5 - Authorities and their duties (addition).
Sch.6 - Notification of a major accident.
Sch. 7 - Notification of sites.
Part-I regarding site,
Part-II regarding pipeline.
Sch. 8 - A safety report.
Sch. 9 - Safety data sheet (MSDS).
Sch. 10 - Record of hazardous chemicals imported.
Sch. 11 - Details of on - site emergency plan.
Sch. 12 - Details of off-site emergency plan.
Thus these rules impose greater duty on occupiers and authorities in identifying major
accident hazard (MAH) installations and taking safety measures for them.

Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000

U/s 3, 6 & 25 of the Environment (Protection) Act 1986 these rules were made. They came
into force from 14-2-2000. They were amended in 2000 & 2006.
Its objective is to (1) regulate and control noise producing and generating sources and to (2)
maintain ambient air quality standards in respect of noise as specified in the Schedule.
They have 8 rules and I schedule.
Rule 2 has 8 definitions including zone, court, educational institution, hospital etc.
Area within 100 mts around hospitals, educational institutions and courts may be declared
as silence zone. Area categorization should be made as industrial, commercial, residential
or silence zone as shown in the Schedule (R.3)
Noise levels shall not exceed levels specified in the Sch. as under (R.4)

Area Code Category of Limits in dB (A) Leq*

Area/ Zone
Day Time Night Time
A Industrial area 75 70
B Commercial 65 55
area
C Residential area 55 45

D Silence Zone 50 40
Leq* = It is energy mean of the noise level over a specified period.
Day time 6 am to 10 pm Nigh time 10 pm to 6 am.
See similar table 12.8 in Chapter-12.
Written permission is necessary to use loud speaker or public address system. They
cannot be used between 10 pm and 6 am except in closed premises like auditoria,
conference rooms, community halls, banquet halls etc. State Govt. has power to permit use
between 10 pm to 12 midnight subject to terms and conditions (R.5)
Authority has power to prohibit vocal or musical sound also if it causes annoyance,
disturbance, discomfort etc to any person or public (R.8)

Bio-Medical Waste (Management & Handling) Rules, 1998 :

Wastes generated from hospitals, medical & health institutions, R & D
organization, laboratories and slaughter houses etc., where biological organisms are
involved, have become an important source of environmental and public health problems.
Generally these wastes are being disposed in the Municipal dumps.
The public have become aware of this problem and the issue was discussed in various
forums. The major concern is proper disinfection, treatment and disposal of bio-medical
wastes.
To evolve a proper system for regulation of treatment and disposal of medical wastes
and in exercise of the powers conferred by Sections 6, 8 & 25 of the Environment
(Protection) Act, 1986, the Ministry of Environment & Forests, Govt. of India framed these
rules and made effective from 27-7-1998. They were amended in 2000 -& 2003.
There are 14 Rules with 6 Schedules and 5 Forms. These Rules provide Duty of
Occupier, Treatment & Disposal, Segregation, Packing, Transportation &: Storage,
Prescribed Authority, Authorization, Advisory Committee, Monitoring in Armed forces
medical centers by CPCB, Annual Report, Maintenance of Records, Accident Reporting,
Appeal and common disposal/ incineration sites.

Out of 19 definitions, some areas under:

A. "Animal House" means a place where animals are reared/kept for experiments or
testing purposes;
B. "Authorization" means permission granted by the prescribed authority for the
generation, collection, reception, storage, transportation, treatment, disposal and/or
any other form of handling of bio-medical waste in accordance with these rules and
any guidelines issued by the Central Government.
C. "Biological" means any preparation made from organisms or micro-organisms or
product of metabolism and biochemical reactions intended for use in the diagnosis,
immunization or the treatment of human beings or animals or in research activities
pertaining thereto;
 D. "Bio-medical waste" means any waste which is generated during the diagnosis,
treatment or immunization of human beings or animals or in research activities
pertaining thereto or in the production or testing of biological. There are ten
categories of wastes and are listed in the Schedule-1. "Bio-medical waste treatment
facility" means any facility wherein treatment, disposal of bio-medical waste or
processes incidental to such treatment or disposal is carried out and includes
common treatment facilities;

The Schedules are as under :

Sch. Title
No.

I Categories of Bio-Medical waste.

II Colour coding and type of container for disposal of Bio-Medical

wastes.

III Label for Bio-Medical waste containers / bags. (As shown below)

IV Label for Transport of Bio-Medical waste containers / bags.

V. Standards for Treatment & Disposal of Bio-Medical wastes like

incineration, autoclave, liquid wastes, microwave system and deep
burial;

VI Schedule for Waste Treatment facilities like Incineration/ Auto

Clave/ Microwave system.

The Forms are:

I Application for Authorization

II Annual Report
III Accident Reporting
IV Authorization
V Application for Appeal
Schedule-I : Categories of Bio-Medical
Category Waste Category Treatment & Disposal
No.
1 Human Anatomical Waste incineration@/ deep burial*

2 Animal waste incineration@/ deep burial*

3 Microbiology & Local autoclaving / microwaving /

Biotechnology waste incineration @

4 Waste Sharps Disinfection (chemical

treatment@ / autoclaving/
microwaving & mutilation /
shredding*

5 Discarded medicines and incineration@/destruction and

Cytotoxic Drugs (wastes drug disposal in secured landfills
comprising of outdated,
contaminated and discarded
medicines)

6 Solid Waste incineration@/autoclaving/

microwaving

7 Solid waste Disinfection by chemical

treatment@ / autoclaving /
microwaving and mutilation /
shredding##

8 Liquid Waste Disinfection by chemical

treatment@@ and discharge into
drains

9 Incineration Ash Disposal in municipal

10 Chemical Waste Chemical treatment @ &

discharge into drains for liquid
and secured landfills for solids

@@ Chemicals treatment during at least 1% hypochlorite solution or any other

equivalent chemical reagent. It must be measured that chemical treatment ensures
disinfection.

## Multination / shredding must be such so as to prevent unauthorized reuse.

@ There will be no chemical pre-treatment before incineration. Chlorinated plastics

shall not be incinerated.

* Deep burial shall be option available only in towns with population less than five
lakhs and rural areas.
Duty of Occupier: It shall be the duty of every occupier of an institution generating bio-
medical waste which includes a hospital, nursing home, clinic, dispensary, veterinary
institution, animal house, pathological laboratory, blood bank by whatever name called to
take all steps to ensure that such waste is handled without any adverse effect to human
health and the environment.
Treatment and Disposal:
1. Bio-medical waste shall be treated and disposed off in accordance with Schedule-1,
and in compliance with the standards prescribed in Schedule-V.
2. Every occupier, where required, shall set up in accordance with the time schedule in
Schedule VI, requisite bio-medical waste treatment facilities like incinerator, autoclave,
microwave system for -the treatment of waste, or ensure requisite treatment of waste at a
common waste treatment facility or any other waste treatment facility. (R.5)
Segregation, Packaging, Transportation and Storage:
Biomedical waste shall not be mixed with other wastes. Segregation as per Sch.U and
labeling as per Sch. III. For wastes being transported information as per Sch. III. Use of
authored vehicle only. Untreated wastes not to be stored beyond 48 hrs. Role of
municipality (R.6).
Maintenance of Records:
1. Every authorized person shall maintain record related to the generation, collection,
reception, storage, transportation, treatment, disposal and /or any form of handling of
biomedical waste in accordance with these rules and any guidelines issued.
2. All records shall be subject to inspection and verification by the prescribed authority at
any time. (R.11)
Accident Reporting: When any accident occurs at any institution or facility or any other
site where bio-medical waste is handled or during transportation of such waste, the
authorised person shall report the accident in Form-III to the prescribed authority forthwith.
(R.12) SC Judgement:
In WP (Civil) No. 286/94 between BL Wadherav/ s Union of India, while monitoring its
own judgement of 11-3-96, the Supreme Court went through 14 directions issued to various
authorities and their compliance. Most of the Hospitals and Nursing homes in Delhi, agreed
to provide incinerators or equally effective alternative for waste disposal.

E-WASTE(MANAGEMENT) RULE 2015

1) The e-waste (Management) Rules, 2015 rules shall apply to every manufacturer,
producer, consumer, bulk consumer, collection centres, dealers, e-retailer,
refurbished, dismantler and recycler involved in manufacture, sale, transfer, purchase,
collection, storage and processing of e-waste or electrical and electronic equipment
listed in Schedule I,
2) Collection of e-waste generated during the manufacturing of any electrical and
electronic equipment and channelizing it for recycling or disposal.
3) Obtain the authorization form from the concerned State Pollution Control. form-1
4) Maintain records of the e-waste generated, handled and disposed in Form-2 and make
such records available for scrutiny by the concerned State Pollution Control Board.
5) Fluorescent and other mercury containing lamps, where recyclers are not available,
channelization may be from collection centre to Treatment, Storage and Disposal
Facility.
 6) A pre-treatment is necessary to immobilise the mercury and reduce the volume of
waste to be disposed of for disposal in Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facility
7) ensure that no damage is caused to the environment during storage and transportation
of e-waste
8) Every manufacturer, producer, bulk consumer, collection centre, dealer, refurbished,
dismantler and recycler may store the e-waste for a period not exceeding one hundred
and eighty days and shall maintain a record of collection, sale, transfer and storage of
wastes and make these records available for inspection [RULE: 15- procedure for
storage of e-waste]

9) The transportation of e-waste shall be carried out as per the manifest system whereby
the transporter shall be required to carry a document (three copies) prepared by the
sender, giving the details as per Form-6. [RULE: 19- Transportation of e-waste]
10) Provided that the transportation of waste generated from manufacturing or recycling
destined for final disposal to a treatment, storage and disposal facility shall follow the
provisions under Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary
Movement) Rules, 2008.
11) Storing of E-Waste in landfills - environmental &amp; health hazard
Incineration - environmental &amp; health hazard
Reusing and recycling-limited life span, hazardous in unorganised sector
12) Government assist by encouraging setting up of integrated Transport, Storage and
Disposal Facilities (TSDF) for hazardous waste management on Public Private
Partnership (PPP) mode
13) The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has notified E-Waste
(Management) Rules, 2016. The rules - for the first time in India - introduced
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).
14) The EPR is an environment protection strategy that makes the producer responsible
for the entire life cycle of the product, especially for take back, recycle and final
disposal of the product.
15) DISPOSING E-WASTE
(a) Donate working older equipment to schools’ colleges or government entities
in need.
(b) If PCs are out of order then return it to the manufacturers. (HCL and Wipro in
India have best take back service).
(c) Send waste goods to authorised recycling facility for proper disposal.

BATTERIES (MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING) RULES, 2001

U/s 6, 8, & 25 of die Environment (protection) Act 1986, these rules were made and
brought into force from 16-5-2001.
They have 14 rules, I schedule and 9 forms.
They apply to every manufacturer, importer, reconditioner, assembler, dealer, recycler,
auctioneer, consumer and bulk consumer involved in manufacture, processing, sale,
purchase and use of batteries or components thereof.

There are 19 definitions u/r 3 some of which are as under -

"Battery" means lead acid battery which is a source of electrical energy and contains lead
metal;
"Consumer" means a person using lead acid batteries excluding bulk consumers;
"Re-conditioner" means a person involved in repairing of lead acid batteries for selling the
same in the market;
"Recycler" means an occupier who processes used lead acid batteries or components thereof
for' recovering lead;
Responsibilities of manufacturer, importer, assembler and re-conditioner are stated in R.4
and those of dealer in R. 7, of recycler in R.8, of consumer in R. 10 and of auctioneer in R.
II.
Importers have to register themselves (R.5 & 6). Registration procedure for recyclers is
given in R. 9.

Prescribed authority is State Pollution Control Board (R.12). Duties of CPCB are
mentioned in R. 13 and those of MoEF in R. 14 for records and returns.
Used batteries are to be collected back by the manufacturer and dealer and
appropriate discount shall be given to the consumer. Safe transportation, no damage during
storage and transportation and collected batteries are to be sent only to the registered
recyclers.
Recycler shall mark 'Recycled' on lead recovered by him and create public awareness
regarding hazards of lead and obligations of consumers to return used batteries only to the
registered dealers or at the designated collection centers.

HAZARDOUS WASTES (MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING) RULES, 1989:

The Central Government u/s 6,8& 25 of the Environment (Protection) Act made
these rules effective from 28-7-1989.
They were amended in 1996, 2000, 2003 I
They have 21 rules, 8 schedules and 13 forms.

Application (R.2) : These rules apply to hazardous wastes as specified in Schedules,

but do not apply to Waste water and exhaust gases, wastes arising out of operation from
ships beyond 5 km, radio-active wastes, biomedical wastes, municipal solid waste; lead acid
batteries wastes as there are separate rule for them.

Definitions (R.3):
There are 36 definitions some of which are a under:

Applicant means a person or organization the applies in Form-1 for granting

authorization for handling of hazardous waste.

Authorization means permission for collection transport, treatment, reception, storage

and disposal of hazardous wastes granted by the competent authority in Form-2.

Hazardous waste means any waste which b reason of any of its physical, chemical,
reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive characteristics causes danger or is likely to
cause danger to health or environment, whether alone or when in contact with other wastes
or substances, and shall include wastes listed in Sch. 1, 2 & 3.

Disposal means deposit, treatment, recycling and recovery of any hazardous wastes;
Facility means a location wherein the processes incidental to the waste
generation, collection, reception, treatment, storage and disposal are carried out.
 Hazardous Wastes Site means a place duly approved by the competent authority for
collection, reception, treatment, storage and disposal of hazardous wastes.
Operator of a facility means an owner or operator of the facility defined above.

The occupier generating hazardous wastes listed in the Schedules 1, 2 & 3 shall take
all practical steps for safe disposal of the wastes either himself or through an operator of a
facility. The occupier should supply specified (safety) information to the operator of a
facility (R. 4).

Application for authorization in Form-1 by the occupier or a facility operator and

grant of such authorization with conditions in Form-2 after satisfying that they possess
appropriate facilities, technical capabilities and equipment to handle the wastes safely. Such
authorization lasts for validity specified by SPCB unless sooner suspended or cancelled and
then needs renewal in Form-1. It can be refused also (R. 5).

If the conditions are not fulfilled, the granted authorization can be cancelled or
suspended by the State Pollution Control Board or Committee after a show cause notice and
subsequent instruction for the safe storage of the hazardous wastes (R. 6).

Packing, labeling and transport of such wastes should, be in accordance with the
Motor Vehicle Act and rules made there under and in a condition to withstand physical and
climatic factors. Label as in Form 8 necessary (R. 7).

The occupier or operator of a facility shall identify wastes disposal site. EIA and
public hearing are necessary (R.8).

Design and operation of the landfill site shall be as approved by SPCB (R. 8A & B).

The occupier generating waste and operator of a facility shall maintain records in
Form-3 and shall send annual returns in Form-4. (R.9).

Any accident during transport or at the facility shall be reported immediately to the
State Pollution Control Board or Committee in Form-5. (R.1O).

Import and export of hazardous wastes specified in Sch. 8 is not permitted for
dumping and disposal. It may be permitted for processing or re-use as raw material and after
getting necessary information in Form 6 & 6A from the exporter and importer both and after
examining each case on Jnerit. The importer shall maintain records in Form-7A""and allow
inspection by the authority (R.II& 12).

Rule 13 to 15 are also for import and export. Rule 19 and 21 are for re-refining and
recycling. R.20 states responsibility of wastes generator.

An appeal shall lie before the State or Central Government depending on order and as
provided in
R. 18.
 Subjects of Schedules are as under:

Sc
h.
No
. Subject
1 Process wise list of hazardous wastes
2 Concentration wise list of hazardous wastes
3 List of wastes for import and export
4&
6 Recycling of wastes
5 Re-refining of wastes
7 Authorities
8 List of wastes prohibited for import and export.

CHEMICAL ACCIDENTS (EMERGENCY PLANNING, PREPAREDNESS AND

RESPONSE) RULES, 1996 :

The Central Govt. u/s 6, 8 and 25 of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 made
these rules. They were notified and brought into force on 1-8-1996. They were amended in
1998.

They contain 13. rules and 8 schedules. Their abstract is as under : Definitions (R. 2):

They contain 12 definitions some of which are as under:

Chemical accident - See part 3.8 of Chap-2.

Industrial pocket means any industrial zone earmarked by the Industrial Development
Corporation of the State Government or by the State Government.

Major Accident Hazards (MAH) Installation See part 3.55 of Chapter 2.

Off-site emergency plan means the plan prepared as per Sch. 12 u/r 14(1) of the
MSIHC Rules. (similarly On-site emergency plan means that prepared as per Sch. II u/r
13(1) of the MSIHC Rules.).

'Major Chemical accident"

See Part 3.54 of Chapter 2.

Different Crisis Groups : The constitution of the Central, State, District and Local
Crisis Group shall be as specified in Sch. 5,6,7 &: 8 respectively. The members of the
Central, State and District Crisis Groups are empowered u/s 10(1) of the EP Act 1986 to
enjoy those powers. The MAH installations shall aid, assist and facilitate the functioning of
the District and Local Crisis Groups. Meeting of the Central, State, District and Local Crisis
Group shall be held at 6 months, 3 months, 45 days and 30 days respectively. Functions of
the Central, State, District and Local Crisis Groups given in Rule 5, 7, 9 and 10 respectively
are summarised in the following Table.
Functions of the Crisis Groups (Rule 5, 7, 9 & 10):

Central Crisis Group State Crisis Group

(Rule 5) (Rule 7)
Same as No. 1 to 7
1 Expert guidance functions mentioned
for group
Monitoring of post accident Assistance of the State
2 situation and 8 Govt. in
plan a
remedial measures to prevent nin prepared n
recurrence. g, ness d
mitigation of major
accidents.
Post accident analysis and Quarterly report to
3 evaluation of 9 the CCG.
responses.
Review of District offsite
4 emergency
plans and reports
received.
5 Respond to queries
6 Statewise list of experts.
7 Financial and other help.
8 Informatin to public.
District Crisis Group Local Crisis Group
(Rule 9) (Rule 10)
Pre
para of local
1 Expert guidance. 1 tion emergency

plan for the industrial

pocket and
dovetailing of this plan
with the
Dist. Off-site emergency
plan.
Preparation of Dist. Off-site Training of persons and
2 emergency 2 public
plan.
Review of all on-site emergency Half-yearly mock drill
3 plans of 3 and report
MAH units. to DCG.
Management of chemical Respond to public
4 accidents in the 4 inquiries.
district.
 Monitoring of every chemical
5 accident 5 Information to public.
Continuous information to the Assistance to MAH
6 CCG and 6 units for
informing persons likely
SCG. to be
affected.
Report of chemical accident
7 within 15
days to SCG.
Yearly mock drill and report to
8 SCG.
+
 Information to the Public :The Central, State and Local Crisis Group shall provide
informationon request regarding chemical accident prevention, preparedness and mitigation to
the public in their respective jurisdiction. The Local Crisis Group shall assist the MAH
installations in taking appropriate steps to inform persons likely to be affected by a chemical
accident (R. 13).

Crisis Alert system :The Central Govt. shall set up functional control room,
informationnetwork with state and district control rooms, appoint staff and experts in control
room, publish lists of (i) MAH installations (ii) Major chemical accidents in chronological
order (iii) Members of the Central, State and District Groups and take measures to create
awareness amongst the public to prevent chemical accidents (R. 4).

Schedules:

Sch.I to 4-the same as Sch.I to 4 of the MSIHC Rules 1989 or R 68J, GFR 1963.

Sch. 5 to 8- List of members for CCG, SCG, DCG and LCG respectively.
 CHAPTER 4
LAWS ON BOILER SAFETY

BOILERS ACT, 1923:

The Boilers Act (No. 5 of 1923) was notified on 4-12-1923. It came into force from 1-
1-1924. It has 34 sections. It is amended by the Act No. 49 of 2007 which became effective by
Notification dtd. 13-12-2007. Section 2 of the Act defines as under :

Boiler means a pressure vessel in which steam is generated for use external to itself by
application of heat which is wholly or partly under pressure when steam is shut off but does
not include a pressure vessel-

1. with capacity. < 25 ltrs (such capacity being measured from the feed check valve to ,the
main steam stop valve)
2. with < I kg/cm' design gauge pressure and working gauge pressure or
3. in which water is heated below 100 °C.

Boiler Component means steam piping, feed piping, economiser, super heater, any
mounting or other fitting and any other external or internal part of a boiler which is subject to
pressure exceeding I kg/ cm2 gauge.

Economiser means any part of a feed-pipe that is wholly or partially exposed to the
action of flue gas for the purpose of recovery of waste heat.

Super heater means any equipment which is partly or wholley exposed to flue gases for
the purpose of raising the temperature of a steam beyond the saturation temperature at the
pressure and includes a reheater.

Steam Pipe : means any pipe through which stream passes if (i) The pressure at which
steam passes through such pipe exceeds 3.5 kg/ m2 above atmospheric pressure or (ii) Such.
pipe exceeds 254 mm in internal diameter and pressure > I kg/cm2 and includes, in either case
any connected fitting of a steam pipe.

Accident as defined u/s 2(a) means an explosion of boiler or boiler component which is
calculated to weaken the strength or an uncontrolled release of water or steam therefrom,
liable to cause death or injury to any person or damage to any property.

Sec. 18 requires report of accident and inquiry in case of fatal accident.

New definitions of Competent authority, Competent person.Inspecting authority.

Technical advisor and structural alteration, addition or renewal are added.

Now not only boiler inspector but competent person can also inspect and certify boiler
and its components during manufacture, erection and use. Inspecting authority can do this job
during manufacture.

Unregistered or uncertified boiler shall not be used save as otherwise provided in the
Act. Prior sanction of the Chief Inspector is necessary before carrying out any structural
alteration, addition or renewal in or to any boiler or steam pipe. Any accident to a boiler or
steam pipe shall be reported to the Inspector within 24 hours. His report shall be in form E
(Rule 48).

Section 27A provides to form a Central Boiler Board consisting of members,

nominating by the Central Government the representatives from the Central Government,
Bureau of Indian Standards, Boiler and boilar component manufacturers. Users and other
interests.

Section 28 provides power and matters of regulations by the Board. Sec. 28Aand 29 are
for the rule making power of Central and State Govt. respectively.

Central Boilers Board makes and notifies regulations consistent with this Act. The main
duties of the Boiler Inspector are the inspection and examination of boilers and steam-pipes in
accordance with chapter IX of the Regulations and Chapter IV and V of the Gujarat Boiler
Rules 1966. Reduction of pressure can be suggested. Sanction for repairs to boilers shall be
obtained beforehand. Provisional orders should be issued after hydraulic tests.

Penalties have been increased up to Rs. 1 lac or /and 2 years imprionment u/s 24.

INDIAN BOILERS REGULATIONS, 1950 (IBR):

The Central Boilers Board u/s 28 of the Boilers Act, 1923 published the Indian Boiler
Regulations 1950. They came into force from 15-9 -1950. They were amended in 1990, 1993,
1994, 1995, 1996, 1997 and 2004. They have 15 chapters, 635 regulations, forms up to XVIG
and Appendices A to M.

Definitions:

Definitions of accident, boiler. Chief Inspector, economizer, feed-pipe and owner are
the same as given in the Act.

Competent Authority means an authority recognized by the Central Boilers Board to

issue certificates to welders for the purposes of regulation 4(b)(ii) and 605.

Inspecting Authority means an authority recognized by the Board as competent to

grant a certificate in Form II, IIA or IIB and specified in Appendix-C, which includes Chief
Inspectors of boilers of various states of our country as well as foreign and many foreign
companies.

Inspecting Officer means an officer appointed by the Inspecting authority or an officer

acting on their behalf for the purposes of approval of drawings, stage wise inspection of
manufacture, examination of repairs, signing and issue of certificates, material manufactured
and boilers constructed.

Thus the central boilers board and authorities and officers recognised by them provide
the backbone of boilers safety and checking from design to operation, maintenance and repair
stages.
 Boilers are classified as under :

Cl
as Limits of Minimum
s application thickness Constant
I No limit 0.25 Inch 32
(
a WP < 105 IF ID is upto 36”
II ) psi 5/16 27
(
b WP in psi
) x ID < inch
5250
inches.
(
a WP < 30 ID over 36”, 3/8 23 if stress
III ) psi inch relieved 21 if
(
b WP in psi stress not
) x ID < relieved
3000
inches.
Working pressure (WP) of the cylindrical
shell
W
P(
ps
i) = (t-2)SC
D
W
he
re
t = Min. plate thickness in 30 seconds of an inch.
D= Max. ID in inches.
Min. tensile strength
S = in T/in'
C = Constant as given in above table

In no case, the thickness should be less than that mentioned in above table or the factor
of safely less than 4.

Form -6 is the certificate for use of a boiler (reg. 389) with conditions. Appendix-J
gives a long list of stages for inspection and testing by the Inspecting Authority. Appendix L
provides for testing procedure for safety valve discharge efficiency.

Regulation 396 is regarding safety of persons inside boilers. Effective disconnection

from steam or hot water, discharge arrangement for leakage, hand lamp of < 24 volt with
lamp guard, key less socket, insulated handle and extension cord' of approved type are
required. Power driven equipment should have effective earthing. Method of disconnection
should be got approved from the CIB.
 Chapter XIV (Reg. 618 to 622) was substituted with effect from 9-10-1993 and
renamed as 'Small Industrial Boilers' (SIB).

Shell type SIB should have volumetric capacity > 22.75 ltrs. but< 500 ltrs, pressure up
to 7 kg/cm2 or coil type or water tube boiler with capacity < 150 ltrs., pressure < 12 kg/cm2
Guidelines for registration, operation and maintenance are given in Reg. 622. Relaxations are
given.

ELECTRICITY ACT, 2003:

Replacing the Indian Electricity Act 1910, this Electricity Act 2003 (No. 36 of 2003)
came into force on 10-6-2003. It was amended in the same year with effect from 21-1-2004.

It has 18 parts, 185 sections and a Schedule.

Its preamble runs as under :

An Act to consolidate the laws relating to generation, transmission, distribution, trading

and use of electricity and generally of taking measures conducive to development of electricity
industry, promoting competition therein, protecting interest of consumers and supply of
electricity to all areas, rationalisation of electricity tariff, ensuring transparent policies
regarding subsidies, promotion of efficient and environmentally benign policies, constitution
:)f Central Electricity Authority, Regulatory Commissions and establishment of Appellate
Tribunal and for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto.

Section-2 gives 77 definitions like board, captive generating plant, cogeneration,

conservation, dedicated transmission lines, distribution system, electric line, electricity,
electricity system, generating station, grid, high voltage line, line, main, overhead line, power
system, service-line, street, sub-station, transmission lines and works etc.

Sections 3 toll are pertaining to grant of license and its revocation, amendment,
purchase etc.

Section 161 regarding Notice of Accidents & Inquiries provides that (1) an accident to
any person or animal resulting or likely to result in death or any injury is to be reported to the
Electrical Inspector and other authorities in a prescribed time and (2) inquiry and report by the
Electrical Inspector into the cause of accident affecting safety of the public and manner of
compliance of statutory requirements.

Section 162 is regarding appointment of Chief Electrical Inspector and Electrical

Inspector.

Subjects of this Act are asunder:

 Sec
Pa tio
rt ns Subject
N
o.
1 1-2 Preliminary
National Electricity Policy
2 3-6 and Plan
3 7-11 Generation of Electricity
Li
ce
ns
in
4 12-24 g
5 25-41 Transmission of Electricity
6 42-60 Distribution of Electricity
T
ar
7 61-66 iff
W
or
8 67-69 ks
9 70-75 Central Electricity Authority
76-
10 109 Regulatory Commissions
110-
11 125 Appellate Tribunal for Electricity
126-
12 130 Investigation and Enforcement
131-
13 134 Reorganisation of Board
135-
14 152 Offences and Penalties
153-
15 157 Special Courts
16 158 Dispute Resolution
159-
17 165 Other Provisions
166-
18 185 Miscellaneous

INDIAN ELECTRICITY RULES, 1956:

U/s37 of the Electricity Act, 1910, the Central Electricity Board, made these rules
which were published and came into force from 26-6-1956.

The rules were amended in 1991, 1993, 2000, 2002. It has II Chapters, 143 rules and 15
Annexure. From safety point of view following two chapters are more important.

Ch Rul Title
apt es
er
29-
IV 46 General Safety Requirements.
109
- Additional Precautions to be adopted in Mines &
X 132 Oil-fields.

A short summary of the rules is given below. For full details, the statute book should be
referred.

Rule 2 gives 57 definitions. 'Danger' is defined as danger to life or body part from
shock, burn, fire, and explosion, injury to persons or property because of the electrical energy.

Flameproof enclosure means an enclosure for electrical machinery or apparatus to

withstand internal explosion due to flammable gas or vapour entered inside and preventing this
internal flammation to come out to the external flammable gas or vapour in which it is
designed to be used.

Guarded means covered, shielded, fenced or otherwise protected by means of suitable

casing, barrier, rails or metal screens to remove the possibility of dangerous contact or
approach by persons or objects to a point of danger.

'Intrinsically safe' as applied to apparatus or associated circuits shall denote that any
sparking that may occur in normal working is incapable to cause explosion of inflammable gas
or vapour.

Voltage category is defined as low<250V, medium<650V, high<33KV, extra high>

33KV.

Rule 4 prescribes appointment and qualifications for Electrical Inspectors that degree in
electrical engineering with at least 8 years practical experience. For assistant inspectors BE(E)
+ 3 years experience or DME + 6 years experience is prescribed. Rule 5 gives their powers of
entry and inspection.

Chapter-3, rules II to 28 prescribes licensing procedure including maps, forms and

conditions.

Chapter-4, rules 29 to 46, give following general safety provisions:

General Safety Provisions:

6.2 Electric supply lines and apparatus, shall be of sufficient ratings, mechanical strength
and so constructed, installed, protected, worked and maintained to ensure safety of
human being, animals and property. IS and National Electrical Code shall be followed
(R.29).
6.3 Supplier and consumer, both, will take due precautions to avoid danger from service
lines and apparatus on consumer's premises (R.30).
6.4 Suitable cut-outs (e.g. fuse) in fireproof receptacles shall be provided in every service
line (other than earth lines) at consumer's premises (R.31).
6.5 Earth and neutral conductors shall be identified to distinguish from live conductor and
position of switches and cut-out shall be safe (R.32).
6.6 Earth connection (terminal) shall be provided near the point of start of supply and the
consumer shall take steps to protect it from mechanical damage (R.33).
6.7 Bare conductors should be inaccessible with readily accessible switches to cut off
power supply (R.34).
6.8 Danger notice in Hindi, English or local language with a sign of skull and bones (IS-
2551) and the words 'danger and 'volts' is necessary near medium and higher voltage
installation (i.e. above 250V). (R.35).
6.9 For the safety from supply lines and apparatus, earthing of lines, PPE to workers
(gloves, rubber shoes, safety belts, ladders, earthing devices, helmets, line testers and
hand lamps, for protection from electrical and mechanical injury), and authorised
working on live lines are necessary (R.36).
6.10 Voltage cut off switch (in one operation) is a must in every electric vehicle, crane, etc.
and the metal rails, if any, should be electrically continuous and earthed (R.37).
6.11 Flexible cables to portable apparatus should be heavily insulated and well protected
from mechanical damage. For single phase line the cable should be of 3 core and for 3
phase line, it should be of 4 core type with the distinguished ground connection. Metal
covering, if any, should be earthed (R.38).
6.12 Insulating or protecting material of electric line should not be of such material that may
produce noxious or flammable gases on excessive heating (R.39).
6.13 Street boxes should be free from influx of water or gas. They should be inspected
regularly for that (R.40).
6.14 Different circuits should be distinguished from each other (R.41).
6.15 Voltage should not exceed the limits and AC-DC circuits should not come into contact
with each other when live (R.42).
6.16 Fire extinguishers for electric fire, fire buckets with clean, dry sand, first-aid boxes, two
or more gas masks to be used in the event of fire or smoke are necessary (R.43).
6.17 Notice of instructions to restore person from electric shock and an artificial respirator
(resuscitation)
6.18 necessary (R.44).
6.19 Fatal accident should be reported within 24 hours and non-fatal accident, in Annex-
XIH, in 48 hours (R.44A).
6.20 Electric work shall be carried out by licensed electrical contractor under direct
supervision of a competent person and a person holding permit by the State
Government. Unauthorized work shall not be energised (R.45).
6.21 Inspection of installation at every 5 years by the Inspector. Annex-IXA is an inspection
report Form (R.46).

Chapter-V (R.47 to 59) gives general conditions relating to supply and use of energy.
Rule 51 for medium, high and extra high voltage installations should be referred. .

Chapter-VI (R.60 to 62) for low and medium voltages (upto 650V) and Chapter-VU
(R.63 to 73) for high and extra high voltage (more than 650V) provide for insulation resistance
test, earth connection, ELCB, testing, operation and maintenance, condensers and supply to
high voltage installation including X-ray unit, etc.
Chapter-VIII (R.74 to 93) gives important safety clearances (see Part 4.6 of Chapter-
11) above ground and between conductors and provisions for material strength, stresses, joints,
guarding, earthing, safety and protective devices (R.91 for safety of line when it breaks,
unauthorized entry near overhead lines) etc.
 Chapter-IX (R.94 to 108) is for electric traction, and provides for voltage supply to
vehicle, insulation of lines, returns and sections, current density (less than 1.4 Amp/cm2) in
rails, height of trolley-wire (more than 5.2 m high) etc.

Chapter-X (R.109 to 132) is regarding safety precautions while working in mines and
oil-fields. They include plans, notices, lighting, communications, fire precautions, earthing,
protective equipment, voltage limits (Hand lamp or electric interlocking 30V, portable
apparatus 125V, at surface or in open 250V), safety with gas supervision etc.

Chapter-XI (R.133 to 143) gives relaxation and penalty provisions.

ELECTRICITY RULES, 2005

U/s 176 of the Electricity Act, 2003 these rules were made and they came into force
from 8-6-2005. They were amended in the same year with effect from 26-10-2006.

They have 13 rules. Rule 3 gives requirements of captive generating plant. Other
provisions are regarding distribution system, surcharge u/s 38, consumer redressed forum,
tariff u/s 79, interstate trading license etc.

EXPLOSIVES ACT, 1884:

This Act (4 of 1884) was enacted on 26-2-1884. It came into force from 1-7-1884. It
extends to the whole of India. It has 18 sections.

Its object is to regulate the manufacture, possession, use, sale, transport, import and
export of explosives.

Explosive as defined in Sec, 4(d) means gunpowder, nitro-glycerine, nitroglycol,

guncotton, di-nitro-toluene, tri-nitro-toluene, picric acid, di-nitrophenol, tri-nitro resorcinol
(styphnic acid) cycio trimethylene-tri-nitroamine, penta- erythritol tetranitrate, tetryl, nitro
guanidine, lead azide, lead styphynate, fulminate of mercury or any other metal, diazo-di-nitro
phenol, coloured fires or any other substance, whether a single chemical compound or a
mixture of substances, whether solid or liquid or gaseous used or manufactured with a view to
produce a practical effect by explosion or pyrotechnic effect and includes fog-signals, fire
works, fuses, rockets, percussion-caps, detonators, cartridges, ammunition of all descriptions
and every adaptation or preparation of as an explosive as defined in this clause.

Aircraft carriage and vessel are also defined in this section.

Main Provisions:

1. A person below the age of 18 years, offender of violence or moral turpitude, who is
ordered to keep peace or good behaviour or whose licence is cancelled for any offence
under this act, cannot manufacture, sell, transport, import or export, deliver or dispatch
or possess any explosive defined or notified. (Sec. 6A)
2. Licence can be granted, refused, varied, suspended, revoked and conditions can be
imposed (Sec. 6B to 6E). Appeal can be preferred as per sec. 6F.
3. The Central Government has power to make rules regarding inspection, search, seizure,
detention and removal (Sec. 7).
4. Notice of accident is required u/s 8 and its inquiry shall be conducted u/s 9. The Central
Government can inquire into more serious accidents (Sec. 9A).
5. Explosives with receptacles shall be forfeited by the court after conviction (Sec. 10).
6. Abetment and attempt to commit offence under this Act or Rules is punishable (Sec.
12).
7. Any person found committing any offence punishable under this Act can be arrested
without warrant, be removed from the place and conveyed before a magistrate (Sec.
13).
8. The Central Government can delegate its power to State Government or an officer u/s
17A.

EXPLOSIVES RULES, 1983 :

U/s 5 and 7 of the Explosives Act, 1884, these rules were published on 2-3-1983. They
have 10 chapters, 186 rules, 8 Schedules, 40 Forms under Schedule V and 8 specifications
(guidelines) under schedule VII. Last schedule VIII gives safety distances in two tables. Five
annexure are given at the end. Exhaustive details are provided of which a short abstract is
given below :

Definitions :Chief Controller of Explosive (CCE) is the main authority. He can

recognise acompetent person by giving him a certificate of competency. Prohibited explosives
mean that u/s 6, authorised explosives mean those published by the Government and permitted
explosives mean those permitted by the Director General of Mines Safety to be used in
underground coal mines.

Detonator, safety cartridge, safety fuse, safety zone etc. are defined. Magazine means a
building to store more than 5 kg of explosive and specially constructed as approved by the
CCE. Protected works include a dwelling house, college, school, hospital, theatre, factory,
storage of hazardous substances, public road, railway, waterways, dams, reservoirs, high
tension power lines. Safety zone is a distance required between such protected work and a
licensed factory, magazine or store-house.

Safety Distance Categories of Explosives :According to the risks, they are as under :

Cat
ego
ry Explosives
Which have a fire or slight explosion risk or both but the
X effect is
local.
Which have a mass fir risk or a moderate explosion risk
Y but not the
risk of mass explosion.
Z Which have mass explosion risk and major missile effect.
ZZ Which have mass explosion risk and minor missile effect.

On any question of category, decision of the CCE shall be final.

General Provisions (Chap-11, Rule 5 to 20) :

1 Import, export, transport, manufacture, process, use or sell of unauthorised explosives

 is prohibited. Testing and trial are permitted in a licensed factory. (R.5).
2 Application for authorisation of explosives is necessary. Particulars are prescribed for
submission. A sample shall be sent as per instruction from CC (R. 6).
3 Tests prescribed [R. 6 (6)]
1. Physical properties including consistency, reaction, tendency to absorb moisture,
segregation of the constituents, exudation, behaviour at low temperature,
specific gravity etc.
2. Chemical composition- percentage and quality of ingredients.
3. Stability - effect of environmental conditions which would produce spontaneous
ignition or variation in sensitiveness.
4. Ignition characteristics- ignition point, behaviour, liability to spontaneous
ignition.
5. Mechanical sensitiveness to friction and impact.
6. Air gap sensitivity and transmission of detonation..
7. Velocity of detonating.
8. Strength determination.
9. Gases evolved upon explosion.
10. Such other tests specified by the CCE.
11. Any other test required by CCE.
12. Delivery and Dispatch under licence and not exceeding the quantity (R.7).
13. Packing as per Schedule H and after approval of the sample (R. 8).
14. Marking of packages should mention the word "EXPLOSIVES" (not required
for fireworks and safety fuse), name of the authorised explosive, class number
and division, safety distance category, names of manufacturer, consignor and
consignee, net weight and letter 'V for permitted explosive (R.9)
15. Weight of explosive shall not include the weight of the packing box (10.)
16. Competent person should be in-charge of operations (R.11)
17. Precautions in handling- Floor should be checked, cleaned and swept before and
after use. The packages shall not be thrown, dropped, rolled or pulled but shall
be passed from hand to hand and carefully deposited. A slung package should be
prevented from fall (R. 12).

B. Handing between sunset and sunrise is restricted unless proper lighting and guarding is
provided. (R. 13).
C. Within 15 mt. of an explosive storage or at its place of handling or transport, smoking,
fires, lights and flammable substances or substances to cause fire or explosion such as
acids, petroleum, calcium carbide, compressed gases shall not be allowed (R. 14)
D. No person will carry matches, knives, fuses, iron or steel or wear shoes with iron nails
(R. 15).
E. Split explosive shall be safely destroyed (R. 16).
F. Employment of person below 18 years, intoxicated persons and persons of unsound
mind is prohibited (R. 17).
G. Precautions against danger from water (in compatible) or exposure to sun or heat are
necessary (R. 18).
H. Special precautions against accident (fire or explosion), thefts, entry of unauthorised
person near explosives are necessary. (R. 19).
5. Nitro-glycerine or Ethylene glycol dinitrate or explosives of Class-5, unauthorised,
deteriorated or damaged explosives shall not be transported without approval of CC,
except within the licensed factory solely for the purpose of manufacture of explosives
(R. 20).
 For classes of explosives see Sch. 1.

Import & Export (Chapter-111, Rule 21 to 31) :

Licence necessary (R. 21). Rules for import and export by sea, land and air are
prescribed.

Transport (Chapter-IV, R 32 to 86):

Licence necessary (R. 32). Certain explosives cannot be transported together (R. 33).
Safety certificate is required (R. 34). No transport of explosives with passengers (R. 35).
Maximum weights as per R. 36.Loading and unloading procedure (R. 38 to 45.). Transport by
water (R. 46 to 61) Transport by Rail (R. 62 to 74). Transport by Road (R. 75 to 86). Licence
for road van necessary. Towing not allowed. Four wheel chocks to be carried all the time. In
case of fire, traffic to be stopped 300 metres away. Accident to be reported. Two fire
extinguishers of 2 kg or ..more capacity required with road van.

Manufacture (Chapter-V, Rule 87 to 112) :

Licence necessary (R.87) and not necessary (R. 88). Approval of CC required (R. 89)
Factory should have a wall or fencing 2 mt. high to prevent unauthorised entry (R. 90). Interior
should be free from grit, iron or steel and kept clean (R. 92) .Surrounding mound or blast wall
as approved by CC (R. 93). Oiled cotton, rags or waste not allowed to avoid spontaneous
ignition (R. 94). Non-sparking tools made of wood, copper, brass or soft metal should be used
(R. 95). Notice of maximum quantity of material and persons in a work room to be exhibited
on process building (R. 96). Smoking prohibited (R. 97). Lightning conductor as per IS 2309,
yearly checking of earth resistance and its notice are necessary (R.98). During thunder -storms
work should be suspended and workers to be withdrawn to a safe place (R.99). Foreign matter
in ingredients to be removed (R.IOO). Protection against fire. Cloths without pockets (R.IOI)
Residues will be quickly removed (R.102). Before carrying out repairs to building, explosives
shall be removed (R.103). Employment of competent person for process supervision (R.104).
Birth or fitness certificate is necessary for age between 18 to 21 (R.105). Every vehicle, trolley
or receptacle to carry explosives shall be free from iron steel etc. and be covered or closed
(R.106). Maintenance of building, plant and equipment should be regular and good. (R.107).
Testing facilities as approved by CC (R.108).Safe disposal of waste explosives (R.109).
Unsafe process to be stopped (R.IIO). Up to date records to be maintained for 2 years (R. 112).

Possession, Sale and Use (Chapter-VI, Rule 113 to 153):

Licence necessary (R.113) and not necessary (R.114). Use of licensed premises only
(R.115).Protection from lightning (R.116).Precautions during thunderstorm (R.117).Building
to be kept clean (R.118 & 120).Maintenance of records (R.119).Hazardous articles not to be
carried. Search for them and for cloths without pockets and suitable shoes (R.121). Premises to
be kept locked (R.122). Security Guards for .round the clock (R.123). Repackaging or opening
at safe place and safe distance (R.124). Explosives not to be kept in damaged boxes (R.125)
No storage exceeding licensed quantity (R.126). Magazine storage in mode A or B as specified
in Sch. VII (R.129). Surrounded by mound (R.131) and on ground floor only
(R.132).Storehouse of sound .construction (R.134). Type of premises, ground level minimum
floor area 9m2, separate entry and exit (R. 135). Special precautions to be observed for fire
works (R.136).Safety distance 15 mt. or more from storage of explosives, flammable or
hazardous materials (R.137). No sale of other articles (R.138).

Use of Explosives :Competent person to be employed (R.144). Restrictions on

preparation ofcharges (R.145).Restriction to carry at the blasting site (R.146).Examination
before use (R.147). Precautions at site (R. 148),.Warning procedure (R.149). Precautions while
firing (R.150), against stray currents (R.151) fire, or accident (R.152). Blasting, operations
under the Mines Act, 1952 are allowed.

Licences (Chapter VII, R 154 to 174).

Fees (Chapter VIII, R. 175 to 177).

Powers and Penalties (Chapter IX R. 178 to 181).

Accidents and Enquiries (Chap. X, R. 182 to 186).

Notice forthwith to the CCE, Nagpur, CE under jurisdiction and nearest police station
(R.182). Procedure at courts of inquiry (R.183).Inquiry by a District Magistrate or a Police
Commissioner (R. 184).Inquiry into more serious accidents (R. 185).

Schedule I (R. 3) Classes of Explosives :

Class 1 Gun-powder.
Class 2 Nitrate-mixture
Class 3 Nitro-compound
Class 4 Chlorate-mixture
Class 5 Fulminate
Class 6 Ammunition
Class 7 Fireworks
Class 8 Liquid Oxygen Explosives.

Detailed list of chemicals is given under each of these classes.

Schedule II (R. Packing of

8) explosives
Schedule III (R. Methods of
21) Testing
Schedule IV
(R.155) Licensing Authority
Forms 1 to
Schedule V 40
Schedule VI Explosives permitted to be imported and transported by air
Specifications as
Schedule VII under
Specification No. For

5.1 Road Van to carry explosives

5.2 Motor truck together with compressor unit
3,4& 5 Metal cases for conveyance of explosives
1. Magazines (Storage), Mode A&B
2. Store-house
8 Compressor mounted motor truck or tractor Sch. VIII Safety distances

PETROLEUM ACT, 1934:

This Act (No. 30 of 1934) came into force from 303-1937 (enacted on 16-9-1934) to
consolidate and amend the law relating to import, transport, storage, production, refining and
blending of petroleum. It extends to the whole of India. It has 4 chapters and 31 sections. Its
abstract is as under :

Definitions :

Petroleum means any liquid hydrocarbon or mixture of hydrocarbons and any

inflammable mixture (liquid, viscous or solid) containing any liquid hydrocarbon.

Flashpoint of petroleum means the lowest temperature at which it yields a vapour

which will give a momentary flash when ignited, determined in accordance with chapter - II
and rules made there under:

Petroleum class F.P. Range

A <23°C
B 23 to < 65°C
C 65 to < 93°C

Motor Conveyance means any vehicle running on land, water or air and in which
petroleum is used to generate the motive power.

Control over Petroleum (Chap. 1, Sec. 3 to 13) :

The Central Government may make rules for import, transport, production, refining and
blending of petroleum (Sec. 3 to 5).
 On receptacles of class A petroleum the words "Petrol" or "Motor Spirit" should be
mentioned. This is not required where quantity is less than 10 litres or on a fuel tank attached
with a motor conveyance or engine, a pipeline, underground tank or exempted by the Central
Government (S. 6).

Licence is not required (i) for class B petroleum if it is contained in a receptacle having
less than 1000 litres capacity and total quantity at any one place does not exceed 2500 litres or
(ii) for class C petroleum if total quantity at any one place does not exceed 45000 litres and
stored or transported as per rules u/s 4 (S. 7).-

No licence is necessary to keep less than 30 litres class A petroleum not intended for
sale. Then it can be stored in metal container of maximum 25 litres capacity and non-metal
container of maximum I ltr capacity (S. 8).

To use as a fuel in a motor conveyance, not more than 100 litres class A petroleum can
be stored or conveyed (S. 9).

No licence is needed by Railway to carry petroleum (R.IO). This chapter is not

applicable to any petroleum having flash point above 93°C (S. II).

Testing of Petroleum (Chap. II Sec. 14 to 22) :

The Central Government can make rules for taking samples for testing and authorise
any officer for that purpose (S. 14 to 17) to give certificate of testing (S.19) or retesting (S.
20). The officer shall use a standard test apparatus (S.15, 16 & 18). The Central Government
has rule making powers u/s 21 and 22.

Penalties & Procedure (Chapter III S. 23 to 28):

General penalty is up to Rs. 1000 or one month or both and enhanced (for repeated
offence) penalty up to Rs. 5000 or 3 months or both (S. 23). Petroleum together with
receptacles can be confiscated (S. 24). Authorised officer has power of entry and search (S.26)
Notice of accident shall be given to the nearest magistrate, police station and to the Chief
Controller of Explosives (S. 27). In case of death or serious accident, inquiry u/s 176 of the Cr.
P. C., 1973 shall be held by a Magistrate or a Police Commissioner.

Supplemental (Chapter -IV S. 29 to 31):

Rule making power and procedure and inclusion of rules to provide for protection of
public from danger of petroleum (S. 29). The Central Government can limit or restrict the
powers of any local authority (S. 31).

PETROLEUM RULES, 2002:

These rules were enacted u/s 29 of the Petroleum Act, 1934. They came into force on 13-3-
2002. They have 12 chapters, 202 rules, 5 Schedules and 20 Forms under the 2nd Schedule. Its
abstract is give below
Chapter -I : Preliminary (R. I to 13) :

Definitions:

There are 35 definitions. Some are given below.

'Adequate' in relation to ventilation, means the flammable gas-air mixture below the
lower explosive or inflammable limit (LEL) or in relation to fire fighting facilities, those as per
prevalent recognised standards or codes of safety.

Competent person means a person recognised by the Chief Controller of Explosives

(CCE) or by an institution recognised by the CCE.

Container means a receptacle for petroleum of less than 1000 ltr. capacity.

Tank means a receptacle for petroleum of more than 1000 ltr. capacity.

Electric apparatus includes motors, starters, lamps, switches, junction boxes, fuses, cut-
outs or any other appliance, equipment or fitting which operates electricity.

Hot work means any work which involves welding, burning, soldering, brazing,
blasting, chipping by spark producing tools, use of certain power driven tools, non-flameproof
electrical equipment or equipment with internal combustion engines and including any other
work which is likely to produce sufficient heat capable of igniting inflammable gases.

Protected area means the safety distance 'specified by the licence condition under these
rules.

Protected Works include dwelling house, assemble, dock, fuel yard, furnace, kiln,
chimney, petroleum storage, public road, railway siding for oil and overhead high tension
power lines.

Inspector, Sampling officer and Testing officer are those authorised u/s 13, 14 and 17
respectively.

There are many other definitions also like installation, OISD, petroleum inbulk, service
station, storage shed and some vehicles with tank (R.2).

General Provisions (R 3 to 13):

Delivery and despatch not possible without storage licence. Class B petroleum up to
15000 litres in air tight approved container can be despatched to a person not holding a storage
licence for immediate disposal. DCP extinguisher should be carried with a container of more
than 2500 litres. Rule not applicable for despatch to the Defence Forces (R.3). Approval of CC
is necessary for class A petroleum container of more than 1 litre capacity and class B & C
petroleum container of more than 5 litre capacity (R.4). Containers for Class A petroleum
should be of sound material an construction, approved type and of the following minimum
thickness of iron or steel sheet –

Container Capacity in litres, exclusive of Minimum thickness in

 5% mm
free Space
Up to 10 0.443 (27 BG)
Exceeding 10 and up to 25 0.63 (24 BG)
Exceeding 25 and up to 50 0.80 (22 BG)
Exceeding 50 and up to 200 1.25 (18 BG)
Exceeding 200 and up to 300 1.59 (16 BG)

The capacity of any container (Class A) shall not exceed 300 litres. Higher capacities
for specified purposes need approval by CC. 5% air space necessary (R.5).

Minimum 5% and 3% air space are necessary for class B and C petroleum respectively
(R.6).

Empty receptacles of class A or B petroleum should be kept securely closed if they

contain vapour inside (R. 7).

Repair or hot work should be carried out after full cleaning of petroleum and its vapour
or after certified by a competent person (R. 8).

Escape of petroleum to be prevented (R. 9). No person below the age of 18 or

intoxicated shall be employed (R. 10). Smoking, fires, lights, matches etc. prohibited (R. II).
No person shall commit or allow other to commit any act which may lead to any accident by
fire or explosion. Compliance of these rules necessary.(R. 12).Fees (R. 13).

Chapter -II : Importation of Petroleum (R. 14 to 27):

Import licence necessary save as otherwise exempted. Rules for importation by sea
requires fire fighting facilities as per OISD Std. .156, plans of unloading facility, protected
works within 500 mt, EIA and Risk Analysis Report, failure scenarios, LEL distances, damage
distances, control measures, anchorage of ships, production of certificate and licence to the
Collector of Customs, no landing without his permission, of barges or lighters and
transhipment from one ship to another (R. 14 to 24.).

Rules by importation by land also specify fixed places, submission of declaration

(Form-1) certificate of storage accommodation (Form-H) and the licence to the Collector of
Customs and no unloading without his permission (R. 25 to 27).

Chapter - III : Transport of Petroleum (R.28 to 101) :

Part - I : General (R.28 to 32):

No leaky tank or container containing petroleum shall be tendered for transport (R. 28).
Filled containers should be kept upward (R. 29). Petroleum in bulk should riot be carried with
passengers or combustible cargo (R. 30). Smoking, matches, lighters etc. prohibited (R. 31).
Loading or unloading should not be done between the hours of sunset and sunrise unless
adequate lighting and FFE are kept ready .(R. 32).

Part - II : Transport by Water (R. 33 to 50) :

 Licence from the licensing authority is necessary (R. 33). Vessel should be made of
iron or steel and of ample dimension (R. 34). All tanks on ships should be fitted with manholes
with screw cover, air tight joints, filling and suction pipes and valves nearby to the bottom and
filling and discharge through pipes and valves only. For class A petroleum,. Tanks should
have vent or relief valve with wire mesh (more than II meshes per linear centimetre) and
similar ventilators to all spaces around tank (R.35). Other provisions include exhaust outlet
with spark arrester, no petrol driven engine, quick action closing valve on fuel feed pipe,
suitable ventilators four or more fire extinguishers, 0.20 I113 of dry sand, non-sparking
hammer, red flag, life-boats, ventilation and cleaning of holds and tanks, responsibility of
master of vessel, loading/unloading through armoured hose and metal pipes electrically
continuous and free from leakage, prohibition of naked lights, fire, and smoking, FFE in ready
condition, no conveyance of petroleum class A with class B or C and no transport of un-tested
petroleum (R. 36 to 50).

Part-111 : Coastwise Transport of Class A Petroleum not in bulk:

Rules 51 to 61 provide conditions and precautions for such transport.

Part-IV: Transport on Land by Vehicles (R. 62 to 86):

Applicable to transport of petroleum class A in more than 100 ltr (R. 62). Tank vehicles
should be built, tested and maintained as provisions in 3rd schedule and of the type approved
by the CC. Special safety fittings should be got approved (R.63). Class A and B petroleum can
be filled up to 97% and Class C petroleum up to 98% of the gross carrying tank capacity
(R.64). Tank vehicle should not be used for other purpose or carry other articles except
authorised by the CC (R.65, 69). Trailers (R.66). For every mechanically propelled vehicle
used to carry petroleum otherwise than class B or C, the eftgine should be diesel engine or
internal combustion engine, exhaust pipe should be in front of the tank or load and fitted with
an approved spark arrester and silencer or muffler, the engine intake or air cleaner should have
flame arrester, fire resisting shield between the cab and the tank or load (i.e. rear side), fuel
tank with stout steel guard and lock in the filling caps (R.70).

Electrical installation should not exceed 24 volts, wiring should be heavily insulated
and adequate for maximum load, should have over current protection (fuses or automatic
circuit breakers) encased in covering, sealed junction boxes, heavy duty switch to cut off
battery and generators, motors and switches of flameproof type if not installed within engine
compartment (R.71).

Portable fire extinguisher necessary (R.72). Vehicle should be constantly attended by a

person who knows these rules (R.73). No parking on a public road or in congested area or in 9
mt. of any source of fire (R.74). Licence to transport necessary (R.75).Loading, unloading in a
licensed premises only (R.76). Leaky, defective or unlicensed tank vehicle should not be filled
(R.77).

Precautions against static charges include earthing and electrical continuity of

pipelines, earth boss with a flexible cable and clamping device, earthing of tank, filling pipe
and chassis during loading, dip-rod should not be completely raised above the liquid level
during or within one minute of the completion of loading. Filling rate should not exceed I
mt/sec until the filling pipe is completely submerged and there after it may be gradually
increased but shall not exceed 6 mt/sec at the delivery end. The CC can permit a faster loading
rate in case of petroleum having higher conductivity rate (R.78).

Loading/unloading after stopping of the engine and battery isolated. Restart only after
the tank and valves are securely closed (R.79). No movement of vehicle during
loading/unloading (R.80). Product contamination to be avoided by selecting correct filling
hose and refilling of tank of class A petroleum with any other petroleum only after draining of
residual oil (R.81). Except during loading/unloading, the filling pipe, discharge faucet and dip
pipe shall be kept securely closed (R.83). No loading/unloading during night hours except
approved electric lights provided (R.83). No fire, light, smoking or articles to cause fire
allowed on vehicle (R.84). No repair of tank unless certified by a competent responsible
person (R.85). No petroleum to be carried with passengers save as provided (R. 86).

Part -V : Transport by Pipelines (R.87 to 101) :

This part is applicable to petroleum pipe lines other than those in the area of operation
of natural gas and/or oil or within refineries and installations (R.87).

It provides for right of way to be acquired (R.88), approval from the CC obtained
(R.89), design as per standard code or OISD Std. 141, made of suitable steel which is safe for
conditions under which it is to be used, provision for expansion, contraction, prevention of
excessive stresses, by pass relief valves, pressure limiting stations, automatic shut down
equipment to prevent pressure rise more than 10% of the designed internal pressure, isolation
valves at different locations (R.90), laying criteria (underground as far as possible) (R.91),
protection against corrosion (R.92), hydraulic test (at I.I times the design internal pressure and
maintaining for 24 hours) at an interval of 12 months (R.93), shut down procedure (R.94),
patrolling of pipeline, communication facilities at frequent intervals along the pipeline of
length more than 2 km (R.95), checking of gauges at tanks or booster pump stations at least
once a year (R.96), addition, alteration only after approval from the CC (R.97) and power of
the CC to require relay or repair for public safety (R.99) and of inspection and examination
(R.IOO). The fire or major leakage in a pipeline or connected facilities should be reported
immediately by the person in-charge of the pipeline to the nearest magistrate or police station
and by telegram to the CC, Nagpur (R.IOI).

Repair and maintenance of pipeline u/r 98 includes

6.5 Inspection by an experienced engineer for assessment of work.

6.6 written work permit specifying precautions to be observed and procedure to be
followed.
6.7 The section of the pipeline shall be isolated, drained and purged with inert gas or steam
or kept filled with water or treatment approved by the CC.
6.8 Work of cutting or welding to be carried out by an experienced person in accordance
with the permit
6.9 Only mechanical cutters shall be used for cutting the pipeline or any connection thereof
unless it has been purged with an inert gas.
6.10 Separation of pipeline or valve fitted to it only after providing electrical bond between
the parts, to be separated and the bond shall not be broken till the parts have been
rejoined.
6.11 Reuse of the repaired section only after hydrotest as stated in rule 93.

Chapter-IV : Electric Installation (R. 102 to 115) :

 Electric wiring and apparatus to be used in any place where petroleum is refined,
blended, stored, loaded or unloaded, should be in accordance with this chapter (R.102).

Classification of Hazardous Area (R. 103, 104) :

Hazardous area means where (i) Petroleum having FP below 65bC or any inflammable
gas or vapour capable of ignition is likely to be present or (ii) Petroleum or any inflammable
liquid having FP above 65°C is likely to be refined, blended, handled or stored at or above its
FP. (R. 103).

It is classified as under :

Z
o
n
e Condition
1. Where inflammable gases / vapours are likely to be continuously present.
2. Where they are likely to be present under normal operating conditions.
3. Where they are likely to be present only under abnormal operating
conditions to failure of rupture of equipment.

Thus zone 0 is more hazardous than zone 1 an zone 1 more hazardous than zone 2. On any
question regarding applicability of these divisions, the decision of the CC shall be final
(R.104).
Extent of hazardous area is laid down in the 4th Schedule. The CC can increase or
reduce it based on special circumstances (R.105).

Fixed Electrical Apparatus (R.106) :

Zone Type of Apparatus approved by CC.

6.6 Intrinsically safe
6.7 (i) Intrinsically safe or a flameproof type, or
Industrial type apparatus housed ii enclosure or in a room made safe b" purging
or pressurising atmosphere and interlocked to stop electric supply
automatically or to give warning to stop it in case of failure of the purging or
pressurising system.
6.8 (i) Non sparking apparatus or
Apparatus permitted in Div. 1.

Fixed Electric Wiring (R.107) :

It should be effectively sealed at all joints, mechanically protected, adequately

supported and consisting of approved armoured cable or metal sheathed cable or insulated
cables in a galvanised conduits with approved flame proof fitting or mineral insulated cable of
approved type with flameproof glands at all joints and details mentioned in the rule.

Earthling and Bonding (R. 108) :

Electric systems and equipment should be earthed with resistance of 4 ohms or a value
that ensures the safe operation of the protective device in the circuit whichever is lower.

All non-current carrying metallic parts of electric apparatus or other metallic objects
should be earthed with resistance of 10 ohms.

All joints in pipelines, valves, plants, storage tanks, associated facilities and equipment
for petroleum shall be electrically bonded with the resistance value between each joint not
exceeding I ohm.

Other Provisions:

Cathodic protection as in rule 109. Electrified railway systems (overhead lines and live
contact rails) are not allowed within a refinery or an installation. They should be terminated
outside the area where tank wagons are loaded or unloaded. Both the rails of spur lines shall be
insulated from a railway siding which is used for the loading or unloading of tank wagons
(R.IIO). Portable electric apparatus or lamp of 25 volts, approved by the CC (Who can permit
up to 55 volts) can be used in a hazardous area (R.lll). Maintenance to retain characteristics
(R.112). Repair and test after cutting off voltage. In zone I area, after gas-testing and certified
safe by a competent person (R.113). Certificate of electric installation by a competent person
(R.114).Precautions against corrosion (R.115).

Chapter -V : Storage of Petroleum requiring licence (R.116 to 135):

Licence necessary (R.116). Precautions against fire OISD Std. 117, DCP and other fire
extinguishers (R.117).Experienced supervisor necessary (R.118).Cleanliness (R.119).Drainage
(R.
120). Wall or fence of at least 1.8 mt. height to prevent unauthorised entry 1.2 mt height for
service stations (R.121).Marking of capacity on tanks (R.123).Construction of tank by iron or
steel and as per IS.Foundation of non combustible material. Air space 75% or as per Code
(R.124)and protection against corrosion by protective coating or cathodic protection etc.
(R.125).

Before use the tank should be tested by water pressure by a competent person. It shall
not be passed through any pipe or pump ordinarily used for the conveyance of petroleum.
Proforma of certificate of such testing is given u/r 126.

Tanks should be earthed by two separate connections placed at opposite extremities.

The resistance to earth shall be less than 7 ohm and that of the earth plate shall be less than 2
ohm, (R.127.) Testing of earth connection necessary once in I year by a competent person. Its
record should be maintained (R.128). No night working unless approved electric lights
provided as per chapter - IV (R.129) .

Certificate of Safety is required from a competent person by the licensing authority in a

proforma given u/r 130.

Prior approval of specifications and plans of premises required u/r 131. Electric motor
or internal combustion engine to drive pumps for pumping petroleum should be got approved
by the CC (R.132). Licence number should be marked on premises (R.133). An extract of
certain rules to be displayed (R.134) .
Chapter - VI : Storage of Class - C Petroleum not requiring licence (R. 136 to 140) :

Provisions of previous chapter-V are not applicable to class-C petroleum to be stored

without licence u/s 7 (R.136). It shall not be stored together with other class of petroleum
except as permitted by licence (R.137). Bulk storage tank should be approved by the CC.
Tanks of more than 5000 litres capacity should have dyke or be placed inside a pit to contain
at least the volume of the largest tank within it. A drainage pipe with valve fitted outside shall
be provided and kept closed. A distance of more than 1.5 mt. shall be kept between the edge of
dyke and any protected works (R. 138).

Class-C petroleum not in bulk, if exceeds at any one time 2500 litres be stored in a
storage shed of which either the door way or openings are built up to a height 30 cm above the
floor or the floor shall be sunk to a depth of 30 cm,. (R.139).

Prior report to store class C petroleum exceeding 5000 litres without licence shall be
sent to the CC staling the location of the premises (R.140).

Chapter-VII of licences (R.141 to 161), Chap. IX of Tetraethyl lead mixtures (R.181

to 185),Chap. X of testing of petroleum (R.186 to 199), Chap. XI of notice of accident (R.200)
and Chap. XII of exemption (R. 201, 202) are not discussed here. But abstract of Chap. VIII is
given below.

Chapter-VIII: Refining of Petroleum (R. 162 to 180):

Project report with specifications and plans showing the arrangements of tanks, stills,
furnaces,electric installations, pump houses, drainage, ETP, FFE, fencing, gates and all plants
and buildings where it is proposed to refine, crack, reform or blend, petroleum (it is called
refinery in this chapter) shall be sent to the CC in triplicate arid a scrutiny fee of Rs. 5000
(R.162). A copy each of the approved plans shall be kept at the refinery (R.163). Alterations
are also to be approved (R. 164).
Fireproof materials should be used in buildings where petroleum is to be handled
(R.165). Storage tanks should be more than 90 mt. away from any still, boiler or furnace (not
applicable to class C fuel tank for a boiler if the tank capacity not exceeding 24 hours stock)
(R.166). Storage tanks of LPG or its filling facility should be more than 90 mt. away from any
still, boiler or furnace or 30 mt. away from any storage tank, pump-house or facility for
blending or filling of petroleum or from any protected work (R.167). Flare shall also be 90 mt.
away from any tank, still, pumphouse or any refinery activity or LPG (R.168) .

Effluents and drainage should not cause any pollution or harmful effect on animal or
vegetable life. Weekly samples shall be drawn and tested in the refinery laboratory for their oil
content, acidity, alkalinity and record be maintained (for at least 6 months) and shown to an
Inspector. The sewerage shall be independent of other drainage system. All drains shall have
adequate capacity to prevent any flooding or backing up and of such construction to prevent
leakage or be affected by the chemicals in contact. Trash racks (grills) to be fitted to prevent
entry of rubbish to form a plug. Manholes, verits to release gases, fire-traps and gas traps on
the upstream side of the oil interceptors and fitted with vents to liberate gas at a safer height
are also to be provided (R.169).

No fire/source of heat or light capable of igniting inflammable vapours shall be allowed

except in the firing spaces, stills or boilers. Smoking not permitted except in places specially
approved by the CC (R.170) .
 Work permit from a competent person is necessary for maintenance and repair work
and entry into confined spaces, closed drain or manhole. It shall be issued for a limited period
during which known conditions will remain safe and after inspection and testing by the
competent person, for gases and lead content will be carried out by suitable trained persons
and with standard instrument (R. 171).

For fire control a well organised and trained fire fighting service with necessary
materials and fixed, mobile and portable equipment is required. OISD Std. 116 should be
followed. Adequate water supply should be available at all strategic points by means of an
independent ring main or grid with isolating valves. The main shall be kept constantly
pressurised by two or more boosting pumps of adequate capacity and working automatically
when pressure drop occurs in the main. At least one boosting pump should be independent of
power supply (e.g. diesel driven). All mains shall be fitted with hydrants at convenient places
not more than 30 mt. apart. If mains water supply is likely to be interrupted, static water
supply of adequate capacity shall be provided. Training for personnel necessary (R. 172).

All petroleum as it leaves the stills may be pumped back to services tanks for fuel or
refinery storage tank and not be stored in the vicinity of stills and boilers (R. 173) Danger
from static electricity shall be prevented (R. 174). Warning notices to be displayed (R. 175).
All above ground pipelines and cables shall be identified by taping, stencilling, colouring etc.
Pipelines, valves, route of underground cables and route of overhead pipelines and cables
crossing roads shall be protected against damage (R. 176). All plants, instruments and
equipment shall be inspected, tested and records maintained (R. 177). All operators shall be
trained in safe operation. Written procedures shall be established to start up, shut down, gas
free plants and emergency actions. Supervisors shall ensure safe operation and safety facilities
(R. 178).

An occurrence of fire shall be reported immediately to the CC and to the nearest police
station (R. 179). When refinery is closed down the area within the fence shall be cleared of all
petroleum having FP < 93°C as soon as possible (R. 180).
Table 1, 2 & 3 for safety distances are important for plant layout. Third schedule gives
design and construction of 'Tank vehicles' for transporting petroleum in bulk.

GAS CYLINDERS RULES, 2004:

Replacing Gas Cylinders Rules, 1981, these rules of 2004 came into force from 21-9-
2004.

It has 10 Chapters, 73 Rules, 6 Schedules and Forms A to G u/sch. V.

Chapter-1: Preliminary (R 1, 2):

Definitions (R. 2): Out of 43 definitions majority are scientific definitions. Therefore,
they should be referred from the statute book.

Some definitions are given below.

(1) "Auto LPG" means liquefied petroleum gas meant for automotive fuel conforming to
specification IS : 14861;
(2) "Composite Cylinder" means a cylinder made of resin impregnated continuous
filament wound over a metallic or a non-metallic liner. Composite cylinders using non-
metallic liners are referred to as all-composite cylinders;
(3) "Compressed Natural Gas (CNG)" means mixtures of hydrocarbon gases and
vapours,consisting mainly of Methane in gaseous form, which has been compressed for
use as automotive fuel;
(4) "Gas Cylinder" or "Cylinder" means any closed metal container having a volume
exceeding500 ml. but not exceeding 1000 litres intended for the storage and transport
of compressed gas, including any liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) container/compressed
natural gas (CNG) cylinder fitted to a motor vehicle as its fuel tank but not including
any other such container fitted to a
special transport or undercarriage and includes a composite cylinder, however, the
water capacity of cylinders used for storage of CNG, nitrogen, compressed air, etc. may
exceed 1000 litres up to 2500 litres provided the diameter of such cylinder does not
exceed 60 .cm.;
= "Liquefied Petroleum Gas" (LPG) means any material, which comprises predominantly
of any of the following hydrocarbons or mixture of them with vapour pressure not
exceeding 16.87 kg/Cm2 (gauge) at 65° C:- Propane (C3H8), propylene (C3H6), butane
(C4H10), (n-butane and isobutene) and butylenes (C4H8);
= "Poisonous (toxic) gas" means a gas which has a maximum allowable concentration in
air for human respiration not exceeding 100 mg/ 3 at 15"C and I kgf/.cm2 absolute
pressure;
= "Yield strength" means the stress corresponding to a permanent strain of 0.2 per cent of
the original gauge length in a tensile test. For practical purposes it may be taken as a
stress at which elongation first occurs in the test piece without the increase of load in a
tensile test.

Chapter-II : General Provisions (R. 3 to 28) :

(1) Cylinders and valves should have been constructed as specified in Sch. I, test and
inspection certificate should be available with information in Sch. II. Any person
desiring to fabricate cylinders valves regulators and other fittings should apply in Sch.
Ill (R.3).

(2) Valves should be of the IS, type and design prescribed in R.4.
(3) Safety Relief Devices fitted on cylinders should be as per IS 5903. Cylinders
containing poisonous or obnoxious gases (as named) should not have such device
(R.5).
(4) Marking on Cylinders: as per rule 6.
(5) Markings of Valves: as per R.7.
(6) Identification Colours :as per IS:4379 for industrial cylinders and IS 3933 for medical
cylinders. New gases and gas mixtures for which such colours are not provided in IS,
shall be painted with following colours.

Type of Gas Cylinder Shell Band at neck

Non-flammable & non-
Toxic White -
Non-flammable but
Toxic White Yellow (IS 356)
 Flammable & Non-toxic
(other White Red (IS 537)
than LPG)
Red & Yellow (IS 537 &
Flammable & Toxic White 356)

Cylinders of gas mixtures should be marked "Gas mixture" or "mixed Gas" (R. 8).

(B) Labeling of cylinder shall show the name of the gas and address of its filler. A warning
notice should be attached to it with instructions that : (i) the colour of the cylinder will
not be changed.
(ii) No other gas will be filled in it. (iii) N o flammable material should be stored in or
near die room of the cylinder, (iv) No oil or lubricant should be applied on valves or
fittings, (v) No cylinder should be accepted whose test date is over(R.9).

1. Restriction ;No delivery or dispatch except to licence holder, defense forces, port or
railway authorities (R.IO). Restriction on filling named gases and to endanger
serviceability (R.19).

2. Repairing :not allowed except as otherwise provided in R.ll & 12.

3. Prohibition of employment of a person below 18 years or intoxicated (R.13) and on

smoking orallowing fires, lights, or flammable substances, except blow pipe flame for
repairs (R. 14).

2. General Precautions are that the cylinders should be maintained in good condition,
oil, or lubricant not to be used on valves or fittings, no exposure to sun, high
temperature of flammable/explosive material, security nut on a compressed gas
cylinder and uncontrollable leaky cylinder to be removed in an open space and the filler
be informed (R.15).

3. Special precautions are to avoid accident due to fire or explosion and to comply with
these rules and license conditions (R.I 6).

13 Competent person should supervise operations (R.17). '

3. Handling & Use include proper support, adequate strength of trolley and cradle,
careful handling to avoid shock, no sliding, dropping, knocking, rolling or playing with
cylinders, liquefied gas cylinders to be kept upright and work places should not be
shown as storage places for the purpose of licensing (R.I 8).

4. Storage precautions to be observed are :

To store in a dry, cool, under cover, well ventilated place and away from source
of heat or ignition.
Room of fire resistant construction.
LPG and dissolved gas cylinders should be kept in upright position.,

Flammable and toxic gas cylinders should be kept separate by a partition wall.
Conditions to cause corrosion or fire should be avoided.
1. Filled and empty cylinders should be segregated (R.21).
F Electrical installation should be flameproof conforming to IS 2148 and effectively
earthed(R.22).

G Impurities in gas to cause corrosion or explosion should be avoided. The gas should be
dry, moisture less than 0.02 g/m' of gas, aqueous phase cannot be separated at 0"C and
free from sulphurous impurities (R.23).

H Cylinder subjected to fire shall not be reused except after proper repairs and testing.
Suchacetylene cylinders are to be condemned or destroyed safely (R.24).

I Charging after prescribed periodical re-testing only (R.26).

J Owner has to keep prescribed record (R.27).

E Conversion to cylinder not allowed without permission (R.28).

Chapter - III : Importation of Cylinders (R. 29 to 34):

Licence necessary (R.29). Importation by sea, land and air after permission from the
Custom Collector, Central Government and Director General Civil Aviation only (R.30 to 34).

Chapter - IV : Examination & Testing (R. 35-36) :

Periodicity as per 15 or approval by the CC, testing station should have facilities set
forth in Sch. IV (R.35).
Condemning of cylinders as prescribed. Any cylinder which fails to pass any test or
examination or loses its tare weight by over 5% or found unsafe, shall be destroyed by
flattening or cut into pieces so that it cannot be joined to form a cylinder. All markings shall be
defaced and record be kept.
Service life of CNG cylinders 20 years and that of LPG containers 15 years (R.36).
Chapter-V is for dissolved Acetylene gas cylinders (R.37 to 42).

Chapter- VI is for filling, possession and their licence procedure (R.43 to 65),
Chapter-VII onpower to exempt (R.66) Chapter- VIII on Accidents and Inquires (R. 67 to 69)
and Chapter-IX on powers of Controller of Explosives (R.70 to 73)

CALCIUM CARBIDE RULES, 1987

INTRODUCTION OBJECTIVE, DEFINITION, ENFORCEMENT, EXEMPTION ETC. IN

THE CALCIUM CARBIDE RULES, 1987.
(A) Objective:
Compressed gases filled in metallic container pose potential hazard and the container
explodes. Hence, the Govt. of India vide Notification No.G.S.R. 105(E) dated 28/09/1938 has
declared compressed gas filled in a metallic container to be deemed to be an explosive under
Petroleum Act, 1934. Subsequently, in exercise
of powers vested in Section 4 of the Petroleum Act, 1934, the Govt. framed the
CALCIUM CARBIDE RULES, 1987 to regulate filling, possession, transport and import of
compressed gases in pressure vessels.

(B) Definitions. — In these rules, unless the context otherwise required—

(a) “Act” means the Petroleum Act, 1934 (30 of 1934);
(b) “Carbide” means Calcium Carbide;
(c) “Chief Controller” means the Chief Controller of Explosives;
(d) “Conservator of the Port” includes any person acting under the authority of the officer or
body of persons appointed to be Conservator of a Port under section 7 of the Indian Ports Act,
1908 (15 of 1908);
(e) “Controller of Explosives” includes a Joint Chief Controller of Explosives, Deputy Chief
Controller of Explosives and Deputy Controller of Explosives;
(f) ‘District Authority” means—
(a) a Commissioner of Police or Deputy Commissioner of Police in any town having a
Commissioner of Police; and
(b) in any other place, the District Magistrate;
(g) “District Magistrate” includes an Additional District Magistrate and in the State of Punjab
and Haryana and in the Karaikal, Mahe and Yanam areas of the Union territory of
Pondicherry, also includes a Sub-divisional Magistrate;
(h) “Form” means a Form as given int he Second Schedule;
(i) “Inspector” means an Officer authorised by the Central Government under Subsection
(1) of Section 13 of the Act.
(j) “Prescribed receptacle” means a receptacle which—
(i) is made of steel or any other material approved by the Chief Controller but has
no copper in its composition;
(ii) is hermetically closed at all times except when its contents are being placed within it or
withdrawn from it; and
(iii) bears a stamped embossed, painted or printed warning exhibiting in conspicuous
characters the words “Calcium Carbide”—
Dangerous if not kept dry” and the following caution :-
“The contents of this package are liable, if brought into contact with moisture, to give off a
highly inflammable gas” :
Provided that of the containers of carbide imported, the warning shall be according to relevant
international Code.
(k) “Sampling Officer” means an officer authorised by the Central Government under
Sub-section (1) of section 14 of the Act.

(C) Enforcement :
Under the Calcium Carbide Rules, the following enforcement are provided :-
1) Importation of carbide
2) Transportation of carbide.
3) Storage of carbide
Authority in enforcement is Chief Controller of Explosives or any other officer uthorized by
him. The District Authority is required to take penal action for infringement of rules reported
to him by Chief Controller of Explosives.

(D) Exemptions:
Repeal and savings _
(1) The Carbide of Calcium Rules, 1937 are hereby repealed.
(2) Notwithstanding such repeal -
(i) all licenses or duplicates granted or renewed under the said rules and all fees imposed or
levied shall be deemed to have been granted,renewed, imposed or levied as the case may be,
under the corresponding provisions of these rules.
(ii) all approvals given and all powers conferred by or under any notification or rule shall, so
far as they are consistent with the provisions of the Act and these rules, be deemed to have
been given or conferred by or under these rules.

FORMS OF LICENCES/APPROVAL, PURPOSE AND LICENCING/APPROVAL

AUTHORITY

PROCEDURE ADOPTED FOR GRANT, RENEWAL, AMENDMENT ETC.OF VARIOUS

TYPES OF LICENCES UNDER CALCIUM CARBIDE RULES, 1987 (PRIOR
APPROVAL).

(I) Any person desiring to store Carbide is required to obtain a prior approval from Chief
Controller of Explosives by submitting following documents.

(a) DOCUMENTS TO BE SUBMITTED FOR PRIOR APPROVAL :

i) Application in Form I.
ii) A Copy of the drawing drawn to scale as per specification & rules of the premises to be
licensed.
iii) Details regarding the surrounding i.e. nearby roads, buildings, etc., within 50M from the
proposed site.
iv) Scrutiny fee of Rs.10/- drawn on Nationalised bank in favour of Chief Controller of
Explosives payable at Nagpur.

DEPARTMENTAL ACTION:
On scrutiny of the documents and if found in order prior approval will be given.
If however any discrepancy is being noticed, the same will be communicated to the party and
after rectification of the defects; action towards approval will be initiated.

(b) GRANT OF LICENCE:

After completion of the proposed premises as per approved plan, the applicant is required to
submit to Chief Controller of Explosives the following documents :-
1) Application in form I.
2) 4 copies of site and layout drawing as approved.
3) Licence fee of Rs._______/-

DEPARTMENTAL ACTION :
The documents submitted by the licensee, if found in order licence in form III /IV is granted
and sent to the Circle/ Sub-circle office having jurisdiction for inspection of the facilities. If on
inspection the facilities are found in order, the nspecting officer endorses the licence and
sends to the licensee. In case of minor deviations he points it out to the licensee and on receipt
of compliance further action of endorsement of licence is taken. In case major deviations, the
matter is referred back to the Chief Controller of Explosives for further action as desired fit. In
case
deviations are of such nature which endangers safety and which cannot be complied by the
licensee, the licence is revoked.

(II) RENEWAL OF THE LICENCE:

The applicant is required to submit the following documents for renewal of licence in form III
& IV to the Jt.Chief Controller of Explosives of respective Circle Offices at least 30 days
before the date on which the licence expires. The licence is renewable for a maximum period
of 3 years.
1) An application in form I duly filled and signed.
2) The original licence.
3)` Demand draft drawn in favour of Jt. Chief Controller of Explosives of respective Circle
Office for amendment.

DEPARTMENTAL ACTION
(1) The licence may be renewed by the licensing authority empowered to grant such a
licence:
Provided that a licence which has been granted by the Chief Controller may be renewed
without alteration by the Controller of Explosives duly authorised by the Chief Controller.

(2) Every licence granted under these rules may be renewable for three calendar years where
three has been no contravention of the Act or of the rules framed there under or of any
condition of the licence so renewed.

(3) Where a licence which has been renewed for more than one year is surrendered before its
expiry, the renewal fee paid for the unexpired portion of the licence shall be refunded to the
licensee provided that no refund of renewal fee shall be made for any calendar year during
which
(a) the licensing authority receives the renewed licence for surrender, or
(b) any carbide is received or stored on the authority of the licence.

(4) Every application under sub-rule (2) shall be made in Form I and shall be accompanied by
the licence which is to be renewed together with approved plans attached to the licence and the
renewal fee.

(5) Every application for renewal of the licence shall be made so as to reach the licensing
authority at least 30 days before the date on which it expires, and if the application is so made,
the licence shall be deemed to be in force until such date as the licensing authority renews the
licence or until an intimation that the renewal of the licence is refused has been communicated
to the applicant.

(6) Where the renewal of the licence is refused, fee paid for the renewal shall be refunded to
the licensee after deducting therefrom the proportionate fee for the period beginning from the
date from which the licence was to be renewed upto the date on which renewal thereof is
refused.

(7) The same fee shall be charged for the renewal of the licence for each calendarear as for the
grant thereof :
Provided that :-
(i) if the application with the accompaniments required under sub-rule (4) is notreceived
within the time specified in sub-rule (5), the licence shall be renewedonly on payment of a fee
amounting to twice the fee ordinarily payable ;
(ii) if such an application with accompaniments is received by the licensingauthority after the
date of expiry but not later than 30 days from the date ofexpiry, the licence may without
prejudice to any other action that may be
taken in this behalf, be renewed on payment of twice the fee ordinarilypayable :
Provided further that in the case of an application for the renewal of thelicence for a period of
more than one calendar year at a time, the fee prescribedunder clause (i) or (ii) of the first
proviso, if payable, shall be paid only for the
first calendar year of the renewal.

III) AMENDMENT OF LICENCE

The applicant is required to submit the following documents for amendment oflicence in form
III & IV to the Jt.Chief Controller of Explosives of respective CircleOffices at least 30 days
before the date on which the licence expires.
1) An application in form I duly filled and signed.
2) The original licence.
3) Demand draft drawn in favour of Jt. Chief Controller ofExplosives of respective Circle
Office for amendment.

DEPARTMENTAL ACTION
On scrutiny of the documents submitted by the licensee and the sameis found in order action
towards amendment of the licence is initiated. If,however, any discrepancy is noticed the same
is communicated to thelicensee and after compliance of the same, further action
towardsamendment of licence is taken.
Question ?
1. Was it useful in your work activities connected to this department?
2. Are you a frequent visitor to this manual site?
3. Are you a frequent visitor to the offices of this department.
4. What are your specific suggestion to improve it? Give suggestions withreasons.
5. Has this chapter helped you in filing/making proper documents or will yourthink that you
may still face difficulty in filling/making proper forms anddocuments after reading this
chapter?
6. Do you have specific suggestions to make it more user friendly?
7. Do you think of unnecessary element in this chapter which can be
avoided/deleted ?
8. Do you have any suggestion (s) for change in Legislation ? Give details with
reasons.
9. Give brief details of your organization/yourself through the suggestion formwhich can be
had by clicking the feedback button.

FORM – II
STORAGE OF CALCIUM CARBIDE IN A GODOWN
(Not forming part ofAcetylene Generation)
For storage exceeding 200 kg and not exceeding 500 kg,licence is issued bythe District
Authority
The related matter is available in the hard copy of the manual which can behad by placing an
order(by letter or through e- mail) to the following addressDy. Chief Controller of Explosives
Testing Station
Amravati Road, Gondkhairy
NAGPUR 440 023
E- mail address: ccoe.ngp@nag.mah.nic.in
FORM – III
STORAGE OF CALCIUM CARBIDE IN A GODOWN
(Not forming part of Acetylene Generation)
For storage exceeding 500 kg, licence is issued by the Circle office
Applicants Action
Any person desiring to store Carbide is required to obtain a prior approvalfrom Chief
Controller of Explosives by submitting following
documents.
(a) Documents to be submitted for prior approval :
v) Application in Form I.
vi) A Copy of the drawing drawn to scale as per specification & rules of thepremises to be
licensed.
vii) Details regarding the surrounding i.e. nearby roads, buildings, etc., within50M from the
proposed site.
viii) Scrutiny fee of Rs.10/- drawn on Nationalised bank in favour of ChiefController of
Explosives payable at Nagpur.

DEPARTMENTAL ACTION:
On scrutiny of the documents and if found in order prior approval will be given.
If however any discrepancy is being noticed, the same will be communicated to the partyand
after rectification of the defects; action towards approval will be initiated.

(b) GRANT OF LICENCE:

After completion of the proposed premises as per approved plan, the applicant is
required to submit to Chief Controller of Explosives the following documents :-
1) Application in form I.
4) 4 copies of site and layout drawing as approved.
5) Licence fee of Rs._______/-

DEPARTMENTAL ACTION :
The documents submitted by the licensee, if found in order licence in formIII /IV is granted
and sent to the Circle/ Sub-circle office having jurisdiction forinspection of the facilities. If on
inspection the facilities are found in order, theinspecting officer endorses the licence and sends
to the licensee. In case of minordeviations he points it out to the licensee and on receipt of
compliance further actionof endorsement of licence is taken. In case major deviations, the
matter is referredback to the Chief Controller of Explosives for further action as desired fit. In
case
deviations are of such nature which endangers safety and which cannot be compliedby the
licensee, the licence is revoked.

(II) RENEWAL OF THE LICENCE:

The applicant is required to submit the following documents for renewal of
licence in form III & IV to the Jt.Chief Controller of Explosives of respective CircleOffices at
least 30 days before the date on which the licence expires. The licence isrenewable for a
maximum period of 3 years.
1) An application in form I duly filled and signed.
2) The original licence.
3)` Demand draft drawn in favour of Jt. Chief Controller of
Explosives of respective Circle Office for amendment.

DEPARTMENTAL ACTION
(4) The licence may be renewed by the licensing authority empowered to grant such alicence:
Provided that a licence which has been granted by the Chief Controller maybe renewed
without alteration by the Controller of Explosives duly authorised bythe Chief Controller.

(5) Every licence granted under these rules may be renewable for three calendar yearswhere
three has been no contravention of the Act or of the rules framed thereunder or of any
condition of the licence so renewed.

(6) Where a licence which has been renewed for more than one year is surrenderedbefore its
expiry, the renewal fee paid for the unexpired portion of the licencehall be refunded to the
licensee provided that no refund of renewal fee shall bemade for any calendar year during
which
(c) the licensing authority receives the renewed licence for surrender, or
(d) any carbide is received or stored on the authority of the licence.

(7) Every application under sub-rule (2) shall be made in Form I and shall be acompanied by
the licence which is to be renewed together with approved plansattached to the licence and the
renewal fee.

(8) Every application for renewal of the licence shall be made so as to reach thelicensing
authority at least 30 days before the date on which it expires, and if theapplication is so made,
the licence shall be deemed to be in force until such dateas the licensing authority renews the
licence or until an intimation that therenewal of the licence is refused has been communicated
to the applicant.

(9) Where the renewal of the licence is refused, fee paid for the renewal shall berefunded to
the licensee after deducting therefrom the proportionate fee for theperiod beginning from the
date from which the licence was to be renewed upto thedate on which renewal thereof is
refused.
(10) The same fee shall be charged for the renewal of the licence for each calendaryear as for
the grant thereof :
Provided that :-
(iii) if the application with the accompaniments required under sub-rule (4) is not received
within the time specified in sub-rule (5), the licence shall be renewed only on payment of a fee
amounting to twice the fee ordinarily payable ;
(iv) if such an application with accompaniments is received by the licensing authority after the
date of expiry but not later than 30 days from the date of expiry, the licence may without
prejudice to any other action that may be
taken in this behalf, be renewed on payment of twice the fee ordinarily payable :
Provided further that in the case of an application for the renewal of the licence for a period of
more than one calendar year at a time, the fee prescribed
under clause (i) or (ii) of the first proviso, if payable, shall be paid only for thefirst calendar
year of the renewal.

III) AMENDMENT OF LICENCE

The applicant is required to submit the following documents for amendment of licence in form
III & IV to the Jt.Chief Controller of Explosives of respective Circle Offices at least 30 days
before the date on which the licence expires.
1) An application in form I duly filled and signed.
2) The original licence.
4) Demand draft drawn in favour of Jt. Chief Controller of Explosives of respective Circle
Office for amendment.

DEPARTMENTAL ACTION
On scrutiny of the documents submitted by the licensee and the same is found in order action
towards amendment of the licence is initiated. If, however, any discrepancy is noticed the
same is communicated to theicensee and after compliance of the same, further action towards
amendment of licence is taken.
Question?
1. Was it useful in your work activities connected to this department?
2. Are you a frequent visitor to this manual site?
3. Are you a frequent visitor to the offices of this department?
4. What is your specific suggestion to improve it? Give suggestions with reasons.
5. Has this chapter helped you in filing/making proper documents or will your think that you
may still face difficulty in filling/making proper forms and documents after reading this
chapter?
6. Do you have specific suggestions to make it more users friendly?
7. Do you think of unnecessary element in this chapter which can be avoided/deleted ?
8. Do you have any suggestion (s) for change in Legislation? Give details with reasons.
9. Give brief details of your organization/yourself through the suggestion form which can be
had by clicking the feedback button.

VARIOUS MODEL DRAWINGS WILL BE PROVIDED AT WEB-SITE

FORM – IV
STORAGE OF CALCIUM CARBIDE ATTACHED TO ACETYLENE
GENERATOR
For storage of calcium carbide attached to acetylene generator, licence is issued by the
ChiefController of explosives, Nagpur.
The related matter is available in the hard copy of the manual which can be had by placing an
order(by letter or through e- mail) to the following address
Dy. Chief Controller of Explosives
Testing Station
Amravati Road, Gondkhairy
NAGPUR 440 023
E- mail address: ccoe.ngp@nag.mah.nic.in
VARIOUS MODEL DRAWINGS WILL BE PROVIDED AT WEB-SITE

INSECTICIDES ACT, 1968:

This Act (46 of 1968) was enacted on 2-9 -1968. It came into force from 1-3-1971 (Sec.
4,7,8, & 36) and 1-8-1971 (remaining part). It extends to the whole of India. It has 38 sections
and a .schedule listing insecticides amended from time to time.

It is an Act to regulate the import, manufacture, sale, transport, distribution and use of
insecticides with a view to prevent risk to human beings or animals and matters connected
therewith.

Provisions are made for the Central Insecticides Board, its committees, procedure and
officers (S.4 to 8), Registration of insecticides, appeal and revision (S.9 toll), Licensing (S.12
to 15), Central Insecticides Laboratory (S.16), Prohibition of import and manufacture (S.17),
Sale, stock, distribute, transport, use etc. (S.18) Insecticide Analysis (S.19), Inspectors (S.20 to
23). Report of Insecticides Analyst (S.24), Confiscation of stock (S.25) Notice of poisoning
(S.26), Prohibition of sale etc. for reasons of public safety (S.27), Cancellation of registration
(S.28), Offences & punishment (S.29), Defences which may or may not be allowed (S.30),
Cognisance & trial (S.31), Special courts (S. 31A), Offences by companies (S.33), Power of
Central Govt. and State Govt. to make rules (S.36 & 37) and Exemption (S.38).

By various notifications from 1989 to 1996, many insecticides are banned or restricted
in India, e.g. DDT, chlorobenzilate, BBCP, PCNB, Toxaphene, Aldrin, Chlordane Heptachlor,
Titration, Nitrofen, Benzene Hexachloride etc.

Insecticides Rules 1971 :

These rules came into force on 30-10-1971. They have 9 chapters, 46 rules, 2 schedules
and 22 forms. Chapter-1 gives definitions.

Tests' means any insects, rodents, fungi, weeds and other forms of plant or animal life
not useful to human being s [R. 2 (h)]

'Laboratory' means the central insecticides laboratory. [(R. 2(e))].

Commercial Pest Control Operation means any application or dispersion of

insecticide(s) including fumigants in household or public or private premises or land and
includes pest control operations in the field including aerial applications for commercial
purpose but excludes private use.

Pest Control Operator means any person who undertakes pest control operations and
includes the person or the firm or the company or the organisation under whose control such
a person(s) is operating.

Chapter-n is regarding the Board and its functions (R.3 to 5), Chapter-111 regarding
registration of insecticides (R.6 to 8), Chapter-IV for grant of licences (R.9 to 15), Chapter -V
for packing & labelling (R.16 to 20), Chapter-VI for insecticides analysts and Insecticides
Inspectors (R.21 to 34), Chapter-VII for transport & storage (R. 35 to 36), Chapter-VIII for
protective clothing, equipment and other facilities for workers (R.37 to 44) and Chapter-IX
miscellaneous (R.45 to 46).

The first schedule prescribes 22 forms of which the last one (for medical examination
of workers) is reproduced in this part. Second schedule u/r 25 prescribes fees for testing or
analysing the samples of insecticides.

Insecticides cannot be manufactured, stored or handled with any consumable article (R

IO-Q.

Packing and Labelling (R. 16 to 20):

Every container package should be of the approved type. A leaflet should be put inside
containing particulars about the plant disease, insects, animals or weeds for which it is to be
applied, manner of application, symptoms of poisoning, safety measures and first-aid
treatment necessary, antidote, decontamination or safe disposal procedure, storage and
handling precautions, effect on skin, nose eye, throat etc. and common name of the
insecticide (R. 18).

In labelling, warning and cautionary statement should be included.

1. For category-I (Extremely toxic) insecticides, the symbol of a skull and cross-bones
and the word 'POISON' should be printed in red. Statement "Keep out of the reach of
children and if swallowed or if symptoms of poisoning occur call physician
immediately" should be added.

2. For category II (Highly toxic) insecticides, the word TOISON' in red and statement
"Keep out of the reach of children" should be printed.

3. For category III (moderately toxic) the word 'DANGER' arid statement "Keep out of
the reach of children".

4. For category IV (Slightly toxic) the word 'CAUTION' should be mentioned.

Category classification is as under –

r
O o
r u
Classificati o a t (ac Dermal route Colour of band
on f l e ute (dermal on the
 toxicit mg
y) /kg toxicity LD50
insecticides LD50 of mg/kg of label.
test
animal test animal.
1
-
Extremely 5
toxic 0 1-200 Bright red
5
1
-
5
Highly 0
toxic 0 201-2000 Bright yellow
Moderately 501-
toxic 5000 2001-20000 Bright blue
>

5
0
Slightly 0
toxic 0 > 20000 Bright Green

See Part 24 of Chapter-23 for pesticide industry.

Transport and Storage (R. 35, 36) :

Packages for rail transport shall be packed as per Red Tariff by Railways. No
transportation or storage in such a way that insecticides may come in contact with food stuffs
or animal feeds. If it is mixed up due to any damage to packages during transport or storage, it
shall be examined by competent authorities notified by the State Govt. and safely disposed. If
any leak occurs, the transport agency or the storage owner shall take urgent measures to
prevent poisoiling and pollution of soil, water etc.

The packages of .insecticides should be stored in separate rooms or almirahs under lock
and key. Such rooms shall be well built, dry, well-lit, ventilated and of sufficient dimension.

Protective Equipment and other Facilities for Workers (R. 37 to 44) :

All persons engaged in handling, dealing or otherwise coming in contact with

insecticides during manufacture/formulation or spraying shall be medically examined before
employment and then periodically once in a quarter by a qualified doctor who is aware of risks
of pesticides and report be kept in Form XXII given below. For persons working with organ
phosphorous or carbamate compound, their blood cholinesterase level shall be measured
monthly. The blood residue estimation shall be done yearly of persons working with organo-
chlorine compound. Any person showing symptoms of poisoning shall be immediately
examined and given proper treatment.

First-aid treatment shall always be given before the physician is called. IS 4015 part I
and II shall be followed in addition to any other books on the subject. The workers shall be
educated regarding effects of poisoning and the first-aid treatment to be given.

Protective clothing which shall be washable (to remove toxic exposure) and not
allowing penetration by insecticide shall be given to workers. A complete suit shall consist (a)
Protective outer garment/overalls/ hood/hat, (b) rubber gloves extending half-way up to fore-
arm (c) dust-proof goggles and (d) boots.

For prevention of inhalation of toxic dusts, vapours or gases, the workers shall use (a)
chemical cartridge respirator, (b) supplied air respirator. (c) Demand flow type respirator (d)
full or half face gas mask with canister as per requirement. In no case the exposure in air
should exceed the maximum permissible level.

Sufficient stocks of first-aid tools, equipment, antidotes, medicines etc. should be kept.

The workers shall be trained for safety precautions and use of safety equipment.

The packages and surplus materials shall be safely washed and disposed to prevent
pollution. The packages shall not be left outside to prevent re-use. They shall be broken and
buried away from habitation.

Aerial spraying precautions are given 'in rule 43.

Form XXII : Form of Medical Examination

For the Year............

Serial No.
………………..

Name ……………………………… Age…………..

Father's/Husband's Name ……………………… Full Address ……………………………….

Sex ……………….. Identification mark ………………………

Date of appointment ……………… Occupation : (Pleas specify the nature of duty)

PAST HIST

A
ll
Ill Pois er
ne onin g Exposur No. of Remar
ss g y e to years / ks, if
Pesticide reaso
s ns any
(Compou
nd)
( (
1 6
) (2) (3) (4) (5) )

FAMILY HISTORY

Gaemorhagic
Allergy Psychological disorders disorder
(
3
(1) (2) )

PERSONAL
HISTORY

Alc
oho
Smoking l Other addiction
(
3
(1) (2) )

OBSERVATIONS

Me Aft
dica End er After End of Rema
l Pre- of 1st 2nd 3rd the rks
Exami emplo quart quart quart
nation yment er i.e. er i.e. er i.e. year
exami after afte after
nation 3 r6 9
mont mo mont
 hs nth hs
s
( ( (
1 (3 5 7
) (2) ) (4) ) (6) )

GENERAL
I EXAMINATION
General Anae Fatiga
body limit mia bility
Dade Sweati
Weight ma ng
Jaundi
Pules ce Sleep
Skin
Blood conditi Urinati
pressure on on
Tempe
Respiration rature
I GASTRO
I INTESTINAL
Nausea Taste Liver
Vomiting Pain in abdomen Spleen
Appetite Bowel movement
I
I CARDIO
I RESPIRATORy
Nasal
discharge Tightness of chest Heart
Dyspn Cyano
Wheeze oea sis
Palpit Tachyc
Cough ation ardia
Expectorati
on
I
V NEURO MUSCULAR

Headache Tremors Unconsciousness

Dizziness Convulsion Deep reflexes
Superficial
Irritability Paranesthesia reflexes
Pulse Hallucination Co-ordination
 Twitchings
V EYE
Pupil Double vision
Lachrymation Clumped vision
V
I PSYCHOLOGICAL
Temperament Judgement Nervousness
V
I
I KIDNEY
Kidney condition
V
I
I
I INVESTIGATION
Blood Hb % Serum Bilirubin Urine microsopic
Urine routine
Blood B.C. examination X-ray of chest
* Serum cholinesterase
 *Serum cholinesterase level should be measured in monthly intervals in case of
organophosphorus/carbamatic group of insecticides. General remarks of the Doctor in the
light of the above examination;

(
Advice 1 ……………
given to : ) the Patent: ………..
( the
2 Employer ……………
) : ………..

Steps taken by the Employer as per Doctor's advice

Signature/Thumb impression of:

1. Doctor:
2. Employee:
3. Employer/manufacturer:
4. Licensing officer at the time of inspection.

N.B.: In organochlorme group of insecticides the blood residue estimation should be done
once a year

RADIATION PROTECTION RULES, 1971:

The Central Government u/s 30 of the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, made these rules
applicable from 3010-1971, to the whole of India. A summary of these 56 rules is, given
below:

Section-2 defines adequate protection, competent authority, contamination, employer,

radiation worker, operational limits, radiation installation, radiation surveillance,
Radiological Safety Officer, sealed and unsealed source, source housing, useful beam etc.

Other provisions are as under :

(5) Radioactive material is to be handled as per terms and conditions of a licence.

(6) Luminous compounds on watches, instruments etc. are exempted.
(7) No person below the age of 18 years can be employed as a radiation worker.
(8) Licence can be issued on request under the Act, if the equipment, facilities and work
practices afford adequate protection and if the incharge person has adequate
qualification to direct the work.
The validity of licence is 3 years. It can be revoked, modified or withdrawn by
the competent authority after giving a show cause notice and an opportunity to make
a representation.
Radioactive material shall be used only for the purpose, location and
quantities specified in the licence.
(6) Radiological Safety Officer shall be designated by the employer (himself or an
employee) with the approval of competent authority to perform following duties and
 functions (R. 13) :
Steps to ensure that operational limits are not exceeded.
To instruct the radiation workers about hazards of radiation and safety
measures to minimise exposure to radiation and contamination.
To carry out leakage tests on sealed sources as specified in rule 34.
To regulate the safe movement of radioactive materials including waste.
To investigate and suggest remedial measures in frespect o any situation that
could …………… lead to radiation hazards.
To make available' necessary reports and remedial measures to his employer.
To ensure the safe disposal of radioactive wastes in a manner approved by the
competent authority.
1. Hazardous situation is to be reported to the competent authority.
2. Radiation surveillance procedure notified by the competent authority is to be
followed by the employer. This may include (R. 15) :
Design, construe don, operation and use as per specifications and prior
approval of the competent authority.
Working conditions, monitoring and personal protective equipment.
Personal monitoring of radiation workers.
Medical examinations of the radiation workers as per rule 19 or 20.
Records of radiation and radioactivity level measurements, personal
monitoring and medical examinations stipulated by the competent authority.
Any other procedure specified by the competent authority.
3. Prior approval before any modification to the plant or any change in working
conditions.
4. Radiation symbol to be displayed at workplaces and on containers containing
radioactive materials. Its colour shall be as may be specified by the competent
authority.
5. History records of radiation workers to be maintained in a form specified by the
competent authority.
6. Pre and periodical yearly medical examinations of radiation workers, of blood,
excreta, skin, hands, fingers, finger nails, eyes and chest (X-ray).
The frequency* and types of above examinations may be modified by the
competent authority where necessary (Rule 19 & 20).
Complete records of above examinations shall be maintained. Its excerpts
shall be sent to the competent authority in the form specified by him. The competent
authority shall preserve such records for the life time of the worker or for 20 years
after he ceases to do work of radiation, whichever is shorter.
7. The competent authority may specify steps to reduce the excessive exposure and the
employer shall comply with them and also provide the exposed worker an alternative
work not involving radiation exposure. If such worker is declared fit to resume
radiation work, his employer shall permit him to do that work. Then his work shall be
planned by the competent authority.
8. The competent authority or a person duly authorised by him has wide power to
inspect new, modified or running radiation installation, work being conducted,
protective device, transport etc. and make tests, measurements and other things to
verify adequate protection.
Power includes power to seal or seize radioactive material or equipment and
give directions for compliance.
9. Registers of particulars of sealed and unsealed sources shall be maintained (Rule 33).
10. In case of leakage of a sealed source, the Radiological Safety Officer shall place that
leaking source in a properly shielded leak-proof container with care to prevent spread
of contamination, act to safeguard the workers and others, vacate affected area, clean
 up contamination if any, and inform the employer.
9. Lost or missed radioactive material shall be searched and the competent authority
shall be informed immediately.
10. Telegamma sources shall be covered with appropriate source housing. In case of
power failure, the useful beam should be automatically cut off. Manual device to
interrupt the useful beam is required (Rule 37 to 39).
11. In medical institutions where radioactive material remains on or inside the body of
the patient, separate rooms and wards for the treatment shall be provided.
12. Where gamma radiography is done, the area shall be cordoned off to control entry
into it of other persons.
13. Sealed source devices such as static eliminators, thickness, density or level gauges,
package monitors shall be provided with efficient cover plate, shutter or shield
capable of being easily operateable to attenuate the useful beam.
14. Interlock switches in radiation installations should be of the fail-safe type.
15. Unsealed sources shall be kept in securely closed container and properly labelled.
Radiological Safety Officer has to take more precautions where unsealed
sources are handled such as safe working methods, facilities to minimise radiation
level and airborne contamination, forbidding wrong working habits (mouth operated
devices, open wounds, smoking, eating, drinking, application of cosmetics etc.),
appropriate protective clothing, safe use of PPE and checking contamination on it and
safe collection of radioactive wastes .(R.44 & 45).

9.1 Ventilating systems should be enclosed with ducts and filters to avoid spread of any
airborne contamination.
9.2 In case of spillage, steps to arrange decontamination of affected personnel and areas,
steps to prevent further spread of contamination and informing the employer.
9.3 Other provisions for experiments on animals, luminising compounds, approved
procedure for mining, processing etc., disposal of animal carcasses, autopsies of
cadavers, licence, personnel monitoring and power to exempt are given in rules 48 to
56.

Notes on Regulatory Aspects

Radioisotopes and radiation have found a variety of applications in industries, such as

non-destructive testing, level indication system, thickness gauges, density gauges, etc. There
are over 1200 industrial institutions in India, employing radiation source, in one form or the
other. It is a well known fact, that ionising radiation such as X-rays, gamma rays, beta rays,
etc. are deleterious to health. It is therefore, essential to minimise radiation exposures to the
user as well as to the public. If the use of these radiation sources is not adequately
controlled, it is likely to result in unnecessary radiation exposures to individuals. However,
if necessary safety precautions, as per the stipulated norms, are observed by the user, the ill-
effects of radiation can be minimised, thus, rendering the application quite safe for the user.

The prospective user should approach the Competent Authority for obtaining
permission to handle radiation sources. He must give the requisite details in the prescribed
application form regarding the type of source, its activity, proposed use, name of the. user,
his qualification and experience in the handling of radiation sources, etc.

A precommissioning inspection of the installation is properly done by members of

Radiation Protection Services Division (RPSD), Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC),
Bombay-400 085, in order to confirm the above.

A separate storage enclosure should be available at the site for safe storage of the
source housings, prior to their installation and also to store, spare source housings and
decommissioned gauges awaiting ultimate disposal, if any. The source storage should be so
chosen, that it would be free -from potential fire
hazard, flooding, water logging, pilferage etc. Advice on the nature of storage facility
required may be obtained from the Competent Authority.

All the persons who are involved in the operation and maintenance of these gauges,
should have adequate knowledge' in the design, construction and principle of the gauges and
they should have undergone appropriate training on the radiation safety aspects. Further, if
deemed necessary, all those persons who are involved in the maintenance of radioisotope
gauge may have to be monitored regularly, by the personal monitoring service, run by
RPSD, in order to, ensure that dose limits are not exceeded. The decision regarding the need
for the persons to be monitored by the personnel monitoring service will be taken after the
precommissioning inspection of the installation by members of RSPD.

A GM type radiation survey meter (model MR 121) manufactured by the Electronic

Corporation of India Ltd. (ECIL), Hyderabad or its equivalent should be available with the
user of the nucleonic gauges, for regular monitoring of radiation levels around the gauge
installation and also for deciding the area to be cordoned off around the source, if an
emergency arises.

The user should designate a Radiological Safety Officer, who possesses a certificate
in radiation safety which is recognised by RPSD and who has received instructions in the
Radiation Protection, Rules 1971 and all notifications and orders issued there under, relevant
to the proposed application of radiation and who has demonstrated competence in the
handling of radiation exposure devices and related instruments and radiation survey meters,
which would be used in the course of this assignment. Formal approval should be obtained
by the user, from the Competent Authority, for the appointment of Radiological Safety
Officer.

The requisite authorisation for the procurement of nucleonic gauges from any Indian
manufacturer or the requisite 'No Objection Certificate' for the import of nucleonic gauges of
specific type from abroad will be issued by the Competent Authority after the fulfilment of
the above requirements by the applicant. All these regulatory controls have been evolved, in
order to ensure safety to persons and property, during the use of these gauges.

STATIC AND MOBILE (UNFIRED) PRESSURE VESSELS RULES, 1981:

U/S.5 and 7 of the Explosives Act 1884, the' Central Government notified these rules
w.e.f. 5-2-1981. They have 8 chapters, 69 rules, 3 appendices, 2 schedule and 5 forms.

The rules were amended in 1993, 2000 and 2002. Chapter-1: Preliminary (R.I to
IIA):

Definitions: Out of (a) to (z) definitions, majority are scientific and therefore they are
reproduced below.

6. "Permanent Gas" means a gas whose critical temperature is lower than 10°C.
7. "Liquefiable Gas" means any gas that may be liquefied by pressure above 0°C, but
will be completely vaporised when in equilibrium with normal atmospheric pressure
(760 mm HG) at 30°C;
8. Cryogenic liquid means liquid form of permanent gas having normal boiling point
 below minus 165° C.
9. Critical temperature means the temperature above which gas cannot be liquefied by
the application of pressure alone.
10. "Compressed gas" means any permanent gas, liquefiable gas or gas dissolved in
liquid or cryogenic liquid under pressure or gas mixture, which in a closed pressure
vessel exercises a pressure exceeding one atmosphere (gauge) at the maximum
working temperature and includes Hydrogen fluoride. In case of vessels without
insulation or refrigeration, the maximum working temperature shall be considered as
55°C.
11. “Design" includes drawings, calculation, specifications, models, codes and all other
details necessary for the complete description of the pressure vessel and its
construction;
12. LPG i.e. Liquefied Petroleum Gas includes hydrocarbon gases in liquefied state at
normal ambient temperature by the application of pressure, and conforming to the IS
: 4576.
13. Dispenser means an equipment installed in LPG dispensing station, meant for
dispensing LPG as automotive fuel to motor vehicles;
14. "Design pressure" means the pressure used in the design calculations of a vessel for
the purpose of determining the minimum thickness of the various component parts of
the vessel;
15. "Filling density" means the ratio of weight of liquefiable gas allowed in a pressure
vessel to the weight of water that the. vessel will hold at 15°C;
16. "Flammable compressed Gas" means gas 13 percent or less of which when mixed
with air forms a flammable mixture or whose flammable range with-air is greater
than 12 percent;
17. "Gas Free" in relation to a pressure vessel means the concentration of flammable or
toxic gases or both if such pressure vessel is within the safe limits specified for
persons to enter and carry out hot work in such vessels;
18. "Pressure Vessel or Vessel" means any closed metal container of whatever shape,
intended for the storage and transport of any compressed gas which is subjected to
internal pressure and whose water capacity exceeds 1000 litres and includes inter
connecting parts and components thereof up

to the first point of connection to the connected piping and fittings but does not
include containers wherein steam or other vapour is or is intended to be generated, or
water or other liquid is or is intended to be heated by the application of fire or the
product of combustion or byelectrical means, heat exchangers, evaporators, air
receivers, steam-type digesters, steam-type sterilises, autoclave, reactors, calorifiers,
pressure piping components such as separators or strainers and vessels containing a
liquid under a blanket of compressed inert gas.
1. "Safety relief device" means an automatic pressure relieving device actuated by the
pressure upstream of the valve and characterised by fully opened pop action, intended
to prevent the rupture of a pressure vessel under certain conditions of exposure;

2. "Source of ignition" means naked lights, fires, exposed incandescent materials,

electric welding arcs, lamps other than those specially approved for use in flammable
atmosphere, or a spark or flame produced by any means;

3. "Water Capacity" means capacity in litres of the pressure vessel when completely
filled with water at 15°C.
 The vessel should be manufactured as per IS 2825 or code specified u/r 12 and
approved by the CC, otherwise it cannot be filled or transported. Any person seeking to
manufacture such vessels should apply to the CC in Appendix. I with a scrutiny fee of Rs.
500 (R.4).

Storage, delivery and dispatch as per licence only (R.5). Repair after approval from
CC and as per IS-2825 (R.6). Before using or refilling any vessel for flammable gases,
purging by an inert gas or by the gas to be filled with safe venting is necessary (R.7).
Prohibition of employing a person under 18 years or intoxication and smoking or allowing
source of ignition or any flammable gas (R.8 & 9). These rules are to be complied with and
precautions to prevent accident are necessary (R.IO). Supervision is also necessary (R. 9A).

Procedure for paying fees is given u/r II and that for applying recognition as
competent person or Inspector in Appendix III to the CC is -given u/ r II-A.

Chapter-II : Construction and Fitments of Pressure Vessels (R. 12 to 20):

Design Code - For design, construction and testing IS:2825 or other code approved
by CC. Testand Inspection certificate issued by the manufacturer and countersigned by an
Inspector shall be sent to CC. (R. 12).

Design pressure should not exceed the vapour pressure at 55°C if liquefiable gas is
to be storedor the developed pressure at 55°C if permanent gas (whose critical temp. is <
10°C) is to be stored. For an insulated vessel it may be reduced corresponding to the
maximum temperature likely to be attamed by the gas in the vessel. Maximum allowable
service pressure with allowances for cryogenic liquid (R. 13).

Design for low temperature should be as per code mentioned in R.12. Refrigeration
capacityshould be adequate to maintain the vapour pressure below the design pressure and
the set-pressure of a safety valve. Insulation material should be approved by CC,' cladding
thickness more than 3 mm, water-tight and thermal conductance at 15°C should not exceed
the limit prescribed by the CC (R. 14).

Filling capacity & pressure as per rule 15. The maximum quantity of liquefiable gas
to be filledshould not exceed the filling density (i.e. the ratio of the weight of the gas to the
weight of water that the vessel will hold at 15°C) and the vessel should not become liquid
full due to expansion of the gas at 55°C

if the vessel is un-insulated or at such highest temperature attainable incase of refrigerated or

insulated vessel. A permanent gas shall not be filled in excess of design pressure of the
vessel (R. 15).

Marking on Vessels should indicate (1) Manufacturer's name and identification (2)
Standard orcode (3) Official stamp of the Inspector (4) Design pressure (5) Date of tests (6)
Hydrostatic test pressure
(7) Water capacity (8) Gas capacity and (9) Name or chemical symbol of the gas. (R. 16.)

Painting with reflecting surface (R. 17)

 Fittings should include Pressure Gauge, Temperature Indicator, Safety Valve, Level
Indicator anddrains. Connections as per code in rule 12. There should be two (or more)
pressure relief valves (SV) spring loaded type, set to start at a pressure below 110% of the
design pressure and total relieving capacity to keep the pressure inside the vessel less than
120% of the design pressure. Connections to these Safety Valve should be of sufficient size
to allow the required rate of discharge. There should be shut off valve between Safety Valve
and the vessel. For static (not mobile) vessels of more than 4500 lit. water capacity, outlet of
Safety Valve should extend 2 mt. above the top of the vessel and at least 3.5 mt. above the
ground level. They should have loose fitting rain caps. Safety Valve should be tested once in
a year by a competent person and record be kept.

All liquid and vapour connections on vessels (except Safety Valve, plugged openings
and where diameter is less than (1.4 mm) should have shut-off (stop) valves as close to the
vessel as practicable.

There should be an emergency shut off valve (for both liquid and vapour phase) such
as an excess flow valve, automatically operated valve or a remotely controlled valve which
can be operated from a safe place and which shall not fail. Such emergency shut off (stop)
valve is not required if liquid connection is of less than 3 mm dia and vapour connection is
of not more than 8 mm dia. Excess flow rate should easily allow the normal flow rate
(should not cause valve chatter) but should have closing rate below the rate of discharge
from a fracture of the line it is protecting, calculated under the worst condition possible.

Liquid level gauge should show a ready amount of liquid at any time. One maximum
level indicator should also be provided. Bleeding device (rotary tube, fixed tube, slip tube)
cannot be completely withdrawn in normal gauging operations. (R. 18).

Hydraulic testing of all vessels by a competent person at a pressure marked on the

vessel isnecessary .at 5 years intervals (2 years for corrosive or toxic gases.). Where water
test is not possible or tolerable, CC may permit pneumatic testing along with NDT.
Pneumatic test pressure for cryogenic pressure vessel shall be I.I times MPWP. Before each
pressure test, the vessel shall be thoroughly cleaned and examined internally and externally
for surface defects, corrosion, foreign matter and hazardous material (e.g. pyropheric
sludge). After test it shall be thoroughly dried internally and stamped with marks, figures
and test date. A vessel failing to pass hydraulic test or found unsafe for use shall be
destroyed or rendered unsuitable under intimation to the CC. The competent person shall
give a test certificate in prescribed proforma. A record shall be kept of all such tests ( R. 19,
20).

Chapter -III : Storage (R. 21 to 33):

General :Compressed gas vessels shall be aboveground, first stage regulating

equipment in open,vessels should not be one above the other, vessels in a group should have
their longitudinal axes parallel, no location within petroleum or flammable liquid area,
sufficient space between two vessels to permit fire fighting operations, two or more vessels
in batteries should have their top surface on the same plane and

vessels facing their dished ends should have screen wall in between them. Floor slope,
sump, dyke and dimensions for corrosive, flammable or toxic gases in liquefied state (R.
21).
 Minimum Safety Distances;

See table I to 7 u/r 22.

Foundations as prescribed in R. 23. Supports should be so anchored, weighed or at

height toavoid flotation due to flood waters. Bottom supports upto 45 cm (max.) shall be
encased in fire-resisting materials of adequate thickness.

Fencing of at least 2 mt. height with 2 exits opening out wards and not self locking.
The fencingshould enclose vessels, pumping equipment, vaporisers and loading/unloading
facilities. (R.24).

Cleanliness An area of 3 mt. around the vessel shall be free from combustible
material such asweeds and grass (R. 25).

Earthing Vessels and pipelines should be efficiently earthed and bonded (R. 26).

No smoking Notice with letters at least 5 cms size fixed on fence surface visible
from outsidewhere flammable or oxidising gases are stored (R. 27).

Fire Protection for the storage of flammable compressed gases should include
sufficient supplyof water, hydrants, hoses, mobile equipment, fixed monitors or automatic
spray systems, control valves outside the danger area, jet & fog nozzles and at least 2 DCP
type fire extinguishers of 9 kg each near each point of access to the installations. Special
provision for LPG station (R. 28).

Loading and Unloading Facilities like pumps, compressors, transfer systems and
hoses asprescribed in R.29. Remotely controlled shut-off valve for the vessel being filled or
emptied. High level alarm interlocked with automatic shut off valve to prevent overfilling.
The hoses should withstand not less than 4 times the maximum operating flow pressure in
them and should be mechanically and electrically continuous (R.29).

Transfer operation should follow the detailed instructions u/r 30. Supervision by a
competentperson for compliance of these rules is necessary. Precautions to check vessel
before and after filling, condition of piping, valves, fittings, hoses, vehicle and its earthing,
prevention of overfilling, removal of spillage etc (R. 30). Provisions for LPG stations
(R.30A & B).

Electrical wire should not pass over any storage vessel and all electrical wires
installed within the safety zone or storage of flammable gases should be of approved
insulated cables type. In a pump room for pumping flammable gases, all electric apparatus
and fittings should be flameproof conforming to IS:2148 and frames shall be earthed. Lamps
should have flameproof glass fittings conforming to IS:2206 (Part1) . Portable hand lamps
should have been approved by the CC (R.31). Classification of hazardous area in Zone 0, I
& 2 (R. 31 A& B).

Lighting should be of approved type, other wise no operation to be carried out during
night
(R.32).
 Safety Certificate in the prescribed proforma signed by a competent person should be
furnished to the licensing authority (R.33).

Chapter - IV : Transport (R. 34 to 44):

This chapter is applicable for the transport of compressed gas by vehicles (R.34).
Drawings of the vehicle and its special fittings should be got approved by the CC (R.35).
Design considerations are given in rule 36 to 39. Protection of valves, accessories, piping,
fittings, pumps and vessel are suggested. Mechanical, electrical and general design safety
requirements arfe prescribed- Product should be marked on the vessel (R.40). Fire protection
includes prohibition of smoking or carrying matches, lighters or any flammable substance
(R.41). Driver should be a trained one. While loading/unloading presence of a competent
person is necessary. Safe parking during overnight stop (R.42). A safety certificate in
prescribed proforma signed by a competent person shall be furnished to the licensing
authority before using any vehicle for such transport (R.43). The vehicle shall be maintained
in a fit condition and examined every 6 months by a competent person and certified in a
prescribed proforma (R. 44).

Chapter-V (R. 45 to 64) is regarding Licences, Chapter VI (R. 65) for exemption.
Chapter VII(R. 66 to 68) for Accidents and Inquires and Chapter VIII (R. 69) for powers of
CC and subordinate controllers, of District Magistrates, the Police Commissioners and their
subordinates.

Accident should be reported to the CC (by Telegram and a letter within 24 hours) and
forth with to the nearest police station.

Appendices are as under :

Appendix – I : Application to manufacture a vessel. .

Appendix – II : Qualification and Experience of Inspector and Competent person.
Appendix – III : Application for recognition as competent person.

DOCK WORKERS (SAFETY, HEALTH & WELFARE) ACT, 1986:

This Act (No. 54 of 1986) was enacted on 712-1986. It came into force from 15-4-
1987. It extends to the whole of India. It has 25 sections. It provides for the Safety, Health
and Welfare of dock workers and for matters connected therewith. Definitions (S.2):

Appropriate Government means, in relation to any major port, the Central Govt., and,
in relation to any other port, the State Govt.

Cargo includes anything carried or to be carried in a ship or other vessel.

Dock Work means any work in or within the vicinity of any port in connection with
loading, unloading, movement or storage of cargoes and includes preparation of ship or.
other vessel and cleaning, painting, chipping of any hold, tank, structure or lifting machinery
or any other storage area in board, ship or dock.

Dock Worker means a person employed or to be employed directly or through any

agency, on dock work.
 Inspectors and the Chief Inspector of Dock Safety (S. 3 to 8) :

The appropriate Govt. can appoint them. They can enter any ship, dock, warehouse to
check any dock work, make examination of the ship, dock, lifting machinery, cargo, gear,
staging, transport equipment, premises etc, require documents, take evidence, copies,
photograph, sketch, sample etc., hold inquiry into any accident, issue show cause notice
relating to safety, health and welfare provisions, prosecute or prohibit any dock work in
dangerous condition until measures have been taken to remove that danger. Inspector will
not disclose information or complaint received by them. Appeal to the Chief Inspector
should be made within 15 days.

Other Provisions:

The appropriate Govt. may constitute an Advisory Committee for advice regarding
administration of this Act and the regulations (S. 9). It can also appoint a competent person
to inquire into any accident or occupational disease to dock workers (S. 10). Dock workers
will not misuse anything provided to secure health, safety and welfare of dock workers, will
not do anything to endanger self or others and, will not neglect to make use of anything
provided as mentioned earlier.

Subjects of Regulations (S. 21):

Regulations may provide for safety of working place, approaches, lighting,

ventilation, temperature, fire & explosion prevention and protection, safe means of access,
opening and closing of hatches and protection of dangerous openings, safety from fall,
lifting and cargo handling appliances, workers employed in terminals, fencing of machinery,
live electrical conductors, steam pipes, hazardous openings, staging, rigging and derricks,
testing of lifting m/c, ropes, slings etc., escape routes, safe methods of working and handling
dangerous substances or working in harmful environment, employing persons for handling
cargo or any work on ship, transport of dock workers, precautions against noise, vibration
and air pollution at workplace, protective equipment and clothing, sanitary, washing and
welfare facilities, medical supervision, ambulance room, first-aid and rescue facilities, safety
and health organisation,' training of dock workers, investigation of accidents, dangerous
occurrences and diseases, forms of notices, authorities to be reported, submission of
statement of accidents, man-days lost, volume of cargo handled and particulars of dock
workers.

Other Acts, Rules & Regulations for Dock Workers:

DOCK WORKERS (SAFETY, HEALTH AND WELFARE) REGULATIONS, 1990:

They came into force from 16-3-1990. They apply to major ports in India as defined
in the Major Ports Act, 1963. They have 7 parts, 112 regulations, 14 forms and 4 schedules.

Regulation 2 has 27 definitions including container, container terminal, conveyor, dangerous

goods, dock, hatch, lifting appliance, loose gear, pulley block, responsible person, safe
working load, transport equipment etc.

Reg. 3 is regarding power of inspectors. •

Part 3 (Reg. 9-94) is on safety containing subjects of fencing, railings, staging, life
savingappliances, illumination, fire protection, excessive noise, means of access, ladders,
lifting appliances and gear, test and examinations, winches, ropes, heat treatment of loose
gears, marking of SWL, pulley blocks, power trucks, hand trucks, fork lifts, dock railways,
conveyors, handling of cargo, stacking and unstacking, cargo platforms, winch and crane
operations, signaller, handling of dangerous goods, general precautions, explosive and
inflammable cargo, broken or leaking containers, toxic solvents, fencing of terminals,
stuffing and destuffing, fencing of motors, transport of dock workers by land .and water,
reporting of accidents, notification of diseases, safety officers and renewal of licences.

Part 4 (Reg. 95-99) is on Health containing provisions of cleanliness, drinking

water, latrinesand urinals, spittoons and ventilation and temperature.

Part 5 (Reg. 100-109) is on Welfare containing provisions of washing facilities, first

aid boxes,ambulance rooms, shelters, canteens, medical examinations/notices and welfare
officers.

Part 6 (Reg. 110-118) is on Special provisions like statement of accidents, training,

emergencyaction plans, safety committees, occupational health services and general safety.

DOCK WORKERS (SAFETY HEALTH AND WELFARE) SCHEME, 1961:

Under section 4 of the Dock Workers (Regulation of Employment) Act, 1948 this
Scheme is formed. It came into force on 1-10-1961. It has 5 parts, 60 paras, 4 schedules and
2 forms.

Para 2 gives 8 definitions including competent persons, dock, port authority etc.

The scheme contains the provisions of - powers of inspectors, notice of accidents and
dangerous occurrences, diseases, duties of port authorities, obligations of dock workers and
provisions regarding health and welfare of dock workers.

Part 4 on Safety (Para 22 to 57) contains provisions of fencing of dangerous places,

gates, floor loading, stairs, means o escape in case of fire, testing, annealing, special gear,
ropes, drivers of cranes, cargo platforms, conveyors, power trucks, and hand trucks,
locomotives and wagons, stacking and un stacking, precautions against falling material,
corrosive and caustic substances, dust fume, etc., oxygen deficiency, fumigated spaces,
machinery, ladders, fire protection and rescue.
 CHAPTER 5

SOCIAL SECURITY LEGISLATIONS

WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION ACT, RULES & WORKED EXAMPLES

WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION ACT, 1923:

This Act (8 of 1923) came into force from 1-71924. It was lastly amended by the Act
46 of 2000 w.e.f. 08-12-2000. It has 4 chapters, 36 sections and 4 schedules. The Act is
made to provide compensation for accidental injury to workmen. Under Sec. 4, while
calculating compensation, maximum limit of 'monthly wages' to be considered is Rs. 4000/ -
if monthly wages exceed Rs. 4000. Short summary is given below:

The Act extends to the whole of India. A list of 'dependants' is given u/s 2(1) (d).

Definitions (Sec. 2):

 Definition of employer is very wide and includes his managing agent; legal
representative of a deceased employer, contractor etc.

'Workmen' includes employees working in railway, ship, aircraft, motor vehicle,

abroad or as in Schedule-11 wherein some 48 categories are specified.

"Wages' excludes travelling allowance or concession, special expenses and

contribution towards any pension or P.P.

Partial disablement (temporary or permanent) and total disablement (temporary or

permanent) are defined as same in the ESI Act and the W.C. Act. See part 7 also.

Employer's Liability (Sec 3) : He is liable to pay compensation if accident arises out

of and in course of employment He is not liable for injury -

1. If disablement lasts less than 3 days

2. If the workman takes drink or drugs, or
3. Willfully disobeys any order or a rule of safety, or
4. Willfully removes or disregards any safety guard or device provided for his safety,
But he is liable even under such conditions if injury results in death or permanent total
disablement.

If a workman contracts any occupational disease (i) in Part-A of Schedule III or (ii)
in Part B of Schedule III if he is in continuous service of more than 6 months or (iii) in Part
C of Schedule III if he is in the service of one or more employers for such continuous period
as may be specified, it shall be deemed to be an injury by accident arisen out of and in
course of the employment and makes the employer(s) liable for compensation. The disease
should be directly attributable to his employment.
If a workman claims or agrees to take compensation under this Act, his suit for damages in a
Civil Court is not maintainable [Sec 3(5)].

Amount of Compensation (Sec. 4):

Type of Injury Amount

(
a 50% of monthly Relevant factor
) Death wages X based on
age (from Schedule IV) or Rs. 80,000/-
whichever
i
s
m
o
r
e
 .
(
b 60% of monthly wages X Relevant factor
) Permanent total disablement from
Schedule – IV or Rs. 90000/- whichever is
more.
(
c Permanent partial For injury in part II of Schedule I,
) disablement 1 such %
of compensation payable in item
(b) above
as % of loss of earning
capacity
mentioned in Column-3.
For injury not specified in
2 Schedule – J,
such % of compensation payable
in item
(b) above as proportionate to the
loss of
earning capacity (permanent)
certified by
the medial practitioner.
(
d Temporary disablement Half monthly payment of the sum
) (total of equivalent to
2
5
%

o monthly wages till the ceasing of

partial) f the
disablement or 5 years whichever is
shorter.

In case of death, the funeral expenditure of Rs. 2500/- shall be deposited with the
Commissioner. Maximum limit of 'monthly wages' is Rs. 4000/- in above calculation.
Compare Schedule I and III of W.C. Act, Schedule II and III of ESI Act and the Schedule of
the Personal Injuries (Compensation Insurance) Act, 1963. They seem to be similar.

Penalty for late payment (Sec. 4A) :Compensation shall be paid as soon as it falls
due. Jf it is paid after I month simple interest of 12% or maximum bank interest is payable.
If delay is not justified, penalty up to 50% of the compensation is also payable.

A show-cause notice to the employer is necessary before passing an order for

penalty.

The interest and penalty both shall be paid to the workman or his dependent, as the
case may be.

Distribution of compensation (Sec. 8) : Compensation payable in case of death,

payable to woman or legally disable (e.g. minor) person, shall be paid through
Commissioner (Court) only and not directly. Direct payment shall not be deemed
compensation.

An employer can give advance up to 3 months' wages which is deductible and the
Commissioner shall repay it to the employer.

The Commissioner shall give receipt to the depositor, notice to dependant(s), make
inquiry and if satisfied that no .dependant exists, he shall repay the balance to the employer.
If the dependant is women or legally not eligible, the same may be investigated and mode of
payment during non eligibility may be directed for the welfare. In other cases direct payment
is possible. The Commissioner has power to change or amend his order for investment if
satisfied with the reason.
Others: Method of calculating 'monthly wages' is prescribed u/s 5. Half monthly
payment can be reviewed u/s 6 and converted into lump-sum u/s 7. Compensation is
protected and cannot be assigned, attached or charged (sec. 9). Claim is to be made within 2
years (sec. 10). Delay may be justified. A Commissioner can directly send a notice to an
employer to furnish within 30 days information of death of his workman or his explanation
(sec IOA). Reports of fatal accident or serious bodily injury shall be given to the
Commissioner within 7 days (sec. IOB). An injured workman will not refuse to undergo
medical examination, otherwise his compensation may be suspended for the period of his
refusal, or for the period of his return if he has left the premises without examination. In case
of a contract labour, the principal employer is liable if the contractor fails to pay
compensation (sec. 12). Where any employer has entered into any contract with any insurer
for liability to a workman, the insurer will pay to the workman as per liability accepted. The
workman has to give notice to the insurer for his claim as soon as he becomes aware that his
employer has become unable to pay (sec. 14). Compensation can become first charge on
assets transferred by employer (sec. 14-A). Prescribed return is to be sent to authority u/s 16.
Any contract or agreement of relinquishing right of compensation is null and void u/s 17.
Maximum penalty for offences is Rs. 5,000/-, Limit of filing complaint is 6 months and
sanction of commissioner is necessary for prosecution (see ISA).

Special provisions are made for other workmen.

Chapter-3 (sec. 19 to 31) is regarding Commissioners, their appointment, venue,
power, appearance of parties, evidence, registration of agreements, appeals, recovery etc.

Chapter-4 gives rule making powers to the State and procedure (sec. 32 to 36)

Schedule I to 4 are regarding (1) Injuries and loss of earning capacity, (2) List of
different, 48, workmen (3) List of Occupational Diseases and (4) Age factors to calculate
compensation, respectively.

THE WORKMEN'S COMPENSATION RULES, 1924:

Under section 32 of the WC Act, these rules were notified on 26.6.1924.

Deposit of compensation (Rules 6 to 10) : In a death case the compensation shall be

deposited with Form-A and in other cases with Form-AA. The receipt will be in Form-B.
The statement of disbursements to be given to the employer (by commissioner) shall be in
Form-C. A dependant's application for order to deposit compensation shall be in Form G.
 Deposit u/s 8(2) i.e. any sum more than Rs. 10/shall be in Form-D and its receipt
shall be in Form-E.

The Commissioner shall display a list of deposits received by him and invest for the
benefit of dependants in Government securities or Post Office cash certificates or Post
Office Savings Bank.

Reports of Accidents (Rules II &. 12) : Report of accident u/s IOB shall be in Form
EE. An employer can present a memorandum of inquiry of any accident.

Medical Examination (Rule 13 to 18) : The employer shall arrange free of charge
medical examination at his premises or at the workman's residence. Time will be between 6
a.m. to 7 p.m. if the workman does not consent to other time. A workman receiving half
monthly payment will be examined at his residence and not more than twice in the first
month or more than once in any subsequent month. After suspension of right to
compensation, if the workman offers himself for examination, he shall be examined within
72 hours at the place and time fixed by the employer. Woman shall be examined by in
presence of a female doctor.

Others : Chapters 5 to 8 are for procedure, transfer, appointment of representatives

and memorandum of agreement (Forms K, L or M and notice to party in Form-0)
respectively.

For figures of compensated injuries and amount of compensation paid under the WC
Act see Table 5.11 of Chapter 5.

See IS'.3786 for injury rates and accident classification (Part 9 & 10 of Chapter 5).

Compensation for Occupational Diseases:

Compensation for occupational diseases is payable u/s 3 of the Workmen's

Compensation Act, 1923. Subsections (2 to 4) provide as under:

3.8 Contracting of the disease peculiar to the employment and specified in Part A, B & C
of Schedule III (mentioned in foregoing part 7.2.4) is to be considered as an injury by
accident arisen out of and in the course of the employment.
3.9 For Part A diseases, compensation is payable irrespective of any length of service as
the incidence rate or possibility of such diseases is high and very obvious.
3.10 For Part B diseases, compensation is payable provided a service of 6 months is
completed, as these diseases are very specific to certain chemicals and their incidence
rate is slightly lower than that of Part A diseases.
3.11 For Part C diseases, compensation is payable, irrespective of length of service and
even if the affected worker has worked under one or more employers, as these are
lung diseases and their
Effect is delayed i.e. visible after 5 to 10 years of service.
5. Compensation is payable for Part B & C diseases even after the cessation of the
service.
3.9 For Part C diseases and for working under more than one employer, all the employers
are liable to pay compensation in proportions decided by the W.C. Commissioner.
7 For any other disease, if it is directly attributable to a specific injury by accident
. arising out of
 and in the course of employment, the compensation is payable.
9. Compensation is not payable if any suit for damages is filed in the court or a suit for
damages shall not be maintainable if a claim for compensation is filed before the
W.C. Commissioner, or if any agreement is made between the workman and his
employer to pay in accordance with the WC Act.
- The doctor shall refer Schedule I while assessing percentage loss of earning capacity.
4 The maximum period of half-monthly payment for temporary disablement is 5 years,
and wage limit of Rs. 4000 is not applicable in this case.

3. Worked Examples :

Section 4 and Schedule I, III and IV are to be seen simultaneously. Monthly wage
limit is Rs.
4000.

For example, if death occurs due to any disease mentioned in Sch. Ill, payment
should be as per section 4 (1) (a).

Example I : A worker of 24 years (completed) and drawing monthly wages of Rs. 3800,
dies due to any disease mentioned in Part A or C or any disease in Part B if his service is of
more than 6. months, amount of compensation shall be
15. 0.50 x 3800 x 218.47 (Age factor)
16. 1900 x 218.47 = Rs. 4,15,093 or Rs. 8,000 whichever is more..

Note : If monthly wages are more than Rs. 4000 per month, consider Rs. 4000/- only for the
purpose of calculation. Age factor is derived from Schedule IV based on completed years of
age.

Example 2 :A worker gets any of the permanent total disablement mentioned in Part I of
Sch. I, due to occupational disease in Part III, and his age and monthly wages are 48 and Rs.
5600 respectively. Compensation will be
1. 0.60 x 4000 x 159.80
2. 2400 x 159.80 = Rs. 3,83,520 or Rs. 90000 whichever is more.

Example 3 : A worker loses partial vision of one eye (item 26A, part II, Sch. 1) due to
occupational cataract by infrared radiation (item II, Part B, Sch. Ill) at the completed age of
40 with monthly wages Rs. 6500. Compensation shall be
4. 0.10 x 4000 x 184.17
5. 400 x 184.17 = Rs. 73668.

Example 4 :A worker suffering from silicosis (e.g. any lung disease) - injury not specified
in Sch. I, but certified by a doctor as '80% loss of earning capacity (permanent partial
disablement)' at his age of 58 and monthly wages Rs. 9600, his compensation shall be

1. 0.80 x 4000 x 124.70

2. 3200 x 124.70 = Rs. 3,99,040.
Example 5 : A worker's whole middle finger is amputated (item 31, Part II, Sch. 1) due to
chrome ulceration and his lung damaged by 30% permanent partial disablement as assessed
by the doctor, due to exposure to chromium vapors, and his age and monthly wages being 38
and Rs. 5600 respectively, his compensation shall be -
5. For finger damage
0.12 x 4000 x 189.56
480 x 189.56 = Rs. 90988.80

6. For lung damage

0.30 x 4000 x 189.56
1200 x 189.56 = Rs. 2,27,472

Total Rs. 90988.80 + 227472.00

= Rs. 3, 18,460.80

Comparing with permanent total disablement [Sec 4(1) (C), Explanation - 1]

19. 0.60 x 4000 x 189.56

20. 2400 x 189.56 = Rs. 4, 54,944 or Rs. 90000 whichever is more.

As amount Rs. 318460.80 does not exceed Rs. 454944, total compensation payable in
this case is Rs. 318460.80.

Example 6 :A worker worked in three sugar mills in a continuous period of 16 years and it
was detected that he was suffering from bagassosis due to sugarcane dust. This was found at
his age of 45 and monthly wages Rs. 7800. The lung damage (permanent partial
disablement) assessed by a doctor is 50%. Calculate the compensation payable by each, of
the three employers.

Compensation
4. 0.50 x 4000 x 169.44
5. 2000 x 169.44 = Rs. 338880

As per Section (2-A), each employer may pay Rs. 338880/3 = Rs. 112960 to the
worker, or in the proportion decided by the WC Commissioner depending on the facts of his
case. The employer in whose sugar mill suppose the dust concentration was higher or for
longer duration, may be directed by the Court to pay more proportion of the total amount.

Example 7: A worker while handling organo phosphorous compound, undergoes toxic

effect and remains absent for 3 months as per medical finding of this cause and advice. To
what compensation he is entitled for this temporary disablement? He is drawing Rs. 4500
per month.

As per Section 4 (1) (d), he is entitled to a half monthly payment of 25% of his
monthly wages i.e.. 0.25 x 4500 = Rs. 1125 from the 16th day from the date of disablement.

Here ceiling of Rs. 4000 per month is not applicable. It is applicable to death or
permanent total disablement only [Explanation II to Sec 4 (1)].
EMPLOYERS' LIABILITY ACT, 1938

This Act (24 of 1938) came into force from 249-1938. It was lastly amended by an
Act 51 of 1970. It is a small Act of five sections only. Its preamble declares that certain
defences shall not be raised in suits for damages in respect of injuries sustained by
workmen.

It extents to the whole of India and applies to all employers including contractors and
agents who employ workmen-(including apprentice) under a contract which is express or
implied.

Defence of common employment barred : Where personal injury is caused to a

workmen because of the act or negligence or omission of the employer or of any person in
service of the employer and acting in obedience or performing duty by the workman, a suit
for damages by the injured workman or by his legal representative in case of his death, shall
not fail by reason only of the fact that the workman was in the service (duty bound to do so
and in common employment or he has accepted that risk) of the employer at that time.

Any term in contract of service or apprenticeship that excludes or limits liability of

the employer in respect of personal injury caused to the workmen or apprentice by the
negligence of persons in common employment with him, shall be void.

In any such suit for damages, it shall not be presumed that the workman undertook
the risk attaching to the employment unless the employer proves that the risk was fully
explained to and understood by the workman and that the workman voluntarily undertook
the same.

This Act gives support to the claim (damages) of the worker in civil suits. Plea of the
employer of 'contributory negligence by the worker or his knowingly acceptance of the risk
as an integral part of his employment' is prohibited and this defence is not permitted for him.
Though after fully amending ESI Act and WC Act and covering large scope of injuries and
compensation, utility of this Act is diminished.

EMPLOYEES' STATE INSURANCE ACT & RULES

THE EMPLOYEES' STATE INSURANCE ACT, 1948:

This Act No. 34 of 1948 (in force from 31-31948) was modified in 1950,1956 and
1957 and amended in 1951, 1966, 1970,1975,1984 and 1989. It has 8 Chapters, 100 Sections
and 2 Schedules. Chapter 4 of contributions and Chapter 5 of Benefits are more important.

Preliminary (Sec. 1) : The Act applies to the whole of India and to all factories other
than seasonal factories. It can be applied to establishment industrial, commercial,
agricultural or otherwise with six months' notice. Once the Act applies it shall continue even
if the number of employees falls below the limit or the manufacturing process (with power)
ceases.

Definitions (Sec. 2) : Contribution means the sum of money payable to the ESI
Corporation by the principal employer in respect of an employee and an amount payable by
or on behalf of the employee.

Dependent includes many relatives as prescribed by Sec.2 (6-A).

Employment injury means an injury to employee caused by accident or occupational

disease arising out of and in course of his employment (insurable) whether the accident or
disease takes place within or outside India.

Employee includes direct, contract or hired persons at main factory or establishment

or its department, branch or a place for sale/purchase and also an apprentice (not under the
Apprentices Act, 1961). His wage limit (excluding overtime wages) be prescribed by the
Central Government.

Family is defined u/s 2(11)

Permanent partial disablement means such disablement of a permanent nature as

reduces the earning capacity of an employee in every employment which he was capable of
undertaking at the time of the accident resulting in the disablement (All injuries in Part II of
the 2nd Schedule). .

Permanent total disablement means such disablement of a permanent nature as

incapacitates an employee for all work which he was capable of performing at the time of
the accident resulting in such disablement (All injuries in Part I of the 2nd schedule or from
combination of injuries in Part II thereof).

Temporary disablement means a condition which requires medical treatment and

makes the employee temporarily incapable of doing the work which he was doing prior to
the time of injury.

Wages includes all remuneration except contribution to any pension fund or

provident fund or under this Act, travelling allowance, gratuity and special expenses.

Corporation's Power for Health Measures (Sec. 19) : The Corporation may, in
addition to the scheme of benefits, promote measures for the improvement of health and
welfare, rehabilitation and reemployment of insured persons from the funds of the
Corporation.

Purposes of the ESI Fund (Sec. 28) :

(5) Payment of benefits and medical treatment to insured persons and their families.
(6) Expenditure of hospitals, dispensaries, medical and ancillary services for the insured
persons and their families.
(7) Contribution to State Govt., local authority or any private body or individual towards
cost of medical treatment to insured persons and their families, including cost of
building and equipment.

= Expenditure for improvement of health, welfare, rehabilitation and re-employment of

 insured or injured persons.
= Payment of fees, salaries, allowances of the members, officers and staff.
= Payment of cost of auditing accounts, courts set up under the Act, contract and cost
of any legal or court proceedings.

Contributions (Chapter- 4, Sec. 38 to 45-1) : Two types (i) Employer's contribution

and (ii) Employee's contribution. Rates may be prescribed by the Central Government.
Payment becomes due on the last day of the wage period. Interest 12% p.a. or more for the
late payments. It is recoverable as an arrears of land revenue. The principal employer shall
pay both the contributions and can recover from the employees or their immediate employer
(e.g. contractor) their part. Register of- employees, contributions necessary and returns are
also required.

ESI Inspectors have powers to visit factories, establishments etc. and to ask any
principal or immediate employer to furnish necessary information, account books, records
etc. regarding employment of persons, payment of wages etc. and can make copies also for
the purposes of this Act.

Benefits (Chapter-5, Sec. 46 to 73 1) : Insured persons, their dependants or other

persons mentioned can get following benefits under the Act and no similar benefits under
any other Act. Though they can get similar benefits available under service conditions,
customary concession, sickness leave, motor accident claims under the Motor Vehicles Act
and damages/compensation for injuries due to the negligence of the employer (Judgements).

1 Sicknessbenefit : Periodical payments for sickness certified by a Doctor. Eligibility,

. rates and
conditions may be prescribed by the Central Government.

(2) MaternityBenefit : Periodical payments to an insured woman in case of confinement,

misscarriage, sickness due to pregnancy, premature birth etc. on medical certificate.
Eligibility, rates, period and conditions may be prescribed by the Central
Government.

(3) Disablementbenefit : Periodical payment to an insured person for disablement due to

employment injury and certified by a doctor.

For temporary disablement of more than 3 days (excluding the day of

accident) and
For permanent disablement - total or partial - this benefit is available at the
rate, period and condition prescribed by the Central Government.

An accident shall be presumed as arisen in course of employment, in the absence of

evidence to the contrary. Benefit is available for accident happening while acting
inbreach of regulation or while travelling in employer's transport or while meeting
emergency and acting for the employer's trade or business.

3.77 Dependants'benefit : Periodical payments to the dependants of an insured person who

dies due to employment injury. The rates, period and conditions may be prescribed
by the Central Government.

3.78 Medicalbenefit : Payment for medical, surgical and obstetric treatment for and
 attendance on insured persons, by the State Government or the Corporation.

3.79 Funeral expenses.: Payment to the family member or any other person who
actually incurs
The claims should be made within 3 months of the death of the insured person.

Occupational Disease as an Employment injury : Contracting of any disease

mentioned in the Third Schedule and in its

Part A -without any period in that employment,

Part B - for working more than 6 months in that employment, or
Part C -for working such period as the Corporation specifies,

Shall be deemed to be an "Employment injury arising out of and in the course of

employment".

Any question regarding permanent disablement or proportion of loss of earning

capacity or any such assessment, shall be determined by a Medical Board. An appeal against
the decision of the medical board may lie with the Medical Appeal Tribunal. Both the Board
and the Tribunal can review their decisions if satisfied by fresh evidence.

The corporation may, with the approval of the State Government, establish and
maintain in the State hospitals, dispensaries, medical and surgical services for the benefit of
the insured persons and their families.

The right to receive any payment of any benefit is not transferable or assignable.
Disablement benefit cannot be commuted for a lump sum amount.

Sickness or disablement benefit for temporary disablement cannot be availed if the

employee works on that day (of claim) or remains on leave or on a paid holiday or on strike.

Recipient of sickness or disablement benefit will observe conditions to remain under

medical treatment at a place provided under this Act, to carry out medical instructions, not to
leave the area, to allow himself for medical examination and not to do anything which may
retard chances of recovery.

An insured person cannot get for the same period (a) both sickness and maternity
benefit or (b) both sickness and temporary disablement benefit or (c) both maternity and
temporary disablement benefit. When a person is entitled to more than one such benefits, he
has to choose any one benefit.

The corporation has right to recover where a principal employer fails or neglects to
pay any contribution, or any amount for excessive sickness arised due to in sanitary working
conditions or not observing any health regulations.

If any person receives any benefit unlawfully, he shall be liable to repay to the
corporation that amount.

If any person dies, any cash benefit payable to him shall be paid to his
nominee/representative upto and including the day of his death.
 No employer can reduce wages or benefits payable by him under service conditions
because of the benefits conferred by this Act.

No employer can dismiss or punish employee during period of sickness, maternity,

temporary disablement or certified illness etc. Notice of dismissal, discharge or reduction
during such period shall be invalid or inoperative.

A person who misuses the benefit given under this Act, will be disentitled by the Central
Government after giving him an opportunity of being heard.

Miscellaneous (Sec. 87 to 100) : The Government has power of exemptions. Rule

making powers lies with the Central as well as the State Governments. The Corporation has
power to make regulations. For their subjects see sections 95 to 97.

THE EMPLOYEES' STATE INSURANCE (CENTRAL) RULES 1950:

They came into force from 22-6-1950. The Chapter-6, sections 47 to 62 are
important as they provide further details on the subject of provident fund, wage limit, rates
of contribution and benefits. Their summary is as under:

P.F.: The Corporation shall establish, maintain, and contribute to the "ESIC
Provident Fund" for insured employees. It shall form a committee and regulations for its
working.

Contribution period and Benefit period :

They are prescribed as under :

Contribution Period Corresponding Benefit Period

1st January to 30th June of the year
1st April to 30th Sept. following
1st Oct. to 31st March of the year following 1st July to 31st December

Incase of a person who becomes an employee for the first time, the first contribution
period for him will begin from the date he enters into insurable employment in the
contribution period current on that day (i.e. the date of employment) and his corresponding
benefit period will begin on the expiry of nine months from the date of such employment.

Wage Limit for Coverage : Up to Rs. 10000/ - p.m. w.e.f. 1-4-2006.

Rates of Contribution : Employer's contribution 4.75% of the wages payable to an

employee. Employee's contribution 1.75% of his wages (w.e.f. 11-1997). An employee
whose average daily wage is upto Rs. 50/- is exempted from paying his contribution though
the employer's contribution in respect of such employee, shall continue (News, 7-9-97).

Standard benefit rate : As per Table, u/r 54. Revised with 18 entries w.e.f. 1-1-1997.

Sickness benefit : It is available if the contribution is paid for 50% of days of the
contribution period. For the first two days of sickness the benefit is not available. For
maximum 91 days in any two consecutive period the benefit can be available. Payment rate
 is the standard benefit rate u/r 54.

Maternity benefit: At least 70 days contribution during preceding two consecutive

contribution periods make the insured women eligible for this benefit. For maximum 12
weeks the benefit is available. Medical proof is necessary. Payment rate is twice the
'standard benefit rate' u/r 54.

Disablement benefit: It is available for the disablement period of more than 3 days
(excluding the day of accident) and for the whole period of permanent disablement or for
life. Daily rate of payment shall be 40% more than the standard benefit rate u/r 54, and this
rate shall be called the "full rate". For temporary and permanent total disablement, full rate
is available, but for permanent partial disablement
from injury specified in Part II of the 2nd schedule, at such percentage of the full rate and
for injury not specified in that schedule, at proportionate to the loss of earning capacity
(assessed by the medical certificate) the benefit will be available.

Dependants" benefit: To widow 3/5 of the full rate (till life or remarriage), to son 2/5
of the full rate (until he attains 18 years age), to unmarried daughter 2/5th of the full rate
(until the age of 18 years or marriage whichever is earlier). If no widow or children, then, to
a parent or grand parent for life 3/ 10 of the full rate, to any other male dependent till his age
of 18 and to any other female dependent till the age of 18 or marriage, whichever is earlier
or if widowed, until her age of,18 or remarriage whichever is earlier at 2/10 ofthe full rate.
Total rate shall not exceed full rate and the amount shall be equally divided among the
dependants.

Funeral expenses: Rs. 2500/- from 1-10-2001.

1. The Employees' State Insurance (General) Regulations, 1950 :

The corporation has made u/s 97, these regulations, w.e.f. 17-10-1950 to provide
further details. Some summary is given below:

Provisions of identity card, family identity care Inspector, Insurance Medical Officer,
Insurance Number, local office, regional office, regional director local committees are
explained.

Registration of factories, establishments and families is required. Return of

contributions, in Form No. 6, in 4 copies is to be sent to the ESI office Contributions should
be paid within 21 days of the last day of the month in which it fall due. In case of permanent
closure, it should be paid on the last. day of closure. For late payment, interest at 15% p.a is
payable. In addition to this, damages are also payable as under:

N
o
. Delay Period % P.A. damages
1
. Upto 2 months 3
2
. 2 to 4 months 10
3 4 to 6 months 15
 .
4
. 6 months and above 25

Register of employees should be in Form-7.

Benefits (Chapter 3, Regulation 44 to 95E) :For any benefit, proper claim form
should be filledin Claim becomes due from the date of medical certificate and it shall be
certified by the Local Office, which can ask further evidence also. Medical certificate from
Insurance Medical Officer is necessary.

Benefits (first payment) are payable as under

N
o Ty
. pe To be paid within
1 Sickness
. benefits 7 days
2 Funeral
. expenses 15 days
3 Maternity
. benefit 14 days
4 Temporary
. disablement 30 days
5 Permanent
. disablement 30 days
6 Dependant’s
. benefit 90 days
Disablement Benefit :An employee will inform employer about accident to him.
Employer willrecord it in an Accident Book in Form No. 15 and will report to die Local
Office in Form No. 16 within 24 hours. For occupational disease specified in 3rd schedule
no such notice is necessary but information required by the Local Office shall be given.
Employer shall arrange for the first aid.

Dependants benefit :Death of an insured person is to be reported immediately to the

LocalOffice and his body shall be disposed of 'after examination (and post-mortem if
necessary) by Insurance Medical Officer or other Medical Officer. Death certificate in Form
17 shall be issued to the dependants. Claim for dependants' benefit will be submitted in
Form 18 to the Local Office, with documents and proofs prescribed u/r 80.

Maternity Benefit :An insured woman will give notice in Form 19 and pregnancy
certificate inForm 20 to the Local Office. Other Forms 21, 22, 23 are also required as per
Reg. 88. She may loose benefit if refuse for medical examination by a female doctor or
midwife.

Funeral expenses: Death certificate in Form 15 and claim Form 25-A are prescribed.

Medical benefit :A person receiving disablement benefit can also get medical
benefit. Thisbenefit is available after payment of contributions for 50% days of the
contribution period and for a period of 3 months if he is continued in the service for 2
months or more.
 Some 28 forms have been prescribed under these Regulations.

For .figures of number of factories and employees covered and benefits given under
the ES. Act see Table 5.13 and 5.14 of Chapter-5.

Criticism : This ESI scheme logically and theoretically seems beneficial for well
being of theworkers but in its practice of more than 45 years it has gained heavy criticism
because of its

1. Poor administration.
2. Incapacity to provide speedy service to thousands of workers and their families.
2. Insufficient hospitals, dispensaries, doctors, facilities and staff.
3. Rude and rigid behaviour with workers who need love and affection.
4. Complexity of forms and procedure.
5. Hardship to workers in going to limited centres and at a longer distance.
6. Poor quality of medicines and treatment.
7. No real interest in worker's welfare 'and referring him here and there.
8. More stress in collecting money than 'disbursement of benefits to workers.
9. Profit making attitude instead of charitable.

Because or above factors not only employers out employees and their trade unions
have also opposed this scheme and resisted against its forceful application. Insured
employees prefer to go to private doctors and hospitals for better treatment. They are loosing
faith from ESI doctors, their treatment and medicines. Only poorer workers go there under
compulsion.

As per one news report of 25-8-1997, even after raising the eligibility wage limit
from. Rs. 3500 to Rs. 6500 per month and similar increase in employers' contributions there
is no improvement in ESI medical services. On the contrary the condition is deteriorated.
Despite of increase in number of employees and income of the Scheme, strength of doctors
is reduced. In 1995 there were 3160 doctors which reduced to 3076 in 1996. In 1991 there
was, one doctor per 2127 members While in 1996 that
proportion was one doctor per 2374 members! The Government gives subsidy also. Even
then the service is not satisfactory.

It is suggested in this report that the Government should give Health Insurance
Policies to the members to make the Scheme more meaningful.

In another press-note of Financial Express dated 4-9-97, it is confessed that many

States are giving less importance to the Scheme and the Corporation has become a silent
spectator and the quality of the Scheme has gone down. The Central Administration is
unable to pay full attention and therefore it is, now, decided to establish State Corporations
under the control of the Central ESI Corporation.

Where ESI scheme is made applicable, a trend is noticed of increase in accidents.

This may be due to a wrong approach of workers' to take benefit of accident leaves. This
again adds to the loss of national production.

ESI authorities and corporation has to find and apply remedial measures to above
 problems.

Expansion of infrastructure, HRD training to doctors and staff, loving and charitable
attitude, less contribution and higher benefit utilising full income, better hospitals, nice
dispensaries, good facilities and speedy service can certainly change its present scenario.
 International Labour Organization Structure
Cooperation between government and employers and workers organisations is
important for working with ILO. The ILO accomplishes its work through three main
bodies, which are as follows:

1. International Labour Conferences ( ILC ) : ILC is the Policy-making organ of

the ILO it comprises of 4 representatives representing governments, employers and
workers in the ratio 2:1:1. ILC holds its sessions once in a year Delegates to this
session may be accompanied by advisory not exceeding two for each item on the
agenda. Delegates have the right to choose the committee, they have wished to serve
and once registered a member of a committee, they have the right to speak and to
vote. Because of this voluntary selection of committee, the representation of groups
on any particular committee may not be equal. Consequently, when votes are taken
the voting of each group is ‘’weighted’’ so that the total voting power of each of the
three groups is equal. Each committee elects its own officers –a chairperson and a
worker and employers vice chairperson. Just as with the Conference as a whole
government. Workers groups and employers groups within the committees hold their
own separate meeting to discuss their views of the matters of agenda. Observer from
trade union organisations with a special knowledge of the subject Participates in the
worker’s group it has become the tradition that one such observer is elected secretary
of the group and , is informally recognised as having a special position in the plenary
sessions of the committee. These committees are:

1. The Credential Committee.

2. The Selection Committee.
3. The Resolution Committee.
4. A Committee for the application of Conventions and Recommendations;
5. The Drafting Committee.
6. The Committee on Standing Order.
7. The Finance Committee.

Functions of ILC:
 i. To formulate International Labour Standards.
ii. To fix the amount of contribution by the member states.
iii. To decide the expenditure budgeted estimate proposed by the Director-General
and submitted to the Governing Body.
iv. To make amendments to the constitution subject to subsequent ratification of
the amendment by 2/3 member states including 5 of the 10 states of industrial
importance.
v. To consider the report of the director General giving labour problems and
assists in their solution.
vi. To appoint committees to deal with different matters doing each session.
vii. To select once in 3 years members of the Governing Body.
viii. To elect its President.
ix. To seek an advisory opinion from the International Committee of justice.
x. To confirm the powers, functions and procedure of Regional Conference.

2. Governing Body:
It is the Principal organ of the ILO. It is ow political non-political parties body. It
implements decisions of the ILC with the help of the International Labour Office ,
Out of the 56 members in it, 28 represent the governments, 14 employers and 14
labour India is one of the ten states of chief Industrial importance, The tenure of
office of this body is 3 Years it meets several times a year to take decisions on the
programmes of the ILO.
Functions of Governing Body
Functions of Governing Body are as follows:

i. To coordinate work of the organisation,

ii. To prepare agenda for each session and subject to the decision of the ILC to
decide what subject should be included in the agenda of the ILC.
iii. To appoint the Director General of the office.
iv. To scrutinise the budget.
v. To follow up the implementation of the conventions and recommendations
adopted by the ILC by member states.
vi. To fix the date, duration and agenda of the Regional conference.

3. International Labour Officer:

This is the third major and important organ of the ILO. The Director- General of the
ILO is the Chief Executive of the secretariat. He is appointed by the Governing
Body. His tenure is for 10 years and his term may be extended by the Governing
Body.
Functions of International Labour Office:
 i. To prepare documents on the times of the agency for the conference.
ii. To assist governments informing legislate on the basis of the decisions of the
ILC.
iii. To carry out its functions related to the observance of the conventions.
iv. To bring out publications dealing with industrial labour problems of
international interest.
v. To collect and distribute information of international labour and social
problems.

Impact of ILO on Labour Welfare in India

Labour class is defined one of the classes most vulnerable to exploitation if not the
most. Most of the labour laws in India are pre-constitutional. The concept of
Fundamental Rights was introduced by the Constitution. Although most of the pre-
constitutional laws have been replaced or curtailed following the Doctrine of Eclipse
and Doctrine of Severability, not a lot of changes had to be made to the labour laws
that were well passed before the Constitution.
The success of these labour laws must be attributed to the ILO, as the guidelines
issued by the ILO were formed the principles on which laws were drawn. By
observing the passage of Labour Laws in India ,through the various amendments, it
is evident that the ILO did have a great impact on the Labour Laws in India.
IOL CONVENTION AND RECOMMANDATION CONCERNING
OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY
LIST OF IMPORTANT CONVENTION
CONVENTION SUBJECT YEAR
NO
45 UNDERGROUND WORK(WOMEN)CONVENTION 1935
77 MEDICAL EXAMINATION OF YOUNG PERSON 1946
(INDUSTIAL OCCUPATIONAL)
78 MEDICAL EXAMINATION OF YOUNG PERSON 1946
(NON INDUSTIAL OCCUPATIONAL)
115 RADIATION PROTECTION CONVENTION 1960
120 HYGINE CONVENTION 1964
124 MEDICAL EXAMINATION OF YOUNG PERSON 1965
(UNDERGROUND WORK )
130 MEDICAL CASE & SICKNESS BENEFIT 1969
CONVENTION
139 OCCUPATIONAL CANCER CONVENTION 1974
148 WORKING ENVIRONMENT 1977
(HIV, NOICE, VIBRETION)
 152 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY & HEALTH CONVENTION 1979
(DOCK WORK)
155 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY & HEALTH CONVENTION 1981
161 OCCUPATINAL HEALTH SERVICE CONVENTION 1985
162 ASBESTOS CONVENTION 1986
167 SAFETY & HEALTH IN CONSTRUCTION 1988
CONVENTION
170 CHEMICAL CONVENTION 1990
171 NIGHT WORK CONVENTION 1990
174 PREVENTION OG MAJOR INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENT 1993
176 SAFETY & HEALTH IN MINES 1995
184 SAFETY & HEALTH IN AGRICULTURE 2001
CONVENTION
187 PROMOTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR OCCUPATIONAL 2006
SAFETY & HEALTH CONVENTION

LIST OF IMPORTANT RECOMMENDATION

RECOMMENDATION SUBJECT YEAR

NO
156 WORKING ENVIRONMENT (AIR POLLUTION, NOISE 1977
& VIBRATION )
164 OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY & HEALTH 1981
171 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH SERVICE 1985
RECOMMENDATION
172 ASBESTOS RECOMMENDATION 1986
175 SAFETY & HEALTH IN CONSTRUCTION 1988
177 CHEMICAL RECOMMENDATION 1990
178 NIGHT WORK RECOMMENDATION 1990
182 PREVENTION OF MAJOR INDUSTRIAL ACCIDENT 1993
183 SAFETY & HEALTH IN MINES 1995
192 SAFETY & HEALTH IN AGRICULTURE 2001
194 LIST OF OCCUPATIONAL DISEASE

197 PROMOTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR OCCUPATIONAL 2006

SAFETY & HEALTH
 CHAPTER -1 MACHINE OPERATION AND GUARDING

MACHINE GUARDING: -
Machines are dangerous because they are designed to change the shape
and form of materials which human strengthcannot do. Whenever man and machine meet, the
possibility of accident is always there.
Foran accident to take place of a machine the part of a person must be in the danger area and
the dangerous part of machinery must make a motion. The aim of machine guarding is that
these two things do not take place at the same time. In other words, a machinery guard is a
barrier or device to prevent a person or his clothing coming in contact with the dangerous
parts of machinery.

Generally, it is aiding that 85% industrial accidents are due to human failure. So, on the face
value we can say that all that needs to be done is to eliminate those unsafe acts. But human
nature is unpredictable and we cannot rely upon, he skill and expertise of the operator
working on a machine. Physical, mental and emotional variances cause different people to
perform differently in the same environment, and the same individual acts differently at
different times under the same set of conditions. SO, it is always better to eliminate unsafe
conditions which are a positive permanent gain.
 ERGONOMICSOFMACHINEGUARDING:
Many a time accident had taken place on machines although the guard was there. This meant
that the guards were not effective and wore not functioning for the purpose for which they
were installed. There may be some fault in the design or operation. The following points
should be considered i" the design of the guard: -
 It should provide positive protection and prevent all the access to the danger zone during
operation. It is not enough for the guard to give only a signal or an alarm to warn.
 It should not cause discomfort or inconvenience to the operator.
 It should not unnecessarily interfere with production.
 It should work with minimum effort.
 It should be suitable for the job and the machine.
 It should not weaken the structure of the machine. This may arise when guards are not
incorporated in the original design and are provided later on.
It should be durable and resist normal wear and shock and should require minimum
maintenance.

 It should not constitute a hazard by itself. Splinters, sharp corners, rough edges, traps between
the guard and the moving part which it is guarding should be avoided.

As the main function of the guard is to prevent a person coming in contact with moving parts
of the machine, data based on human measurements is very important for proper design of the
guards. A person can reach upwards, over, into, around and through.

Upward reach
A dangerous part which is beyond an upward reach of 8'6" is regarded as position ally safe in
the absence of conditions to the contrary

Reach over Carriers

a) If the barrier is low, body can be bent and reach will be longer than the length of the arm.
b) If the barrier is at armpit, reach is equal to length of the arm.
c) If the barrier is above shoulder height, reach is equal, to length of the forearm.
d) If the barrier is still higher, reach is equal to the length of the hand or fingers.

Reach into pits

Height of the- side of the hoppers etc. determines the extent of reach.

Reach around Barriers

Reach is interrupted by the elbow joint or by the wrist depending upon the- length of the side
of the barrier and Position of the man in relation to the barrier.

Reach into openings admitting fingers or hand

a) No reach is possible through openings less than 1 cm x 1 cm.
b) If opening admits one, two or three fingers, reach is restricted to maximum length of the
largest finger.
c) If opening admits four fingers, then size and shape of the opening will be an important factor
in determining the extent of reach.
d) If opening admits four fingers and the thumb, reach is limited by -
i) thickness of the hand
ii) thickness of the wrist
iii) thickness of the arm at various points.

If theopening is with parallel sides, maximum safe opening = in (6mm.) + 1/8 distance of the
guard from danger point.The following table gives safe opening at various distances from
danger point.

Distance (in mm) Opening (in mm)

0 - 40 6
40 - 65 10
65 - 95 12
90 - 140 15
140 - 165 20
165 - 190 22
190 - 320 30
320 -400 40
400 - 450 50
450 - 800 55
Over800 150 maxes

It must be borne in mind that actual physical check must be made to see that the opening is
safe.
The minimum distance of the guard from danger line for 6 mm deep opening should be 6
mm.
In case of rolls instead of considering the point of contact of the rolls are danger line, a 10
mm. nip zone should be considered as danger line.
 Other Devices

Many a time a large number of machinery accidents can be avoided by the use of incidental
safety devices. These devices arc- not guards but they help to do certain operations without
any chance of part of the body coming in contact with the moving parts.

Examples are:

 Use of tongs and vacuum feeding devices for power press.

 Striking gear for shifting bolts from fast to lose pulley and vice versa

 Non-repeat device on a power press which does not permit the second

 stroke even if the pedal is kept depressed.

 Emergency stops on machines.

DANGEROUS PARTS OF MACHINES

These can be divided into three broad groups:
(1) Point-of-Operation.
(2) Transmission machinery.
(3) Other dangerous parts.

These parts cause injury due to their rotary or reciprocating movement and their cutting and
shearing action. Sometimes safety can be achieved by design and construction. The hazards
can be completely eliminated or severity of injury can be reduced. In other cases, suitable
guards can protect against direct contact with the moving parts, work in process and against
any mechanical or human failure.
TYPES OF GUARDS: -
Fixed Guard:One of the most effective method of machine guarding, to date has been to fix
some kind of barrier around the dangerous area. A fixed guard provides the highest standard
of protection and should be used as far as practicable where access to the danger area is not
required during normal operation of the machinery.

Interlocking Guards: When a process demands access to the danger are and fixed guard is
impracticable the provision of interlocking guard should be considered. The interlocking
system may be either mechanical or electrical f a combination of both the guard must safe
guard the dangerous parts before the machine can be operated maintain the guarding till the
dangerous parts have come to rest and only then the safe guard can be removed

Automatic Guard: Where neither fixed nor interlocking guard is practicable, automatic
guard can be
used. This guard physically removes from the danger area, any body part of a person. This
guard can be used only where there is adequate time for physical removal from the danger
area to take place without introducing any further danger.

Trip Guard: On machines which are normally in continuous motion where hands or other
parts of a person have temporally to enter a space swept by the dangerous parts or where
entanglement in an article or material being fed can occur, trip guard can effectively be used.
The guard is so arranging that an approach by a person beyond a safe limit causes the guard
to actuate the tripping mechanism to stop the machinery or reverse its motion. The tripping
device may be a mechanical or photo-electric or an infra-red device.

Two Hand Control: Where guarding is impracticable, two hand control offers a means of
protection, as both the hands of the operator are kept engaged away from the danger area. If
more than one person is to work on a machine, two hand control devices should be provided
for each operator and unless all the operators operate their device together the machine
should not start.
Fencing of Machinery (Guards)

Every moving part of prime mover

Every flywheel connected to prime mover
Headrace & tailrace of every water wheel & water turbine
Any part of stock-bar which project beyond the head stock of lathe
Every part of an eclectic generator, a motor, or rotary converter
Every part of transmission machinery
Every dangerous part of any other machinery
---------------------------- shall be securely fenced by safeguards of substantial construction.

Wood Working Machinery - (Wood Working Machinery means a circular saw, band saw,
planning machine, chair mortising machine or vertical spindle moldings machine operating
on wood or cork. Circular Saw means working in a bench which is moved towards the wood
for cutting operation. Band Saw means a band saw, the cutting portion of which runs in
vertical direction. Planning Machine means a machine for overhead planning or for
thickening or for both operations).
An efficient stopping and starting device shall be provided on every wood-working machine.
Every circular saw shall be, fenced as follows:
Behind and in direct line with the saw there shall be an arriving knife, which shall have
smooth surface, shall be strong, rigid and easily adjustable. The distance between the front
edge of the knife and the teeth of the saw shall not exceed 10mms. For a saw having dia. of
<60cms, the knife shall extend upwards from the bench table to within 25mms. of the ton of
the saw, for a saw having dia. of 60cms or over, shall extend upwards from the bench table to
a height of at least 22.5 cms.
The top of the saw shall be covered by a strong and easily adjustable guard, with a flange at
the side of the saw-farthest from the fence. The part of the saw below the bench table shall be
protected by two plates of metal one on each side of the saw. Such plate shall not be more
than 15cms apart and shall extend from the axis of the saw outwards to a distance of not less
than 5cms. beyond the teeth of the saw.

Push Sticks - A push stick shall be provided for use at every circular saw and at every
vertical spindle molding machine.
Vertical Spindle Molding Machine - The cutter of every vertical spindle molding machine
shall be guarded by the most efficient guard.

Planning Machine - shall net be used for overhead planning unless it is fitted with a
cylindrical cutter block very planning machine used for overhead planning shall be provided
with a "bridge" guard capable of covering the length and breadth of the cutting slot in the
bench.

The feed roller shall be provided with efficient guard am Mortising Machine - The chain of
every Chain Mortising Machine shall be provided with a guard which shall enclose the cutter.

Rubber and Plastic Mills - (Rubber and Plastic Mills means machine with rollers used in
breaking down, cracking, washing, grating, mixing, refining and warming of rubber and
plastics. A calendar means machine with rolls used for fractioning, sheeting, coating and
breading of rubber compounds and plastic or plastic compounds). Rubber and Plastic Mills
shall be equipped with Hoppers so guarded that it is impossible to come into contact in any
manner with the nip of rolls.
Safety- trip rods shall extend across the entire length of the face of the rolls and shall be
located not more than 170 cm above the floor or working level.
Colander machines shall be equipped with Horizontal Safety- trip rods across both front and
rear, which will when pushed or pulled operate instantly, to disconnect the power and apply
the brakes or to reverse the roll

Injunction MoldingMachine - An electrical interlock arrangement shall be provided so that

the mould cannot be closed unless the front safety gate is fully closed and on opening the
front safety gate, the molds will stop automatically

Centrifugal Machines - (Centrifugal Machine includes centrifugal extractors, de extractors,

separators and driers). Centrifugal Machines shall be provided with efficient interlocking
devices that will physically prevent the lids from being opened while the rotating drums or
baskets are in motion under power and would also prevent the starting of the drums or
baskets under power while the lids are open. Centrifugal Machines shall not be operated at a
speed in excess of the manufacture's rating.
All Centrifugal Machines shall be provided with effective braking arrangement to bring cage,
drum or basket to rest within short period of time after the power if. cut off. The cages, drums
or baskets shall be thoroughly examined by a competent person regularity to check their
balance.

Sheared, Slitters and Guillotine Machines - (Shears, Slitters and Guillotine Machines
means a machine, whether driven by power or otherwise, equipped with a straight blade
operating vertically against a resisting edge and used for shearing metals or non-metallic
substances).
A barrier metal guard shall be provided at the front of the knife, fastened to the machine
frame and shall be so fixed as would prevent any part of the operator's body to reach the
descending blade from above, below or through the barrier guard or from the sides.
At the back end of such machines, an inclined guard shall be provided over which the slit
pieces would slide and be Elected at a safe distance in a manner as would prevent a person at
the back from reaching the descending blade.

Sitting Machines - (Slitter or Slitting Machine means a machine equipped with circular disc-
type knives and used mg or cutting into metal or non-metallic substances or slitting them into
narrow strips) Circular disc-type knives shall be provided with guards enclosing the knife
edges.

Index Cutters and Vertical Paper Slitters- (Index Cutters and Vertical Paper Slitters used
for cutting strips from ends of books), shall be provided with fixed guards so arranged that
the fingers of operators cannot come been the blades and the tables.

Corner Cutters - (Corner Cutters used in the manufacture of paper boxes) shall be equipped
with suitable guards tended to the machine in front of the knives and provided with slots or
perforations to afford visibility of the oration

Band Knives - Band wheels or band knives and all portion of the blades shall be completely
enclosed with hinged is of sheet metal not less than 1mm in thickness.
 Agitators and Mixing Machines - (Agitators and Mixing Machines means a tank or other
container equipped with power driven mixing arms, blades or paddle wheels fixed to
revolving shafts or other simple mechanical devices for ending, stirring liquids with other
liquids or with solid substances or combinations of these).
When the top of an open agitator tank, beater tank, tank or paddle tank is less than 1m above
the adjacent floor or working level, adequate standard railing shall be installed on all open
sides. Agitator & mixing machines shall be provided with an efficient interlock arrangement
for the lop lid, to prevent access to the agitating stirring or similar devices, while in motion
and would prevent restart under power with the lid in open position. Openings at the top or
sides of the containers vessels of the agitator and mixing machines provided for inspection &
examinations shall be Divided with standard grill guards as would prevent access of any part
of operator’s body coming in contact with agitating, stirring while in motion. When
discharge holes, openings are provided at the bottom or at the sides of
containers vessels of the agitator and mixing machines, they shall be so guarded as would
prevent access of any part of operator’: body coming in contact with agitating, stirring while
in motion inside the vessel.

Leather. Plastic and Rubber Stripper Machines-

tappers for trimming or punching tanned hides, plastic or rubber sheets in leather making,
footwear manufacturing shall be provided with suitable devices which require simultaneous
action of both the hands of the operator or an automatic device which will remove both the
hands of the operator from the danger zone at every descent of the blade.punch or stripper
cutter. All couplings with projecting bolt heads and similar projections shall be completely
encased or effectively guarded as to prevent danger.

Machines Dangerous parts Types of guards

Textile machinery
Blow room machines Main drive, beater Separate motors, belt shifting device,
cover, grid bars, interlock guard, fixed fencing
dust chamber.
Lap M/c Lap forming Interlock guard
rollers.
Carding M/c Cylinder Interlock guard
Speed frames headstock Interlock guard
Calendaring Running rolls Nip guard
Cotton Ginning
Line shaft to run the Line Shaft Wall or fencing with locking doors
gins
Wood working
Machinery
Circular Saws The Saw A riving knife of prescribed dimensions
and setting.
Adjustable top guards, two metal plates
guards, push sticks.
Band Saw Top & bottom Fixed guards
pulleys and the
blade
Planning machine Cutting slot, freed Bridge guards (adjustable)- bridge guard
roller above the cutter to reduce access to the
cutter. The guard should be wider than the
gap in that table, to prevent contact of
hand with cutter.
Rubber mills
Rubber mill In-running rolls Height>96.5cm, a distance guard. Trip
guard within 1.8m height
Calendar machine In-running rolls Trip guard within 1.8m height, tight wire
cable connected with it
Other machines
Pedestal grinder Grinder wheel Adjustable safety glass screen
(Bench grinder)
Power press(punching) Point of operation- Fixed mesh guard in front of punch point.
continuous punch point
Power press(punching) Punch point Interlock guard
single stroke
Hand operated press Punch point Sliding guard – if ram goes up guard also
slides outside.
Milling machine Point of operation Telescopic guard, two-piece barrier guard-
guard is just front gate.
Drilling machine Point of operation Telescopic guard for radial & heavy
pedestal drilling m/c.
Split cage type guard to give access to
chuck.
Adjustable guards attached to fixed part of
the m/c.
Sensitive trip bar- sensitive trip bar
suspended closed to the drill switches off
power supply and applies a brake if the
trip bar is deflected. The sensitive trip bar
 is telescopic so that it can be adjusted to
suit the length of the drill.

Safety in the use of Machines:

Boring Machines
Hazards Guards
spindle contact Sleeve guard
Tool & chuck Telescopic drill guard
Hair loose clothing Cage type guard
Sweeping chips by hand Brush
Belt pulleys, gears Fixed guards
Rotating horizontal table Surrounding machine guard

Milling machines
Hazards Guards
Revolving cutter Jaw type interlocked or adjustable guard
or self-closing guard
Removing chips by hand Brush magnetic sweep
Failure to draw the job back to a safe Fixed guard
distance while loading or un-loading
Power drive belt pulleys, gears Fixed guards and start/stop switch within
reach

Planning machines
Hazards Guards
Bed traveling within 45cm of a fixed object Fixed guard. All gaps to be guarded
fall from the table or bed Fixed or self-adjusting table guards
Pulleys, belts, drives & reserving dogs Fixed guard and starting/stopping
device
Flying particles Goggles, aprons

Shapers
Hazards Guards
Speed changing pulley belts and Fixed or hinged guard
other drives
Flying chips Goggles, aprons
Flying jobs Clamping device
Moving ram & tool Transparent shield for tool. A retriever to limit of
the stroke of ram channel
Reversing dogs Fixed guard
Grinding machines
Hazards Guards
Flying particles Goggles, aprons
Dust generation Local exhaust ventilation
Bursting of wheel Protection hood (steel guard) and protection flanges.
Chucks or bands.
Portable grinders Segment guard. Electrically earthed. Shock proof
gloves
Belt drive and other Fixed guard
dangerous parts

HAND TOOLS AND POWER TOOLS

Main Causes of Tool Accident: Each year hand tools are round to be the source of about a
percent of all accidents ported under the factories Act. In all branches of industry numerous
hand tool and powered too! injuries are observed. Disabilities and injuries resulting from
hand and powered tools include loss of eyes and vision, puncture wounds from flying chips,
severed fingers, arteries etc. broken bones, contusion, infection from wound and numerous
other type injuries. The proportion of permanent disability case from the use of hand tools is
low as compared to such n many other activities like machine operation etc. flying particles
from mushroomed heads, over tempered points may cause many serious accidents. Many
fatalities result from the use of electric powered hand tools the minor tool
Injuries in hand tool accident are too large i.e. the lost time due to injury is high enough and
alarming. Therefore, hand tool injuries should be prevented and it is always profitable.
Different types of hand tools are used in different -try, mainly in metal working industries
and wood working trades. But some tools are common to all industries and woodworking
traders. But some tools are common to all industries. Hand tools are also used in maintenance
and repair work, construction, logging and lumbering. Certain special tools are also used for
special purpose, it is mainly the responsibility of the supervisory staff to keep the tools in safe
working condition, to check the unsafe methods of
use of tools, to select the right tool for the right job and making the working mass aware of
reducing the injuries.

The main causes of the tool accident (hand tool or powered tool) may be summarized as:
1. Wrong selection of tools
2. Improper use
3. Unsafe condition (Using Defective Tools) Due to lack of Knowledge and lack of
supervision.
4. Improper Storage/Stacking I
5. Improper Carrying.
6. No ear thing of electric tools.
 Control
1. Proper Supervision
2. Proper selection of tool (Proper tool and its material too)
3. Proper use (at right place in right way).
4. Safe working condition (Proper maintenance and repairing and supply).
5. Selection of right person (Trained person / Skilled person) For Proper job).
6. Proper storage, carrying and repair
7. Centralized control.

Safety practice.
1 Always use the proper personal protective equipment: Goggles for eyes, gloves for hands,
safety helmet for head and safety shoes for your legs.
2 Select the right tool for the job: Check unsafe practices - striking handed surface with
hardened head tool using a wrench as hammer, a file to be used as a pry etc. knife used as a
screw driver, pipe used on wrenches leverage etc.
3 Keep tools in good condition: Use of cracked or worn jaws of wrench, screw driver without
proper head, mushroomed head hammer or chisel, hammer with broken handle, dull saws
etc.
4 Use tools correctly: The common causes are: Screwdriver applied to job held in the hand.
Knives pulled towards your body. Hammer striking hardened tool. Placing the fingers or
thumb close to the bade when starting it's cut. Pliers and wire cutters cutting a line or
repairing files used without handles. Hitting a file with a hammer.
5 Keep tools in a safe place: Main cause are: Falling from overhead. Unprotected sharpened
adages of
knives, chisels etc. keeping the sharp adages in pocket or tools box exposed.
Safety program or control of accidents:
The safety programs should be followed as:
a) Proper the job training to workers for the selection of tight tool for each job and ensure
the availability of the right tool.
b) Regular and periodical inspection of the tools for their safe working condition should
be ensured.
c) Proper repair and maintenance should be done for regular supply of the required tools.
d) Proper training to the supervisory staff and workers regarding correct use of the tools a
vital factor for job safety.
e) Check out list and record should be maintained for the control of the use and supply
of the tools.
f) Provision should be made for the proper storage of the tools in the storehouse. tool,
kits and the toolbox.
g) Provision of supply and use of personal protective equipment should be done,
h) Proper advance planning should be done to maintain all the above requirements.

Centralized Control:
1. Tool-room control: All tools should be issued from the tool - room and returned to it
periodically for inspection as repair the tool - room should have its own repair shop. The
tools which cannot be repaired in the tool room may be sent to other section for repairing and
 brought back to the tool - room. The supervisor or the foreman should take care of the repair
and maintenance of the tools issued from the tool - room.
2. Centralized: tool control other than tool - room assures uniform inspection and maintenance 0.
tools by trained employee’s Central storage facilities will also assure more positive control
than scattered storage.
3. Toolboxes: These are of two types, stationary and portable. The stationary toolboxes of bigger
size are called tool chests. Thesecontain a number of drawers for different type of tools. The
portable or mobile tool cabinets are convenient to be carried to any spot and provide a
number of tools at the spot.
4. Carrying tools:
should never car^ tools in the pocket is very risky and s oud be restrained. In the case of
transportation of tools those should be enclosed in strong box or leather bags for the safety of
the worker handling them the sharp- edged tools may be carried only in a toolbox, coat or
carrying belt. Tool pouch etc.

Purchase Storage and Supply of tools:

In every industry, the purchase section or department has to play significant role for timely
and methodically purchasing of the required tools. The basis of the purchase should be, the
proper planning, requirement and supply from the source. The factor o efficiency and safety
has also to be looked into. The planning department forwards the note on which purchase
department makes the purchase and the tools are stored in the store department. The
purchasing and storages should be supervised by a man having sufficient knowledge
regarding the tools and their usage and who can foresee the application of them in the shops.
He is charged with the responsibility for ordering suitable tools for the shops and his request
to the purchasing agent should specify the kind of tool to be ordered, and if necessary, the
catalog number. This gives a greater assurance of the safety of design, construction and
application.

Inspection and Maintenance of tools:

Inspection, maintenance and repairing is regular requirement for the working of tools. Metal
tools break during their normal use to the detectable cause overheating or under heating of
the forging. Improper tempering, cracks from the improper for forging, failure to relieve
stress during forging, improper quenching, incorrect angle of cutting edge, or material of poor
quality etc. defects of these types will be found in tools of inferior quality and construction,
which because of breakage and failure are more expensive in the long run.therefore, it pays to
purchase the tools of best quality. The tool room attendant should be qualified by training and
experience to accept the tools for further use. The used up or defective tools should be
returned to the storage to be issued for further use. Efficient tool control requires periodical
inspection of all the tool operations. Responsibility such inspection should be borne by the
departmental head. He should also ensure that sufficient numbers of tools are available in
stock. The inspection should cover the housekeeping in the tool supply room, tool
maintenance service number of tools in the inventory handling routine and condition of the
tools. Hand tool receiving the heaviest wear such as chisels, punches, wrenches, hammers,
star drills and black smith' s tools require frequent maintenance or regular basis. Proper
maintenance and repair of tools require adequate facilities like - work benches vises, safety
goggles, repair and sharpening tools and good lighting. Specially trained and skilled persons
should be engaged for such work.

Tempering of tools:
Hammer struck and striking tools (Chisels, stamps, punches, cutters, hammers, sledges and
rock drills) should be made of carefully selected steel and heat - treated so that they are hard
enough to withstand blows Bout mushrooming excessively and yet not be so hard fiat they
chip. For safety it is better that shock tools some which can be dressed frequently, be a little
soft rather ‘. nan too hard, because a chip may fly from an excessively tool without warming
when the tool is struck with a harmer or sledge. Tempering of tools is metallurgical process
require vary special skill. It is a process of heat - treatment and depends upon the % of carbon
present in the I. For alloy steel tools the process of heat - treatment or tempering is quite
different than the low - carbon mild " tools. Therefore, before tampering the exact analysis of
the tool and its method of heat - treatment should be ascertained.

Safe-ending of tools:Hammer - struck tools, such as chisels, rock drills, flatters, wedges,
punches, cold cutters and number dies, should have heads properly hardened by qualified
person. The hazards of burned heads can be used by safe - ending of tools. This can be
quickly and economically achieved by grinding or flame - cutting a shoulder recess about
1/8-inch-wide by V* inch deep into the tool head and then bronze welding it. The proper bore
metal for bronze welding is 1600 f to 1700 f. the correct temperature is in directed
temperature by a bright red color when the tool is looked at through dark - glasses in the light
of any acetylene flame. Short section of tight fitting rubber hose can also be set with the
striking ends of hammer - struck tools to keep chips off from flying and protect the hand too.

Dressing of tools: Shock, cutting and pointed tool require regular maintenance of their edges
or striking faces. Once the cutting or striking faces have been properly hardened and
tempered, only an emery wheel, grind stone, file or oil stone need be used to keep the head in
shape and the edges clean and sharp. Proper precaution should be taken before grinding
hardened tools. They should not be ground until after they have been drawn or tempered the
grinding should be done in the specialized way with the proper recommendation of grinding
wheel. Each cutting edge should have correct angle according to its use and be finished off
with a file.
Re - Dressing requires the following –
1. Rigidly support the tool being dressed.
2. Use a hand file or whetstone, never a grinding wheel.
3. Restore the original contour of the cutting edge by filling.

Cold Chisel: Cold chisels are hardened on the cutting edge. Dressing may be done with a
hand file or whetstone restoring to original shape or to an include angle of 70.
Other commonly used metal working chisels are Round Nose, Diamond Point and cope.
Dressing instructions are same as for flat cold chisels except the bevel angles are as shown.
Hot Chisel - Same as cold chisels.

Punches: The working end of pin and rivet punches and blacksmith's punches should be
observed flat and square with the axis of the tool. The point of center punches should be
redressed to an include angle of 60 while prick: bunches to an angle of 30.

Handles: The tool handles should be of the best straight-grained material. Fitting of handles is
very important. Poorly fitted handles make it difficult for the workers to control the tool.
Wooden handles of hand tools used for striking such as hammer, and sledges. Should be of
preferably hickory ash or maple neatly finished. Alternate materials like fiberglass or steel
with a rubber sleeve may be used. Loose wooden handle in sledges, axes, hammers etc.
created hazard. Use and shrinkage made it loose after a considerable time. Therefore,
repairing and replacement becomes necessary. After the handle is firmly fitted into the head
eye, wedging according to the original pattern makes the tool firm and ready for reuse.
Use of Hand Tools - Common Purpose: Th2 use of hand tools in unsafe way is source of
injury. Injury results because of the assumption "anybody knows how" to use common hand
tools. Therefore, every job programme sheet should include the type, specification and the
proper way of using the tool for a particular operation on the specified machine.
The persons should be thoroughly trained for the job operation and may be specialized for a
job. The trained or d persons should only be engaged for a job. Workers should positively use
the personal protective equipment like googles and helmets to protect their faces from flying
chips and objects due to working of hand tools.

Safe use of some of the common tools –

Screw Driver: Should never be used with punches, wedges, pinch bars, etc. w driver tip
should be selected to fit the screw. A sharp square edges bit will not slip. While putting in a
screw. A sharp square edges bit will not slip. While putting in a screw, the work should be
held in vise or laid to a flat surface, electrical work, the screwdriver must be insulated.

Hammer - Safety tips for hammers in use -

1. Safety goggles should be worn.
2. Hammer blow should strike squarely to the striking surface.
3. When striking another tool like chisel punch, wedge etc., the diameter of the striking face
of the hammer should be 3/8" (9mm) larger than the head of the tool.
4. Use a hammer of suitable size and weight.'
5. Never strike a hammer by another hammer.
6. Never use a hammer with loosened handle.
7. Discard a hammer if its striking face is crack, have dents and mushroomed. Redressing of
a hammer is generally not recommended.

Type of hammers –
Ball pen hammer- used for rewetting, shaping and straightening unhardened metal sheet.
Nail hammer - Wood working and nails,
Sledge hammer- Sledging operation.
Hand drilling hammer- Chisels, punches, star drills, hardened nails
Bricklayer's hammer - Brick work

Punches:- Punches are of various types - square, round, hexagonal, octagonal etc. these are
used for making the metal. driving and removing pins and rivets and align the holes. Punch
should not be used for a mushroomed face or dull and deformed face. Dull bent and crack
punches should be discarded. Repressing to original size is recommended.
Metal Cutting Tools: Chisel, Hack saws, Files, Tap, Die, Stamp.

Chisel –
Cold Chisel - Used for cutting, shaping and removing metal, softer than that of chisel like
cast iron, wrought n, steel, bronze and copper 70 to 60 angle of chisel edge.
Types and Use:
i. Flat cold chisel is mostly used for cutting, shearing and chipping. For ordinary use 3/4 *
width chisel with 11b hammer should be used.
ii. Diamond point chisel cuts v – grove and interior angles.
iii. Cape chisel is used for cutting key – ways, slots, or square corners.
iv. Round nose chisel is used for cutting rounded or semi – circular groves.
Chisel should be discarded if it is bent, cracked, or chipped. The cutting edge should be
redressed to the original contour when grinding a chisel, the cutting edge should not be
pressed hard against the wheel because otherwise it will be tempered due to the heat
generated due to grinding action. To avoid it, the chisel should be immersed in cold water
frequently while grinding.

Hack saws: Hacksaws should be tightened to the frame to avoid breaking and buckling. It
should not be tightened too much to break of the pins to support the blade. Blade should have
a forward tooth.14 – teeth blade should be used for soft metal cutting.18 – teeth blade should
be used for cutting steel, iron pipe, hard metal and general purpose.24 – teeth for drill rods,
sheet metal, copper, brass, tubing, 32 – teeth for thin sheet metal, tubing.

For thin metals at least 2 teeth must be in contact. Force should be applied in the forward
stroke with a speed 40/60-es/ minute.

Files - Selection of right kind of file for the right job should be done to prevent injury and
long life. A file should not be used without a handle otherwise it will damage and puncture
the palm. The file should not be cleaned by striking against vice or any hard surface but a file
- cleaning card should be used. File should never be hammered otherwise hard material will
chip and fly to cause injury. For working, the job should be held firmly on vice or clamp and
the stroke of the file be made gently in the forward direction only.

Wood cutting tools: Wood chisels, saws, Axes and hatchets.

Wood chisel - Wood working chisel with wood handle but designed to be struck by wood or
plastic metal, the handle should be protected by a metal or leather band. Heavy duty chisels
made of solid metal handle may be struck by metal or steel hammer. The finish cuts to be
done by hand strokes only. The job must be held firmly in a wire or damped properly. The
chisel should never be used as pry or wedge. Other use the tool should be kept in rack or tool
bench.

Saws - Selection of the proper type for proper job is a vital factor. For fast cross cutwork on
green - wood a coaxes (4 to 5 points per inch) should be used. For smooth dry wood cutting a
(8 to 10 points per inch) fine saw should be used. No. of points per inch is stamped on the
blade. Never drop a saw otherwise the blade may break or get loose. Use of Safety goggle is a
must.
Material Handling Tools:
Crowbars - Crow bar of proper size with kind of bar for the job should be used. The crow bar
of proper size with kind bar for the job should be used. The crow bar should have a proper
point or toe of such shape that it will grip the object to be moved and a heel to act as a pivot.
The handle may be made as long as feasible but not too long.

Hooks - Hand hooks for handling of material should be kept sharp so that they will not slip
when applied to box or other objects. The handle should be of proper size and shape to suit
the hands. The hook tip and handle should lie in the same plane to give true action to the
hook.

Shovels: Shovels edges should be kept trimmed and handles should be checked for sprinters.
The wearing of safety. shoes be checked for sprinters. The wearing of safety shoes is a must.
The worker should carry the load his legs before striking with a shovel. Dipping of the edge
in water time to time keeps the sticky material away off the edge. When not in use. They are
to be kept in racks lying horizontally.

Torsion Tools - Types: Open --end wrenches, combination wrenches, box and socket
wrenches adjustable wrenches, pip wrenches, wrenches, tongs, pliers etc. the worker should
be alert and skillful while using such tools. The possibility of slipping of the wrench or the
job being free or losing the balance or his body while in action are various causes of the
injury. The use must take care of al! possible factors regarding the safe condition of the tool
and his own safe way of using the same. The correct size wrench should be selected for a job
and never a wrench of different size be used for the job by grinding its grip to make the size.

Open - end wrench - Have strong jaws and are fit for medium duty turning. If not fitted
properly to the job, they slip and hence should not be used.

Combination - wrench: Have at one end open and other end box type. These are hardier for
use.

Box and Socket Wrench- Are used where a heavy pull is necessary with safety in the view.
Box and socket wrenches completely encircle the nut. Belt or fitting and grip it at all comers.
There are no chances of slipping the box socket wrenches. These are generally of the type -
single hex, double hex or Double Square as required for different job heads. Special heavy-
duty wrenches are available with handle of three feet for the job. Where possible
penetrating oil should be used for loosening. The socket should be kept clean of dirt. A
common cause of socket and box wrench failure is 'Cocking' is a situation on which the tool
cannot fit squarely on the job but fits at an angle only, concentrates the strain on smaller area
and hence failure.

Toque Wrenches - Toque are used where the toque has been specified for the job. The toque
wrench should be. used carefully and calibrated according to the job. The torque, or twisting
force, exerted on a nut or bolt is directly proportioned to the length of the wrench handle and
the pulling force exerted on it.

Adjustable Wrenches: Are generally use for light duty work or when the proper size fixing
wrenches not available. The wrench should be pulled and never pushed. The movable jaws
are weaker than the fixed jaws and hence it should be set tight by hands only.
Pipe wrenches - workers on overhead jobs have been injured due to slipping of pipe wrenches
on pipes. Pipe wrenches both, clean to prevent their slipping. The adjusting nut of the wrench
should be inspected frequently. Using a wrench of wrong length is inviting accident wrench
too - small handle does not give proper grip or leverage. Too lightly handle may break the
work or strip suddenly. Pipe wrench should never be used on nuts or bolts, the corners of
which will break the teeth of the wrench. It should not be used on vales or small brass, copper
or other soft fittings, which may be crushed or bent. A wrench should not be struck by a
hammer.

Pipe Tongs: Are used for fitting of pipes. They should only be used when the pipes are placed
in line for fitting purpose. The ends of the tongs can be upended to give clearance for user's
hands. Often the user’s hands are pinched when the tong is close.
.
Pliers - Pliers are meant for gripping and cutting operations. They are not recommended as a
substitute for wrenches because their jaws are flexible and frequently slip when used for this
work. Pliers also tend to around the corner of bolts and nuts and leave a few works thus make
it difficult to be used by wrench. The pliers for electrical work must be insulated the cushion
grips on handles are primarily for comfort hence it must be ensured that the same is an
insulator before it is used for electrical work.

Pullers - are the only quick, safe and easy way to pull a gear, wheel pulley or bearing from a
shaft. The jaw capacity of the puller should such that it presses tightly against the part being
pulled.

Shock looks - i he pliers use for electrical work, as tools are shock tools. If the insulation is
not of exact material it is pot shock - proof. Care is to be taken before its use so that injuries
do not happen for this cause.

Non - spark tools - Non - ferrous toots reduce the hazard from sparking out do not eliminate
it. They therefore require regular inspection before each use to be certain that they have not
picked up foreign particles that could produce friction - spark. These tools are made up of
non - ferrous materials such beryllium copper alloy etc. these are used for flammable gases,
highly volatile liquids and other explosive substances stored or used.

Portable Power Tools:Portable power tools can be divided into five groups.
1. Electric
2. Pneumatic.
3. Gasoline.
4. Hydraulic.
5. Powder Actuated (Explosive)
The tools like saws, drills and grinders are common to the first three groups. Hydraulic tools
are used mainly for compression work. Powder - actuated tools are used exclusively for
penetration work. Cutting and compression.

Hazards - A portable power - too! presents similar hazards as a stationery machine of same
kind, in addition to the risk of handling. Bums, cuts and strains are the main injuries.
 Source - the source of injury is Electrical shock
Particles in the eye
Fire
Fails
Explosion of vapours or gases
Falling of tools.
Safety Tips
1. Source of power should be disconnected before any accessories are changed.
2. Before any use / work the guard should be placed in proper position.
3. The tool should not be left in overhead position. It will cause an injury if the cord or hose is
pulled.
4. The cord or hose should not be kept lying on the floor they will create a tripping hazard. They
should be kept suspended over aisles or work areas.
5. Where it is not possible to keep the cord or hose suspended they should be covered with
wooden planks so that they are protected from the human contact.
6. while in suspension cord or hose should not disturb the operator's way.
7. The cord should never be hanged sharp edge and should be kept away from oil, hot surfaces
and chemicals.
8. Power - driven tools while in use should be covered properly otherwise thy create hazards if
come in contact with the human body easily.
9. They should be stored properly and never be left encored on the ground.

Selection of tools: Selection of a power tool replacing the hand tool for the same job will
increase the degree of hazard. The hazard will be electrical or mechanical in place of manual.
Therefore, the safe design (safe condition) proper training (safe use) should be ensured before
any power - tools brought into use. Complete information the job should be made available so
that the tool selected should be most appropriate. The tool selected for intermittent use or
light work are called "home owners’ grade" and those for heavy decay are called "industrial
duty", provision of tool - proof training for the proper selection of tool is of.

Inspection and Repair: Periodic inspection is essential for the maintenance of power tools. A
schedule be maintained, defective tool should be repaired or replaced. Electrical tools should
be thoroughly checked visually and also "knock inspection should be carried out at specified
intervals. A colored tag can be attached to the tool last ted. The inspection should be done by
a skilled and expert person who knows all the checking procedures. 3€-r training arrangement
should be done for now - how in detail. The responsibility to carry out inspection and 1 follow
up actions should be maintained by an authorized person. Make - shift arrangement must be
avoided. No airing should be done without proper authorization. Cleaning of the power tools
should be done with a mended non - flammable and non - solvent. Air-drying should be used
in place of blowing with compressed

Inspection Checklist
General: Low voltage or battery powered equipment used in tanks and wet areas?
Tools well maintained?
Motors in good condition?
Approved tools used in explosive atmosphere?
left where they cannot fall?

CORDS
insulation and plugs unbroken?
was protected against track and oil Cords not in aisles?

GROUNDING
Ground wire fastener in safe condition?
3-w ire plug extension cord (if a 3 - wire tool) Ground wire used?
Defects or minor shocks reported?
Ground fault circuit interruption used?

GUARDING
used on grinders and saws?
Movable guards operate freely Eye |or face protection worn?

Brief Description of Tools

Electric Tools - are of two types - (1) Battery powered. (2) Electric powered.
Battery powered is the safest tool as they do not head any extension cord and produce no risk
of shock. These two are themain hazards. Other electric tools have the main hazard of shock.
The types of injuries are electric flash, minor shock causing a fall and major shock may cause
a death.

Factors of safety: are insulating platforms, rubber mate and Rubber gloves.
1. when the work is done in wet areas like, tanks, boilers etc.
2. Low voltage to the tune of 6,12, 24 or 32 volts through
3. Double insulated tools (symbol) protect human body from all type of shock hazards
4. Grounding of portable electric tools and the proper use of grounding fault circuit
interrupters provide the most convenient safeguarding.
5. Use of P.P.E. like goggles, Apron, hand gloves, helmet etc.

Types - Electric drills., electric saws, grinding wheels, sanders.

powders tools - types - Air hose, Air power grinders, or pneumatic Impact tools. lose -
Pressure should not exceed 30 atmospheres for the cleaning purpose, it should be kept
suspended in
and work areas. Proper housing arrangement. Should be providing. Safety check valve may
be provided for pressure to be released.
 CHAPTER 2:MATERIAL HANDLING AND STORAGE
Manual Material Handling:
KINETICS OF MANUAL HANDLING:

Proper Lifting Methods.. No single technique for preventing injury during lifting and
material handling has been discovered despite numerous research efforts. The best prevention
strategy is to ensure workstations are properly designed, loads are manageable in both size
and weight distribution, the frequency and duration of lifting are not excessively stressful,
and workers can demonstrate knowledge of proper techniques for material handling. There
are three basic methods of lifting, that is, straight back
back-bent
ent knees, free style, and kinetic.
Each has advantages and limitations:
4.6.1. The kinetic method is the most widely accepted and taught because it provides more
stability for the worker while reducing load on the back muscles and intervertebral disks.
Instructions
nstructions and diagram on how to lift properly follow:
4.6.1.1. Before an object is lifted, it should be inspected to make certain no grease or slippery
substance will cause the object to slip. Also inspect the objects for slivers, sharp edges, and
rough or slippery surfaces before attempting to lift.
4.6.1.2.. Position feet correctly. Place far enough apart for balance with one foot to the rear of
the
object and the other foot slightly ahead of the other and to the side of the object.
4.6.1.3. Crouch close to the load. Crouching is preferred to squatting. StStay
ay close to the load to
minimize strain on the back muscles.
4.6.1.4. Always keep the back as straight as possible. It may not be possible to keep the back
in
the vertical plane but avoid arching the back. Bend from the hips and not from the middle of
the
back.
4.6.1.5. Pick up materials with a full palm grip. Do not attempt to pick up items using a
fingertip
grip. Gloves (Leather or Leather
Leather-palmed)
palmed) shall be worn when lifting objects which have
sharp or
burred edges or splintered surfaces.
4.6.1.6. With the arms, slide the object towards the body putting it in motion (kinetic energy).
At
the same time, lift the object with the legs and bring the back to a vertical position. Keep the
object close to the body; avoid twisting while lifting.
4.6.2. Setting the Object Down. Use the same motion as when lifting, but reverse it to set an
object down. Lower the load by bending the legs and crouching with the back straight. Take
care when releasing the load to prevent injury to fingers, hands, or feet.
4.6.3. Team Lifting. When its required to move heavy or unusual shaped items manually,
always seek and obtain assistance When it is not practical to use mechanical equipment
assign additional workers to the task. When two or more people are required to move or carry
an object, adjust the load so each person carries an equal part. If possible use workers similar
in size and train them in team-lifting. Workers need to understand that if one worker lifts too
soon, shifts the load, or lowers improperly, that person or their partner(s) may be overloaded
and strained. Test lifts should be made before proceeding. The key to lifts using two or more
personnel is to make every move in unison. Assign one person to give orders to ensure the
necessary coordination for movement. The supervisor and workers are responsible for
assessing all available methods to safely handle materials described above and using
mechanical assistance whenever possible.

4.7. Carrying Methods. Acceptable carrying methods differ, based upon the type of material,
distance, and number of workers. Workers should be instructed during initial training in each
procedure--for example, neck, shoulder, side, tray, two-person, and under-arm carry methods,
etc. Points to remember:
4.7.1. Use appropriate PPE as determined for each task, such as gloves, to protect the hands
and protective footwear to protect the feet.
4.7.2. Keep fingers away from pinch and shear points.
4.7.3. Do not carry a load that obstructs the view of the direction of travel. Make sure that the
path of travel is clear.
4.7.4. Do not turn at the waist to change direction or to put an object down. Turn the whole
body and crouch down to lower the object.

4.8. Carrying Items Up or Down Stairways:

4.8.1. Adhere to the guidance provided by the supervisor.
4.8.2. Try to reduce the bulk or size of the object carried to allow for maximum visibility.
4.8.3. Use assistance when required and available.
4.8.4. Use mechanical material handling equipment whenever loads are too heavy or bulky to
be
lifted or carried efficiently or safely by hand. Forklifts, hand trucks, rollers, conveyors, or
cranes
(when properly used) simplify materials handling and greatly reduce the hazards of handling
supplies and equipment.

Maximum load that could be carried:

There is no legal maximum weight to lift at work. There are, however, guidelines which set
out the recommended safe maximum weight for lifting at work.

Manual Handling Guidelines set out recommended safe lifting limits for men and women.

The recommended maximum weight limit should be adjusted depending on how the load is
being lifted, how close to the body the weight is held, and how high or how low the weight is
lifted.
The guidelines suggest that the maximum weight men should lift at work is 25kg. This relates
to loads held close to the body at around waist height. The recommended maximum weight is
reduced to 5kg for loads being held at arm’s length or above shoulder height.

Maximum weight guidelines recommend lower weights for women. The suggested maximum
weight for women is 16kg for loads held at waist height.

Lifting a weight below the maximum limit does not always make the load ‘safe’
The weight of the load is not the only factor to be considered. There are a number of factors
to consider when assessing whether a load is ‘safe’ for an employee to lift at work.

The guidelines assume that the manual handling and lifting is taking place in reasonable
working conditions. It is also assumed that the load is easy to hold and easily grasped with
both hands. The guidance is also based on the assumption that the weight is being lifted by a
reasonably fit, well-trained individual.

The weight of a load may need to be reduced below the maximum guideline weights for
various factors
These factors include:

 any lifting which involves twisting or bending

 if the manual handling is being carried out in a confined space
 or if the lifting activity is being repeated.

There are therefore a number of factors to assess when considering whether the load a person
lifts at work is ‘safe’.
Employers should carry out a manual handling risk assessment to assess any manual handling
or lifting that an employee is required to do as part of their work

Material Handling That Stacks Up & Down to Safety Requirements

Improper stacking and storage can result in injuries to workers and damage to costly
materials. Make sure your material handlers stack up when it comes to safety.

Although OSHA does not provide much specific direction concerning safe stacking and
storage, 29 CFR 1910.176(b) of the material handling standard does generally require
secure workplace storage of materials. The regulation states: “Storage of material shall not
create a hazard. Bags, containers, bundles, etc., stored in tiers shall be stacked, blocked,
interlocked and limited in height so that they are stable and secure against sliding or
collapse.”

General safe stacking and storage rules with which employees who handle materials should
be familiar include:

 Ensure that stacks are stable and self-supporting.

 Observe height limitations when stacking materials.
 Allow sufficient clearance around stacks for safe handling and easy access.
 Make sure there is sufficient clearance between stacks and lights, heating pipes, and
sprinkler heads.
 Make sure stacks don’t block emergency exits, emergency equipment, or fire alarms.

When stacking boxes, employees should:

 Place boxes on a pallet for stability and to make them easy to move.
 Interlock boxes to make a more stable stack.
 Band boxed materials or secure them with cross-ties or shrink wrap.

A good rule of thumb for ensuring a stable stack is to observe a height to base ratio that does
not exceed 3:1 (or 4:1 at most if the stack is effectively interlocked and there is a good grip
between the contacting surfaces).

When stacking bags, sacks, and baled and bundled materials, workers should:

 Stack bags and bundles in interlocking rows to keep them secure.

 Stack bagged material by stepping back the layers and cross-keying the bags at least
every 10 layers.
  Store baled paper and rags inside a building no closer than 18 inches to the walls,
partitions, or sprinkler heads.

When stacking pipes, poles, and bars, employees should:

 Not store pipes, poles, and bars in racks that face main aisles to avoid creating a
hazard to passersby when removing supplies.
 Stack and block pipes and poles as well as structural steel, bar stock, and other
cylindrical materials to prevent spreading or tilting unless they are in racks.

When stacking barrels and drums, workers should:

 Stack drums, barrels, and kegs symmetrically.

 Chock the bottom tiers of drums, barrels, and kegs to keep them from rolling if stored
on their sides.
 Place planks, sheets of plywood dunnage, or pallets between each tier of drums,
barrels, and kegs to make a firm, flat stacking surface when stacking on end.

When stacking lumber, employees should:

 Stack lumber no more than 16 feet high if it is handled manually, and no more than 20
feet if using a forklift.
 Remove all nails from used lumber before stacking.
 Stack and level lumber on solidly supported bracing.

LAYOUT CONDITION FOR SAFETY IN STORAGE:

General principle of plant layout:

Plant layout is often a compromise between a number of factors such as:

 The need to keep distances for transfer of materials between plant/storage units to a
minimum to reduce costs and risks;
 The geographical limitations of the site;
 Interaction with existing or planned facilities on site such as existing roadways, drainage
and utilities routings;
 Interaction with other plants on site;
 The need for plant operability and maintainability;
 The need to locate hazardous materials facilities as far as possible from site boundaries and
people living in the local neighborhood;
 The need to prevent confinement where release of flammable substances may occur;
 The need to provide access for emergency services;
 The need to provide emergency escape routes for on-site personnel;
 The need to provide acceptable working conditions for operators.
The most important factors of plant layout as far as safety aspects are concerned are those to:

 Prevent, limit and/or mitigate escalation of adjacent events (domino);

 Ensure safety within on-site occupied buildings;
 Control access of unauthorized personnel;
 Facilitate access for emergency services.
In determining plant layout designers should consider the factors in outlined in the following
sections.

Inherent safety

The major principle in Inherent Safety is to remove the hazard altogether. The best method to
achieve this is to reduce the inventory of hazardous substances such that a major hazard is no
longer presented. However, this is not often readily achievable and by definition no COMAH
facility will have done so. Other possible methods to achieve an Inherently Safer design are:

 Intensification to reduce inventories;

 Substitution of hazardous substances by less hazardous alternatives;
 Attenuation to reduce hazardous process conditions i.e. temperature, pressure;
 Simpler systems/processes to reduce potential loss of containment or possibility of errors
causing a hazardous event;
 Fail-safe design e.g. valve position on failure.
Plant layout considerations to achieve Inherent Safety are mainly those concerned with
domino effects (see below).

Domino effects
Hazard assessment of site layout is critical to ensure consequences of loss of containment and
chances of escalation are minimised. Domino may be by fire, explosion (pressure wave and
missiles) or toxic gas cloud causing loss of control of operations in another location.

Explosion
Explosion propagation may be directly by pressure waves or indirectly by missiles. As for
fires, inherently safe methods that should be considered are:

 arranging separation distances such that damage to adjacent plants will not occur even in
the worst case;
 provision of barriers e.g. blast walls, location in strong buildings;
 protecting plant against damage e.g. provision of thicker walls on vessels;
 directing explosion relief vents away from vulnerable areas e.g. other plants or buildings,
roadways near site boundaries.
However, the latter may not provide practical solutions, particularly against missiles, and risk
analysis may be required to prove adequate safety.

Toxic gas releases

Toxic gas releases may cause domino effects by rendering adjacent plants inoperable and
injuring operators. Prevention/mitigation of such effects may be affected by provision of
automatic control systems using inherently safer principles and a suitable control room (see
section below on Occupied Buildings).
 Reduction of consequences of event on and off Site
In addition to the measures described in the sections above, Plant Layout design techniques
applicable to the reduction of the risks from release of flammable or toxic materials include:

 Locating all high-volume storage of flammable / toxic material well outside process areas;
 Locating hazardous plant away from main roadways through the site;
 Fitting remote-actuated isolation valves where high inventories of hazardous materials may
be released into vulnerable areas;
 Provision of ditches, dykes, embankments, sloping terrain to contain and control releases
and limit the safety and environmental effects;
 Siting of plants within buildings as secondary containment;
 Siting of plants in the open air to ensure rapid dispersion of minor releases of flammable
gases and vapours and thus prevent concentrations building up which may lead to flash
fires and explosions;
 Hazardous area classification for flammable gases, vapours and dusts to designate areas
where ignition sources should be eliminated.
Risk management techniques should be used to identify control measures that can be adopted
to reduce the consequences of on or off-site events. See references cited in further reading
material.

Positioning of occupied buildings

The distance between occupied buildings and plant buildings will be governed by the need to
reduce the dangers of explosion, fire and toxicity. In particular, evacuation routes should not
be blocked by poor plant layout, and personnel with more general site responsibilities should
usually be housed in buildings sited in a non-hazard area near the main entrance.
Consideration should be given to siting of occupied buildings outside the main fence. In all
cases occupied buildings should not be sited downwind of hazardous plant areas. Further
guidance is available in standard references.

Aggregation / trapping of flammable vapors

To avoid aggregation and trapping of flammable / toxic vapours which could lead to a
hazardous event, buildings should be designed so that all parts of the building are well
ventilated by natural or forced ventilation. Flammable storages should be sited in the open air
so that minor leaks or thermal outbreathing can be dissipated by natural ventilation.
Maintenance procedures should include the displacement of vapours from hazardous areas
before work begins (see Technical Measures Document on Permit to Work Systems).

Hazards and Human Factors:

• Strains, sprains, hernias, fractures, bruises, and lacerations may result from poor
manual material handling and lifting practices.
• Lifting, carrying, dropping, and lowering are the common physical acts responsible
for injuries.
• Many strains are the direct result of improper lifting techniques, lifting with no
assistance, or failure to use required and available manual material handling
equipment.
Minimizing Manual Material Handling Hazards:
Engineering Controls. A preferred method of minimizing the risk of manual lifting is the
use of engineering controls such as employing mechanical assists to decrease the force, the
repetition, distance of travel, and frequency of the manual handling activities. Some examples
might include employing scissor tables, elevators, conveyors, and gravity chutes.

Administrative Controls. Job rotation schedules and mandatory work-rest cycles can be
useful to reduce mishap potential, but do not eliminate the hazard and are not as reliable as
engineering controls.

Work Design Principles. Conduct a job safety analysis to identify potential hazards, and
when practical, arrange tasks and select workstations using the following principles:
1. Place objects to be lifted at the approximate height of the knuckles when the arms dangle
at side of the body.
2. Limit stack height to shoulder level. If items must be stacked higher, provide step-up
access to eliminate lifting above shoulder level.
3. Use grips, handles, and other devices to provide better control of items.
4. Slide materials instead of lifting, whenever possible.
5. Use gravity assist in moving materials.
6. Ensure adequate maneuvering space to eliminate the need to twist the body.
7. Consider team lifting when items are known to weigh more than 25 pounds.

Manual Material Handling Equipment. This equipment will be used whenever loads are too
heavy or bulky to be lifted or carried efficiently or safely by hand. Hand trucks, dollies, two-
wheeled hand trucks and wheelbarrows (when properly used) simplify materials handling and
greatly reduce the hazards of handling supplies and equipment.
1. Hand Trucks, Dollies and Wheelbarrows. Hand trucks, dollies, wheel barrows or other
manual devices shall be used to lift and (or) carry bulky or heavy items whenever possible.
Tip the load to be lifted forward slightly so the tongue of the truck goes
under the load.
Make sure the tongue of the truck is all the way under the load prior to movement.
Keep the center of gravity of the load as low as possible. Place heavy objects on the
bottom of the load. Keep feet clear of the wheels.
The center of gravity of the load on both the hand truck and wheelbarrow will be
kept as low as possible. The weight should be forward so it will be carried by the axle, not the
handles. If loaded correctly, the hand truck should carry the load—the operator need only
balance and push.
Place the load so it will not slip, shift, or fall. Load only to a height that will allow a
clear view ahead. For added safety, strap or chain bulky or dangerous cargo (such as
cylinders or drums) to the hand truck’s frame.
Avoid walking backward with a hand truck if possible. This eliminates the need for
a worker to look over their shoulder to see clearly.
Never brake a hand truck by putting your foot on its wheel; keep your feet clear of
the wheels at all times.
When going down an incline, keep the hand truck ahead of you. When going up,
pull the hand truck behind you.
Move the truck at a safe speed. Do not run. Keep the truck constantly under control.
Secure and store unused trucks in a designated area where they don't create a hazard
or traffic obstruction.
When a hand truck is loaded in a horizontal position, proper lifting procedures will be used to
prevent operator injury.

1. The same basic principles listed in paragraphs through

shall apply to dollies and wheelbarrows.
Two-wheeled hand trucks and wheelbarrows are designed in a variety of shapes and sizes for
both general and special purposes. Preference will be given to procuring hand trucks and
wheelbarrows equipped with knuckle guards.
2. Multi-Wheel Trucks. As with two-wheeled equipment, multi-wheeled trucks and dollies
vary greatly in design and use. Most mishaps occur due to improper parking causing the
worker to fall over the equipment or improper loading of material which causes the cart to
tip. Extra emphasis will be placed on worker training in these two areas, along with frequent
observation of work practices to immediately correct unsafe acts.
In addition:
1. When loading, arrange the cargo so items won’t fall.
2. If the truck has no drawbar, push it. Keep your hands behind the cart.
3. If the truck has a drawbar, pull it, so you’ll be able to see better. Stand to one side, to keep
the truck from running onto your ankles.
4. If there are floor markings, stay within their boundaries.
5. When storing the truck, lock or block its wheels.
6. Don’t misuse the truck.
7. Don’t ride on a truck designed for a walking operator.
8. Don’t carry other people.
9. Don’t carry more than the truck’s maximum load capacity.
10. Ensure the weight of the truck, plus its load, is less than maximum posted floor loads.
11. Make sure you have enough clearance in aisles and other tight areas.
12. Remember that the inertia, or momentum, of a truck can make it hard to change its speed
or direction.
13. Watch out for pedestrians--always give them the right-of-way.
14. Don’t block aisles, doorways, or material another worker may need.

3. Lever-Operated Hoists:
1. Acquisition. Lever-operated hoists shall meet the requirements and specifications of
recognized industry standards.
Capacity of all lever-operated devices shall be permanently and conspicuously
marked in an easily visible place on the hoist.
Only ratchet and pawl and load brake hoists, which include a means to prevent a
suspended load from self-lowering, will be procured. Lowering under load shall be by
operation
of the hoist lever.
Inspections. Daily or prior to each use, lever-operated hoists shall be inspected for:
Loose or worn parts, nuts, bolts, etc.;
Cracked or broken welds or parts;
Deformed or damaged hooks
Bent or deformed pawls.

4. Annual inspection shall include:

1. Complete inspection of all wire rope, chain, and fittings or attachments.
2. Inspection of brakes, pawls, or other holding features.
3. Inspection of the chain length. Chains that have elongated more than one fourth of
an inch in 12 inches shall be removed from service.
4. Identification Tags. Identification tags shall be attached to all hoists and shall include the
following information: date of inspection; date of proof test; capacity of hoist; and
identification
number of hoists.

5. Maintenance and Testing:

1. All new hoists will have the manufacturer’s certification indicating that all
proof-testing has been accomplished. All hoists which have had load-suspension parts
altered,
replaced, or repaired will be proof-tested before use. These tests will be performed at no less
than 100 percent or more than 125 percent of the rated capacity. Underhung hoists that are
not
an integral part of a supporting structure for lateral movement, such as an overhead crane,
must have manufacturer’s certification indicating the proof test was accomplished with a test
load of at least 125% of rated capacity) Reference ANSI/ASME B30.16). A record of all tests
will be maintained by the user.
2. Maintenance and lubrication will be performed according to the manufacturer’s
instruction.

6. Safe Operations:
1. Lever-operated hoists shall only be used in a direct pull. Where indirect pulls are
permitted by design of the hoist, a sheave or pulley of adequate size shall be used.
2. Hoist cable, rope, and chain shall not be wrapped around the load. Use only slings
or other approved lifting devices.
3. Positive action safety latches shall be installed on all hooks.
4. Hooks shall not be point loaded unless designed for this purpose. All loads shall be
seated in the saddle of the hook.
5. Extensions to levers (cheater bars or pipes) shall not be used to increase leverage.
Extendible levers designed and permanently installed by the manufacturer are authorized.
6. Manually operated lever hoists shall only be operated by personnel familiar with the
use of the equipment. Operator qualifications will be as determined by the facility and (or)
shop supervisor or designated representative.
7. The rated load shall not be exceeded except for authorized proof tests.
8. Hoists shall be attached to well defined dead-end points capable of withstanding the
intended load. NOTE: Lifeline attach points shall not be used for hoists.

9. Inspection of Materials. Prior to movement, material will be examined for sharp edges,
protruding points, and weak places. When defects cannot be corrected, additional steps will
be taken to protect the worker. This should be accomplished by isolating the unsafe
condition, for example, using an enclosed cart when moving sheet metal scraps.

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE). Supervisors will conduct a JSA to evaluate each
manual material handling task and identify the need for PPE such as safety-toed shoes,
gloves, and eye protection. The EH&S Department is available to assist in this evaluation
process.
Protective footwear shall be provided and worn when there is a reasonable possibility of
sustaining foot injuries due to heavy or sharp objects and electrical and (or) static electricity
considerations.
Personnel will wear leather or leather-palmed gloves when manually handling objects that
have sharp or burred edges or splintered surfaces.
Personnel will wear appropriate ear protection when working in or visiting hazardous noise
areas.
Personnel will carry tools that have sharp edges in protective holders.
Personnel will wear appropriate protective clothing when transporting, delivering, or working
with hazardous materials.
Material handlers will not wear finger rings, jewelry (which may include watches), or loose
clothing and will keep long hair completely covered when around moving conveyor belts,
open rotating shafts, or other moving parts of machinery.
Personnel will wear goggles and (or) safety glasses with side shields and gloves when cutting
strapping. Personnel will stand clear so cut strapping does not contact them. A board or other
hold-down device may be used to prevent the strapping from flying out from the material
when cut.

Inspection and Maintenance of Manual Handling Equipment (MHE):

Manual MHE, such as hand trucks, wheelbarrows, dollies, pallet jacks and similar
unpowered equipment, will be checked visually before use to assure equipment is in operable
condition. This equipment will also be maintained and inspected in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions. Any repairs required will be accomplished prior to use of the
equipment.

Other Safety Requirements:

1. Stack all materials neatly, arrange them in an orderly manner. Limit the stack height to
minimize the possibility for the materials to fall or collapse.
2. Remove, repair, or replace defective or broken strapping on material.
3. Except when using approved chutes, do not throw materials from elevated places. Carry or
lower them.
4. If materials handling equipment (MHE) is not available and drums must be manually
moved; roll drums by pushing with the hands, not the feet. Ensure a minimum of two workers
set the drum upright.
5. Place broken glass in a sturdy container or enclose the broken glass in cardboard or
protective shield if disposal includes placing glass in a plastic bag. This should eliminate
broken glass protruding from bags and prevent injury to personnel who handle the bags.
6. Do not run when carrying materials.
7. Practice good housekeeping when unpacking materials. Discard banding, packing
materials, and empty cartons properly and do not allow these materials to accumulate in work
areas.

Composition of the flooring

The flooring is constructed on the substrate, which normally consists of a sub-base of

agglomerated material, firmly compacted to withstand the load. This layer consists of any
type of material, either natural or filler. A concrete slab designed to support the pressure is
placed onto the sub-base.
Concrete slabs have high compressive strength yet little tensile strength. During their curing
process, the concrete contracts but the conglomerated sub-base does not. These contractions
produce tensions in the slab, which can lead to accidental breakage and warping. To
minimize these problems, one must ensure that the surface of the substrate onto which the
slab is placed is completely flat and smooth.

Once this point has been checked, a type of membrane or film is placed between the sub-base
and the substrate to reduce the friction between the two. During the curing process, this film
allows the slab to move independently and acts as a barrier against humidity, which is
required to limit the loss of water in the concrete and achieve better curing.

Another measure to relieve the problem of potential breakage and very frequent warping
consists of installing a light metal reinforcing mesh that remains close to the surface. This is a
very common practice that allows for the construction of larger slabs with fewer expansion
joints.

Reinforcement can also be provided using steel bars, which increase the resistance of the
cured layer despite the inevitable contractions and slippage suffered by the concrete during
the process.

Whether or not this reinforcement is included, it is inevitable that cracks will appear in the
cured slabs, even if the greatest possible care has been taken in their construction. If these
cracks are incidental and random, the impossibility of carrying out the appropriate filling due
to their irregular shape invariably causes problems in terms of load fluctuations.

Cracking is often induced so that these openings appear in specific places that can be
observed and controlled. This is done by sawing the slab along a given strip, cutting to a
depth of between one-quarter and one-third of the layer's thickness. In this way, the breakage
takes place in these positions as opposed to others, and can be easily filled following a simple
and clean process.
Strength, porosity, bonding and durability of floorings

In addition to the construction characteristics mentioned earlier, warehouse floors must also
have other features that make them particularly suitable for their intended use.

Thus, they must be resistant to abrasion, an issue addressed in the UNE 41008 standard,
which establishes a scale known as the MOHS that goes from 0 to 10.

They must also withstand compression, and be able to support over 7,112 psi in general areas.
Depending on the devices used, they may be required to support up to 11,378 psi on the
routes used for the movement of the devices. In terms of requirements for flexural resistance,
these tend to be around 2,133 psi to 3,556 psi.

The floor must also be resistant to the effects of elements such as oil, grease, and
hydrocarbons. While these materials are not stored in the installation, they are used for the
forklifts and there will inevitably be stains on the floor. Allowable porosity must be very low
(below 3%).

The flooring must form a monolith together with the support base to prevent slippage and
downward movements that cause bumps on the surface.

Finally, the floor must be durable and resistant to wear and tear, although it is inevitable
that over time ruts will form from the constant repetitive movements of the wheels of devices
along the same routes and given their tremendous weight. These ruts can become very deep
and cause misalignments in the facility, with the resulting implicit risks.

Using a company that specializes in flooring for narrow aisle forklifts is, undoubtedly, the
best way to ensure a perfect and longest-lasting surface. Skimping in this respect can
seriously compromise the entire facility. A very expensive project can be ruined due to
savings in one area that appears less important, but which in practice is crucial.

Devising a warehouse's layout is the first step in designing an installation. While this may
seem like a simple issue, in practice it is difficult to figure out. In this article, it outlines the
main factors that need consideration in the design process. As well, it shows an example of a
warehouse layout distributed into six differentiated areas, including AS/RS systems.

Generally speaking, warehouse designers have to work with a space in which certain factors
limit the surface area available. This is why the layout has to be carefully planned. When
deciding on the internal and external layout of a warehouse, there are three possible scenarios
that could necessitate a different assignment of space: the installation of new warehouses,
the extension of existing facilities and the reorganization of those currently
operating (even though the last of these options does not involve making extremely
important decisions that will affect the development of the business over the medium- to
long-term).

Nonetheless, despite the specific circumstances, the general layout of a facility must cover all
these needs:

 Making the most of the available space

 Reducing the handling of goods to a minimum
  Providing easy access to the stored product
 Having the highest rotation ratio possible
 Offering maximum flexibility in the positioning of products
 Controlling the amounts stored

To achieve these objectives, the first step is to create a warehouse layout, where the design
of the warehouse is represented in the form of a plan.

First and foremost, the created layout must respect the basic rules of good storage mentioned
above and avoid areas and points of congestion, facilitate maintenance tasks and establish the
resources required to obtain the greatest possible workflows, with the associated reduction in
runtimes.

The following areas must be perfectly defined when designing a layout:

A. Loading and unloading areas

B. Reception area
C. Storage area
D. Picking area
E. Dispatch area

An example of a layout that includes all of these areas is shown below:

Mechanical material handling:

Lifting Machineries:
I. Transport Equipment. Equipment used to move material from one location
to another (e.g., between workplaces, between a loading dock and a
storage area, etc.). The major subcategories of transport equipment are
conveyors, cranes, and industrial trucks. Material can also be transported
manually using no equipment.
II. Positioning Equipment. Equipment used to handle material at a single
location (e.g., to feed and/or manipulate materials so that are in the correct
position for subsequent handling, machining, transport, or storage). Unlike
transport equipment, positioning equipment is usually used for handling at
a single workplace. Material can also be positioned manually using no
equipment.
III. Unit Load Formation Equipment. Equipment used to restrict materials so
that they maintain their integrity when handled a single load during
transport and for storage. If materials are self-restraining (e.g., a single part
or interlocking parts), then they can be formed into a unit load with no
equipment.
IV. Storage Equipment. Equipment used for holding or buffering materials
over a period of time. Some storage equipment may include the
transport of materials (e.g., the S/R machines of an AS/RS, or storage
carousels). If materials are block stacked directly on the floor, then no
storage equipment is required.
V. Identification and Control Equipment. Equipment used to collect and
communicate the information that is used to coordinate the flow of
materials within a facility and between a facility and its suppliers and
customers. The identification of materials and associated control can be
performed manually with no specialized equipment.
A. Conveyors: 1. Chute conveyor 2. Wheel conveyor 3. Roller conveyor 4.
Chain conveyor 5. Slat conveyor 6. Flat belt conveyor 7. Magnetic belt
conveyor 8. Troughed belt conveyor 9. Bucket conveyor 10. Vibrating
conveyor 11. Screw conveyor 12. Pneumatic conveyor 13. Vertical conveyor
14. Cart-on-track conveyor 15. Tow conveyor 16. Trolley conveyor 17.
Power-and-free conveyor 18. Monorail 19. Sortation conveyor
B. Cranes: 1. Jib crane 2. Bridge crane 3. Gantry crane 4. Stacker crane
C. Industrial Trucks: 1. Hand truck 2. Pallet jack 3. Walkie stacker 4. Pallet
truck 5. Platform truck 6. Counterbalanced lift truck 7. Narrow-aisle straddle
truck 8. Narrow-aisle reach truck 9. Turret truck 10. Order picker 11. side
loader 12. Tractor-trailer 13. Personnel and burden carrier 14. Automatic
guided vehicle
Lifts and hoists:

Used for vertical translation (i.e., lifting and lowering) of loads

Frequently attached to cranes and monorails to provide vertical translation capability Can be
operated manually, electrically, or pneumatically
Uses chain or wire rope as its lifting medium Hoists are categorized into duty classes: H1
H1—
infrequent, standby duty use (1 or 2 lifts per month);
H2—light
light duty (avg. 75 start/stops per hour);
H3— medium (max. 250 start/stops per hour);
H4—heavy, and
H5—severe duty

Signaling:

• The "crane operator" is responsible for operating the crane correctly and safely. He shall: –
be at least 18 years of age and hold a valid crane operation certificate; – be physically fit; –
be familiar with hand signals for communication.

The "slinger" is responsible for attaching and detaching the load to and from the crane. He
shall: – have received appropriate training on general safe lifting operations; – be capable of
selecting lifting gears suitable for the loads; – liaise with the operator and direct the
movement of the crane safely.
• The "signaler" is responsible for relay
relaying
ing the signal from the slinger to the crane operator.
He shall: – have received appropriate training on general safe lifting operations; – be able to
direct the movement of the crane and loads.
Industrial machinery:

Machinery – refers to lifting appliances and all lifting gears. The lifting appliance includes a
crab, winch, teagle, pulley block, gin wheel, crane, sheerleg, excavator, pile driver, pile
extractor, dragline, aerial rope way, aerial cableway transporter or overhead runway, etc.

Industrial lifting trucks:

Industrial lift trucks are powered mobile plant designed to move goods, materials or
equipment. They are equipped with an elevating load carriage and for normal use, are
equipped with a load-holding attachment.
There are different types of powered industrial lift trucks including ride-on forklift trucks,
pedestrian-operated trucks, straddle carriers and reach trucks. Mobile cranes, earthmoving
machinery and manually-powered lift trucks like pallet lifters are not industrial lift trucks. For
the purposes of this Guide, reach stackers, multi-purpose tool carriers and telehandlers are not
industrial lift trucks.

What is a forklift truck?

A forklift truck is a powered industrial lift truck equipped with lifting media made up of a
mast and elevating load carriage with a pair of fork arms or other arms that can be raised 900
mm or more off the ground. A pedestrian-operated lift truck or a manually powered pallet
truck is not a forklift truck. Forklift trucks are the most commonly used industrial lift truck.

How can industrial lift truck risks be managed?

Use the following steps to ensure, so far as is reasonably practicable, that workers and other
people are not exposed to health and safety risks:

1. Find out what could cause harm.

The following can help you identify potential hazards:
„ Observe the workplace to identify areas where industrial lift trucks operate and how they
interact with other vehicles, pedestrians and fixed structures like storage racks.
„ Visually inspect the industrial lift truck.
„ Ask your workers, pedestrians and visiting delivery drivers about any problems they
encounter at your workplace when interacting with industrial lift trucks–consider operation,
inspection, maintenance, repair, transport and storage requirements.
„ Review your incident and injury records including near misses.

2. Assess the risk if necessary. In many cases the risks and related control measures will be
well known. In other cases, you may need to carry out a risk assessment to identify the
likelihood of somebody being harmed by the hazard and how serious the harm could be. Most
incidents involving industrial lift trucks are from:
„ the industrial lift truck overturning or the operator being ejected
„ collisions with pedestrians or other vehicles working in the same area
„ loading and unloading e.g. loads falling on operators or workers, and
„ mechanical failure of pressurized systems (e.g. hydraulic) that may release fluids that pose a
risk. People who work with or near industrial lift trucks are most at risk. Customers and
visitors may also be at risk. A risk assessment can help you determine what action you should
take to control the risk and how urgently the action needs to be taken.

3. Act to control the risk. The WHS laws require a business or undertaking do all that is
reasonably practicable to eliminate or minimize risks. The ways of controlling risks are
ranked from the highest level of protection and reliability to the lowest. This ranking is
known as the hierarchy of risk control. You must work through this hierarchy to manage
risks. The first thing to consider is whether hazards can be completely removed from the
workplace.
For example, risks can be eliminated by changing the workplace so materials are delivered
directly to the location where they are stored so there is no need to use an industrial lift truck.
If it is not reasonably practicable to completely eliminate the risk then consider one or more
of the following options in the order they appear below to minimize risks, so far as is
reasonably practicable:
„ substituting the hazard for something safer e.g. use a manually-powered lift truck or
pedestrian-operated lift truck instead of a ride-on forklift truck
„ isolating the hazard from people e.g. by installing physical barriers that separate people
from operating industrial lift trucks
„ using engineering controls e.g. using a falling object protective structure (FOPS) or a roll
over protective structure (ROPS), or a combination of both. If after implementing the above
control measures a risk still remains, consider the following controls in the order below to
minimize the remaining risk, so far as is reasonably practicable:
„ using administrative controls e.g. schedule delivery times to avoid or reduce the need for
pedestrians and vehicles to interact, or
„ using personal protective equipment (PPE) e.g. high visibility clothing and eye protection.
#1 Identify hazards
#2 Assess risks
#3 Control risks
 GENERAL GUIDE FOR INDUSTRIAL LIFT TRUCKS:
A combination of the controls set out above may be used if a single control is not enough to
minimize the risks. You need to consider all possible control measures and decide about
which are reasonably practicable for your workplace. Deciding what is reasonably practicable
includes the availability and suitability of control measures, with a preference for using
substitution, isolation or engineering controls to minimize risks before using administrative
controls or PPE. Cost may also be relevant, but you can only consider this after all other
factors have been considered. Check your control measures regularly to ensure they are
working as planned.

4. Check Your Control Measure: Control measures need to be regularly reviewed to make
sure they remain effective, taking into consideration any changes, the nature and duration of
work and that the system is working as planned. Further information on the risk management
process is in the Code of Practice: How to manage work health and safety risks. More
information on managing the risks of plant is in the Code of Practice: Managing risks of plant
in the workplace

Choosing an industrial lift truck: Before you choose an industrial lift truck you should
discuss your workplace needs with suppliers and identify industrial lift trucks that are most
suited to the workplace and the work it will be used for. For example, a pedestrian operated
industrial lift truck may be more suitable to minimize traffic movement risks in a small, busy
workplace than a ride-on industrial lift truck. A second-hand industrial lift truck is more
likely to have outdated or missing safety features. Suppliers of a second-hand lift truck must
do what is reasonably practicable to supply equipment that is safe to use at work.
Some of the things to look for when choosing an industrial lift truck are:
„ operator protective devices e.g. ROPS and FOPS
„ integrated guarding e.g. for engine and battery compartments
„ safe entry and exit e.g. enough steps and handholds
„ low noise and vibration e.g. through a sprung and adjustable seat
„ a fork load back-rest high enough to prevent the load or part of the load falling back onto
the operator „ good visibility e.g. adjustable rear vision mirrors of enough size
„ operator activated warning device (e.g. a horn)
„ flow restrictors or similar, fitted to hydraulic lines to prevent free fall in the event of
hydraulic hose failure e.g. when lifting people in a work box
„ emission control systems or forklifts that do not produce emissions e.g. if the industrial lift
truck will be working in a poorly ventilated area e.g. cold store, and
„ flame and static proofing e.g. if the industrial lift truck will be working in or near areas
containing flammable or combustible atmospheres or materials.

Lifting Tackles:
Lifting gears play an important part in the lifting operation. Their function is to tie the objects
tightly and hang them on the crane. There is a great variety of lifting gears. If there is
insufficient knowledge or a wrong choice is made, lifting may fail and accidents may result.
All lifting gears shall be tested by qualified examiners and suitably marked with a Safe
Working Load (SWL).
Wire rope slings:
 Wire rope consists of individual wires laid into a number of strands, which are then
wrapped around a central core.
 Different number of wires in the strands and various methods of arrangement may
affect the characteristics of the wire rope sling. The wire rope shall be equipped with
a thimble and with pressed metal sleeve and marked with a Safe Working Load
(SWL)

Inspection points:
• The wire rope sling shall not be used and shall be disposed if they are:

Points for attention:

• Use only suitable wire rope slings.
• Never use damaged wire rope slings.
• During lifting, the Safe Working Load must not be exceeded.
• Regular inspections shall be conducted
• Sudden elevation is not allowed
• If more than one wire rope sling is used in lifting, pay attention to the angle
between the slings.
Wire rope slings - cable clip

The cable clip shall be properly installed according to the following points:
• The wire rope sling is equipped with thimble.
• There is a minimum of 3 cable clips.
• The direction of instal
installation shall be correct.
• The distance between the cable clips shall be the same.

Wire rope slings - cable clip

The cable clip shall be properly installed according to the following points:
• The wire rope sling is equipped with thimble.
• There is a minimum of 3 cable clips.
• The direction of installation shall be correct.
• The distance between the cable clips shall be the same.
 Chain slings
Rigging equipment for material handling:
 Rigging equipment inspections (By a Competent Person
Person)
– Prior to use on each shift
– As necessary during its use to ensure that it is safe
– Defective rigging equipment removed from service
 Not be loaded in excess of its recommended safe working load
 Custom design grabs, hooks, clamps, or other lifting accessor
accessories,
ies, for such units as
modular panels, prefabricated structures and similar materials
 Marked to indicate the safe working loads
 Be proof-tested
tested prior to use to 125 percent of their rated load

 Alloy steel chains

 Welded alloy steel chain slings
– Permanently affixed durable identification stating
 Size
 Grade
 Rated capacity
 Sling manufacturer

 Alloy steel chains

 Job or shop hooks and links, or makeshift fasteners, formed from bolts, rods, etc., or
other such attachments, shall not be used

 Inspections
– Frequent
 Visual examination by the user
 Periodic
– Complete link by link inspection of the entire sling and all attachments.
 – Documented

 CP inspections made & based on

– Frequency of sling use;
– Severity of service conditions;
– Nature of lifts being made; and
– Experience gained on the service life of slings used in similar circumstances.
 Such inspections at least once a year
 Documented & available

Shackles:
Hook rings are divided into two main cacategories:
tegories: Chain ("D" type) shackle and anchor (bow)
type shackle. Both are available with screw pins or round pins.

Points for attention:

• Never replace the shackle pin with a bolt.
• Ensure the pin is totally locked.
• Do not use screw pin shackles if the pin can roll and unscrew.
• During lifting, shackles shall not lean to one side. Hook rings are divided into two main
categories: Chain ("D" type) shackle and anchor (bow) type shackle. Both are available with
screw pins or round pins.
• Shackle pins must always be attached to the hook.
• Washers may be used to center the shackle.

Eye bolts
Eye bolts are mainly classified into plain (shoulder less) eye bolts and shoulder type eye
bolts.
• The bolt length shall be 1-1.5
1.5 times the diameter of the bolt and totally drilled on the load.
• The bolt hole shall fit into the bolt
Safety points:
• The hook shall not be directly fixed on to the eye bolt.
• Plain eye bolts only apply to the vertical lifting.
• The angle of lifting of shoulder eye bolts shall not be less than 45
45o.
• Washers may be used to ensure that the shoulder is firmly in contact with the surface.
• Never use a sling through a pair of eye bolts.

Conveyors Belt:
1. Chute conveyor 2. Wheel conveyor 3. Roller conveyor 4. Chain conveyor 5. Slat conveyor
6. Flat belt conveyor 7. Magnetic belt conveyor 8. Troughed belt conveyor 9. Bucket
conveyor 10. Vibrating conveyor 11. Screw conveyor 12. Pneumatic conveyor 13. Vertical
conveyor 14. Cart-on-track
track conveyor 15. Tow conveyor 16. Trolley conveyor 17. Power
Power-and-
free conveyor 18. Monorail 19. Sortation conveyor

Conveyors are used:

• When material is to be moved frequently between specific points
• To move materials over a fixe
fixed path
• When there is a sufficient flow volume to justify the fixed conveyor investment Conveyors
can be classified in different ways:
• Type of product being handled: unit load or bulk load
• Location of the conveyor: inin-floor, on-floor, or overhead
• Whether loads can accumulate on the conveyor or no accumulation is possible

1. Chute conveyor
Unit/Bulk + On-Floor + Accumulate
Inexpensive
Used to link two handling devices
Used to provide accumulation in shipping areas
Used to convey items between floors Difficult to control position of the items

2. Wheel conveyor
Unit + On-Floor + Accumulate
Uses a series of skate wheels mounted on a shaft (or axle)
Spacing of the wheels is dependent on the load being transported
Slope for gravity movement depends on load weight
More economical than the roller conveyor
For light-duty applications Flexible, expandable mobile versions available

3. Roller conveyor
Unit + On-Floor + Accumulate
May be powered (or live) or nonpowered (or gravity)
Materials must have a rigid riding surface
Minimum of three rollers must support smallest loads at all times
Tapered rollers on curves used to maintain load orientation
Parallel roller configuration can be used as a (roller) pallet conveyor (more flexible than a
chain pallet conveyor because rollers can be used to accommodate are greater variation of
pallet widths)

4./ Chain conveyor

Unit + In-/On-Floor + No Accumulation
Uses one or more endless chains on which loads are carried directly
Parallel chain configuration used as (chain) pallet conveyor or as a pop-up device for
sortation (see Sortation conveyor: Pop-up devices)
Vertical chain conveyor used for continuous high-frequency vertical transfers, where material
on horizontal platforms attached to chain link (cf. vertical conveyor used for low-frequency
intermittent transfers)

5. Slat conveyor
Unit + In-/On-Floor + No Accumulation
Uses discretely spaced slats connected to a chain Unit being transported retains its position
(like a belt conveyor)
Orientation and placement of the load is controlled Used for heavy loads or loads that might
damage a belt
Bottling and canning plants use flat chain or slat conveyors because of wet conditions,
temperature, and cleanliness requirements.
Safe Workload Limit:

Safe Working Load (SWL) sometimes stated as the Normal Working Load (NWL) is the
maximum safe force that a piece of lifting equipment, lifting device or accessory can exert to
lift, suspend, or lower, a given mass without fear of breaking. Usually marked on the
equipment by the manufacturer. It is a calculation of the Minimum Breaking Strength
(MBS)aka Minimum Breaking Load (MBL) divided by its risk factor, usually ten to one
(10:1 or 1/10) for lifting equipment although depending on the application.

SWL can also apply to other lifting devices or components of lifting devices, such as a
line, rope or crane. The SWL is also sometimes referred to as Normal Working Load or
Working Load Limit. It is the mass that lifting equipment can safely hold without fear of
breaking. The SWL or NWL is often a fifth of the Minimum Breaking Strength of the
cable, although sometimes other fractions are used, depending on the manufacturer.

The manufacturer's recommended maximum weight load for a line, rope, crane or any other
lifting device or component of a lifting device. The SWL is determined by dividing the
minimum breaking strength (MBS) of a component by a safety factor assigned to that type
and use of equipment. The safety factor generally ranges from 4 to 6 unless a failure of the
equipment could pose a risk to life; in that instance the safety factor would be a 10. For
example, if a line has an MBS of 1,000 pounds and a safety factor of 5, then the SWL would
be 200 pounds. 1000 / 5 = 200. Also called working load limit (WLL).

Making the Calculations

To calculate the SWL, you need to know the diameter of the cable or rope. While you may
find this on the packaging, you can also calculate it manually by measuring it yourself.
Ensure that you enclose all of the strands of rope when measuring the diameter, and
measure from the top of one strand to the top of the strand which is directly opposite. If
you’re worried about the accuracy of your measurements, conduct your measurements three
times at different places on the cable, and use the average of your three measurements as
the diameter of the rope.

Once you know the diameter of the rope, you can apply it to the formula, which is SWL =
D2 x 8. D represents the diameter of the rope in inches. If you’re working with a 1.5-inch
diameter cable, for example, then the formula would be SWL = 1.52 x 8 or SWL = 2.25 x 8.
This calculation means the SWL of a 1.5-inch diameter rope is 18 tons.
In Health and Safety, it is expected that all manufacturers of a lifting equipment and lifting
accessories should specify the safe working load of that equipment/accessory to prevent
overload. Overload of an equipment can result to accidental release of the load which could
cause serious injury or death.

To ensure safe lifting, risk assessment must be carried out for all lifting exercises. One of the
things to consider during the risk assessment is the lifting machinery, lifting accessories and
the load.

This consideration will guide on the choice of the best lifting machinery and accessories for a
successful completion of the task.

Any machinery that do not have its safe working load conspicuously stamped on the body of
the equipment should not be used for lifting based on assumption.

If need arise to make use of the equipment, the manufacturer of the lifting equipment or the
lifting accessories should be contacted in order to ascertain the capacity of the equipment or
accessories before use.

SWL Chart:

Taking Precautions

Take note that most manufacturers will provide you with the SWL for their rope or cable
under specific conditions. It’s important to use the SWL the manufacturer gives you. If
you’re working with old rope or rope that is worn down, you may want to reduce the SWL
of the rope by as much as half, based on the condition of the rope. You can also use the
manufacturer’s Breaking Strength of the rope if it is available.

Safe System of Work for Inspection, Thorough Examination and Testing 28 8.1 A safe
system of work should be developed to ensure the safety of personnel engaged in the job in
addition to carrying out of a good quality and accurate inspection, examination or test.
Legally, every employer must ensure the safety and health at work of all his employees. He
should provide and maintain a safe system of work that is safe and without risk to health. The
safe system of work should be worked out under the advice of a registered safety officer. The
system should include the following main ingredients:
• site conditions;
• weather conditions;
• test weights;
• procedure and safety precautions;
• prevention from swinging or wheeling outwards of loads;
• competence of operator engaged in examination or testing;

Site Conditions

When a lifting appliance or lifting gear is to be examined or tested in a site or inside a

workshop, due consideration should be given to the condition of the site or premises where
examinations or tests are to be conducted. Whenever possible, the lifting appliance or lifting
gear should be examined and tested in open area or workshop where no other work activities
are carried out concurrently.
The ground or structure for support the lifting appliance should be well consolidated,
structurally stable and capable of withstanding the loads that would be applied to it. Care
should be taken to ensure that there are no hidden hazards in the vicinity such as cable ducts,
drains, pipes, back-fill areas, cellars or other underground weakness when testing of a lifting
appliance is conducted. Lifting appliances should not be examined or tested in the vicinity of
overhead power lines. In general, brick or masonry work, metal or bamboo scaffolding, or
temporary structure or working platforms should not be used as a test site during the proof
load test.
The site where the test is conducted should be of sufficient area and have unrestricted
overhead clearance to allow the unobstructed movement of the lifting appliance and load
throughout all its appropriate test movements.
It should also keep in mind to ensure all personnel not involved in the test be kept away from
the test area. Particular care should be taken when a mobile crane or a tower crane is tested
near a public area, highway, or occupied buildings. Appropriate time and date should be
arranged with all relevant parties to keep away traffic and pedestrians during the test.

Weather Conditions:

If the test site is situated in an open area, examinations or tests should not be carried out in
adverse weather condition. Gusting wind may introduce an additional adverse effect on the
safe handling of the load and the safe operation of the lifting appliance. Accident may happen
to the personnel involved in the examination or test as rainy weather may increase the
slipperiness of the frame structure of the lifting appliance on which they may walk. Suitable
safety precautions should be devised if examinations and tests in such weather condition
could not be avoided.

Test Weights

The test weights used should comply with the following requirements: • weights of proven
accuracy within +/- 1.0%, • weights proven on a weighbridge, the weighbridge has been
calibrated within the last 12 months, and • weights suspended from a calibrated weighing
device, the weighing device has been calibrated within the last 12 months.
The suspended test weights should be kept as close to the ground as possible, such as in the
range of 100mm to 200mm above ground. Safety precautions should be taken to ensure the
work safety of the personnel involved in the proof load test if the test weights are required to
be hoisted or travelling along a path.
Test weights should be made up of concrete/metal blocks/plates, preferably with markings to
show their actual weights. Under no circumstances, should reinforcement bars, wooden
planks or life load be used as test weights.

Procedure and Safety Precautions

A proper procedure should be worked out to clearly define the sequence and the
responsibility of each personnel engaged in the inspection, examination or test of a lifting
appliance or lifting gear. It should set out which tests to be carried out first and what follows
a non-destructive test. It is important to note down all safety precautions from relevant codes
of practice, national/international standards and the manufacturer's operation and
maintenance manual, and if appropriate, incorporate them into the safe system of work. The
proper procedure and safety precautions for manually handling heavy test weights, equipment
and lifting tackles should be laid down. If it involves working at height, relevant safety
measures to prevent fall of persons should be adopted, including the provision of safe access
and egress, proper working platforms and personal protective equipment such as independent
life lines and safety harnesses, etc.
A briefing session to explain and highlight the procedure and precautions should be
conducted to ensure that every personnel is fully familiar with this topic.

Prevention from Swinging or Wheeling outwards of Loads

When a lifting appliance operates with various SWLs at different working radii, adequate
precautions should be exercised during the proof load test to prevent the load from swinging
or wheeling outwards in order not to overload the lifting appliance. In case of a horizontal jib
crane with trolley, suitable device should be fitted at the maximum radius of the jib, e.g.
clamps to prevent the trolley from moving beyond this point.

Competence of Operator Engaged in Examination or Testing

The safe system of work should specify the competence of the operator who is engaged in the
functional test or proof load test. The operator should be familiar with the characteristics of
the lifting appliance, the safety precautions in handling overloading and the limitation of the
lifting appliance in the brake test, functional test and proof load test. He should be able to put
the lifting appliance under control at any time during the examination and testing work.
The operator should hold a relevant certificate, if required under the law, to qualify him in
operating the lifting appliance. He should fully understand all signals given by the competent
examiner to operate the lifting appliance smoothly and accurately

Duties and Responsibilities of Competent persons:

Personnel related to the lifting operation include "competent examiner", "competent person",
"crane operator", "slinger", "signaler" and others working nearby.
• The "competent examiner" is responsible for regular examinations of the lifting appliances
or lifting gears. He shall be: – appointed by the employer or the owner of the lifting
appliances/lifting gears; – a registered professional engineer within a relevant discipline; –
properly trained with relevant practical experience.
 • The "competent person" is responsible for regular inspections of lifting appliances or lifting
gears. He shall be: – appointed by the employer or the owner of the lifting appliances/lifting
gears; – properly trained with relevant practical experience.
• The "crane operator" is responsible for operating the crane correctly and safely. He shall: –
be at least 18 years of age and hold a valid crane operation certificate; – be physically fit; –
be familiar with hand signals for communication.

Mechanical handling of materials facilitates quickening of the process and is economical on

large-scale deployment, hazards of mechanical handling are different than the hazards due to
manual handling. The hazards due to Mechanical handling are:
 Traumatic injuries due to falling objects.
 Equipment failure.
 Improper guarding.
 Unsafe operations involving ropes, slings, hoists, cranes and powered industrial
trucks.

Mechanical handling is done by means of EOT Cranes, gantry cranes, mobile crane, jib
cranes, fork lifts and chain pulley blocks.
For lifting the materials, manila ropes, wire ropes and chain slings are used.
 CHAPTER 3:

PLANT LAYOUT
DESIGN AND HOUSEKEEPING

Plant layout will be based on factors like:

• New site development or addition to previously developed site.

• Type and quantity of products to be produced,
• Possible future expansion,
• Operational convenience and accessibility,
• Type of process and product control,
• Economic distribution of utilities and services,
• Type of building and building code requirements,
• Guidelines related to health and safety,
• Waste-disposable problems,
• Space available and space requirement,
• Auxiliary equipment, and
• Roads and railroad.

General:
• Size, shape, location, construction, and layout of buildings and other facilities should
permit the most
• efficient utilization of materials, processes, and methods.
• Some materials and processes may favor gravity How and the construction of a
multistory building, for example, in the case of mills for one treatment. In processes,
where material charging is to be done through trolleys or drums, which are required to
be carried from one floor to other, elevators may be provided, to avoid accidents in
lifting them.

Location of Buildings and Structures:

• The segregation of raw materials storage, processing buildings, and storage for
finished products warrants thorough study in laying out a plant to minimize fire and
explosion hazards.
• Storage of volatile flammable liquids in an area apart from processing buildings
reduces the fire hazards. In the event of fire, control is more easily achieved.
• Analytical laboratories should be in a safe area, but otherwise as close as possible to
the plants served. So, should workshops and general stores. The stores also require
ready access for stores materials.
• Ample space should be provided between segregated units, from such flame sources
as boilers, and from shops, streets, and adjoining property. The codes of local, state
 and central authorities should be followed in planning the location of the units of a
plant.
• Many plants use and store flammable liquids having flash points below 93°C. Plans
and layouts in such plants should conform strictly to specifications for handling and
storing flammable liquids stipulated by Department of Explosives.
• In large petrochemicals complex/refineries, multi-fire station locations for a minimum
distance from all plants should be considered.
• Standards for tanks include type and thickness of material, provisions for relieving
excessive internal pressure, grounding, insulation, piping, and other appurtenances,
and similar details (see IS 2825).
• The distance between occupied buildings and plant buildings will be governed by the
need to reduce the dangers of explosion, fire and toxicity.
• In particular, evacuation routes should not be blocked by poor plant layout.
• Administration buildings should be situated in safe area on the public side of the
security point. The main office block should always be near the main entrance and
other administration buildings should be near this entrance if possible.
• Other buildings such as medical centers, canteens, etc., should be in a safe area and
the latter should have ready access for food supplies.

Control facilities:

• The control building should protect its occupants against the hazards of fire, explosion
and toxic release.
• The control building should be situated on the edge of the plant to allow an escape
route.
• Recommended minimum distances between the plant and the control building tend to
lie in the range 20 - 30 m.
• It should not be so near the plant that its occupants are at once put at risk by serious
leak of flammable, toxic, or corrosive materials.
• minimum area to probable centers of explosion, with a strong construction,
constructed in ductile materials (Ductile material include steel and reinforced
concreter).
• The control room should not be used as a center to control emergencies, nor it should
be used as an emergency assembly point. There should be a separate emergency
control center for controlling the incident by the incident controller, having necessary
arrangements for positive pressure inside.
• Water drift from cooling towers can cause corrosion of plants, air intake towers,
increase vibration in centrifugal air compressors, so the towers should be sited to
minimize this.

Escape:

• A minimum of two escape routes should be provided for any workspace, except
where the fire risk is very small.
 • No workplace should be more than 12-45 m, depending on degree of risk, from an
exit, and a dead end should not exceed 8 m.
• Escape routes across open mesh areas should have solid flooring.
• Escape stairways should be in straight flights preferably be on the outside of
buildings. Fixed ladders may be used for escape from structures if the number of
people does not exceed 10.
• The escape times of personnel should be estimated, paying particular attention to
people on tall items such as distillation columns or cranes.

Fire Fighting:

• This is provided by the suggested plot size of 100 m × 200 m with approaches
preferably on all four sides and by spacing between plots and buildings of 15 m.
• Some basic principles are that it should be possible to gel fire-fighting equipment
sufficiently close the site of the fire.
• Hydrant points should be positioned so that hoses can reach any fire on the plot.
Hydrant spacing of 48 in, 65 m, and 95 m are suitable for high, medium, and low risk
plots, respectively.
• Plants over 18 m high should be provided with dry riser mains and those over 60 m
high or of high risk should be equipped with wet riser mams.
• The inlets on the ground floor to dry riser mains and the outlets on all floors to both
types of mains should be accessible.

Flow Sheet:

• A detailed flow sheet is a useful guide in the layout of plant, particularly those using
dangerous and harmful materials and complicated processes.
• The nature of the materials and processes in each manufacturing stage can be studied
and provision made to eliminate or control hazards.
• A comprehensive risk assessment study can be done which is based on consequence
analysis and engineering judgment can lead to a set of conclusion and risk mitigation
to arrive at a safe process flow sheet (HAZOP).
• Auto-Cad computer applications can be used to plan the layout and flow sheet.
A typical flow sheet and layout:
Layout of Equipment:

• Now-a-days, computer aided design (CAD) method are widely used. One type of
Code gives visualization of the layout, 2D or in 3D forms. Typically, such CAD
packages not only give 3D display, but hold a large amount of information about the
plant such as coordinates of the main items and branches, the piping routes, the
materials list etc.
• By using the three-dimensional method (3D) model of the space occupied by each
item of equipment, congested areas can be anticipated and avoided. These pile-up
areas mean frequent handling of materials, many unnecessary movements, and result
in bad housekeeping, which, may be in itself a prolific source of accidents.
• This 3D envelope should include space for:
• Operations access,
• Maintenance access, and
• Piping connections.
•
Additional Facilities

• Smoking room should be provided in process plants where smoking is prohibited.

• Greater use should be made of mechanical handling devices, such as conveyors,
bucket elevators, etc. in order to reduce transport by rail and road to an optimum
extent.
• Sectionalizing arrangement should be made in electrical supply line to equipment.
• Planning and erection of equipment should take into consideration facilities for
repairs and preventive maintenance work.
• Equipment layout/installation should also consider the case of removal of the
equipment (by cranes), especially when located on higher floors.
• As far as possible, bridging of the platforms of adjacent columns (distillation,
scrubbers, evaporators, etc.) should be done, for ease of operation especially during
shutdown and start up.

HOUSEKEEPING:

Good housekeeping is the foundation of a safe, healthy and pleasant workplace.

It is essential that all areas be kept clean, orderly, and with all necessary things in the proper
places.
Employees should be aware of hazards arising from poor housekeeping.
Good housekeeping improves safety, efficiency and quality at the same time.
Plus, bonus, it’s easier to find things!
Housekeeping Guidelines:
 Keep work areas neat and clean.
 Place tools, equipment and supplies in their correct places.
 Keep stairways and other walkways free of debris, hoses and other
obstructions. Put trash in approved containers.
 Remove protruding objects such as nails, spikes, wire or other sharp
points.
 Keep workbenches and stations free from items that are not being used
or worked on at present.
 Place oily rags in the metal containers provided.
 Paper cups, plates, and lunch debris, including trash must be thrown in
the appropriate trashcans.
 To avoid skin irritations, wash frequently, using soap and water. Wear
gloves when handling substances that may cause irritation.
 Cigarette butts belong in containers provided.

Employee’s Housekeeping Responsibility:

Good housekeeping is a team effort and a team is made up of
individuals. The individual employee’s responsibility, is as follows: To keep work areas
clean, neat, tidy and free from excessive material at all times.
 To work areas, clean during the shift.
 To constantly put trash in the proper trash bins, scrap in the scrap bins
and recyclable materials in the designated bins with lids.
 To keep the floors free from excessive material.
 To ensure that aisles and walkways are clear, unobstructed and in good
order.
 To ensure that materials are stacked correctly and safely in the correct
places.
 To do an informal housekeeping inspection of the area on a daily basis
and to rectify housekeeping hazards.
 To monitor that no items are stacked in no stacking areas such as under
fire equipment and electrical switchgear.
 Report faded housekeeping notices and signs.
 Always return tools to their correct place after use.
 Ensure that spill and other tripping \ slipping hazards are cleaned up or
fixed.

Golden Housekeeping Rules:

 If you remove something, replace it.

 If you unlock it, lock it.
 If you open it, close it.
  If you switched it on, did you switch it off?
 If you break it, fix it, if you borrowed it, look after it, if you use it, look
after it as if it were yours.
 If it is not yours, ask permission first, if you have not been trained to
do it, don’t do it, do not interfere if it does not concern you.
 If you spill it, wipe it up.
 If you mess up, clean up, if you remove, replace.
 To get others to follow, set the example.
 You are the champion of good housekeeping.
 Teach others that neatness is an important part of maintaining a safe
environment.

Safety and Good Housekeeping:

Effective housekeeping results in:

 reduced handling to ease the flow of materials

 fewer tripping and slipping incidents in clutter-free and spill-free work areas
 decreased fire hazards
 lower worker exposures to hazardous products (e.g. dusts, vapours)
 better control of tools and materials, including inventory and supplies
 more efficient equipment clean-up and maintenance
 better hygienic conditions leading to improved health
 more effective use of space
 reduced property damage by improving preventive maintenance
 less janitorial work
 improved morale
 improved productivity (tools and materials will be easy to find)

Plan for a good housekeeping program?

A good housekeeping program plans and manages the orderly storage and movement of
materials from point of entry to exit. It includes a material flow plan to ensure minimal
handling. The plan also makes sure that work areas are not used as storage areas by having
workers move materials to and from work areas as needed. Part of the plan could include
investing in extra bins and more frequent disposal.
The costs of this investment could be offset by the elimination of repeated handling of the
same material and more effective use of the workers' time. Often, ineffective or insufficient
storage planning results in materials being handled many times and being stored in hazardous
ways. Knowing the workplace layout and the movement of materials throughout it will help
when planning work procedures.
Worker training is an essential part of any good housekeeping program. Workers need to
know how to work safely with the products they use. They also need to know how to protect
other workers such as by posting signs (e.g., "Wet - Slippery Floor") and reporting any
unusual conditions.
Housekeeping order is "maintained" not "achieved." Cleaning and organization must be done
regularly, not just at the end of the shift. Integrating housekeeping into jobs can help ensure
this is done. A good housekeeping program identifies and assigns responsibilities for the
following:

 clean up during the shift

 day-to-day cleanup
 waste disposal
 removal of unused materials
 inspection to ensure cleanup is complete

Do not forget out-of-the-way places such as shelves, basements, sheds, and boiler rooms that
would otherwise be overlooked.
The final step to any housekeeping program is inspection. It is the only way to check for
deficiencies in the program so that changes can be made. Examples of checklists
include inspecting offices and manufacturing facilities.

Effects of poor housekeeping:

Some people can’t stand a mess, while others leave an evidence trail of poor housekeeping
everywhere they go. But in the workplace, bad housekeeping can have consequences that go
far beyond creating an image of a sloppily run, unprofessional operation.

WHAT’S THE DANGER?

Poor housekeeping causes a wide range of injuries and fatalities, ranging from painful slips,
trips and falls, to workers being unable to evacuate burning buildings because of blocked fire
exits, to dust explosions that can claim multiple lives in an instant.
Example: The lead singer and guitarist of a popular band was participating in a game show
in Japan when he fell head-first from a slippery and wet stage to the floor below. He suffered
severe brain injuries and died several days later.

And dust explosions, many of which are linked to poor housekeeping, have claimed more
than 100 workers’ lives and injured about 600 others across the US since the early 1980s,
according to the US Chemical Safety and Hazard Investigation Board.

HOW TO PROTECT YOURSELF

The possibilities for injury or death in a cluttered workplace are many. Workers can slip on
spilled material that hasn’t been cleaned up, trip over debris on a floor, hurt themselves while
walking past heavy or sharp objects that are protruding from shelves or be struck by
unsecured items that shift and fall from racking.
If sawdust, sugar or other material is left to accumulate on surfaces and it comes in contact
with an ignition source, it can cause a deadly explosion and fire.

It is neither safe nor practical for you to sweep dust off a beam high in the air in your
workplace. If you are concerned about a build-up of combustible dust and the potential for an
explosion, talk to your supervisor.

As a worker, there’s plenty you can do on the ground to keep yourself and your co-workers
safe. While it can be annoying to see someone create a mess such as a spill and walk away
from it, ignoring that mess yourself is wrong because it puts everyone in danger.

The few seconds it takes to mop up a coffee spill on the floor or sweep up some wood chips
and sawdust can make a huge difference to the safety of your workplace. But if you don’t
know what the spilled material is, talk to your supervisor before attempting to clean it up.

Disposal of Scrap and other Trade waste:

Material intended for reuse and storage at Physical Plant may only be accepted by the Central
Stores Manager of Physical Plant. A superintendent or Assistant Director must request the
item(s) be stored and that person shall be the responsible manager assigned to that material
and/or equipment.
The Stores Manager will create and maintain a record of these items deemed "Special
Inventory" which shall list the following minimum information: Description of the item,
quantity, original location obtained (IE Simpkins Hall), location stored (North Shed, South
Bay #1), date stored, superintendent or assistant director requesting storage (the responsible
manager), description of how item would be reused.
Generally, historical building components may be stored indefinitely at Physical Plant. Items
which are scavenged for use on existing operating obsolete equipment may be kept as long as
that equipment is still in use, but must be properly disposed of when the obsolete equipment
is no longer in use or is scheduled for imminent replacement. Non-historical distinctive
fixtures from restrooms, lighting, or other building components which are no longer available
may be kept as long as those fixtures are still being used in a campus building. Most other
building materials shall be reused in less than 12 months. Exceptions include new or almost
new building materials salvaged or not used on renovation or construction projects. These
items as well as other new or almost new building materials being stored at Physical Plant
should not be included in the inventory described here. However, the physical limits for
storage of surplus materials such as lumber, plywood, piping, masonry, and electrical
supplies shall be specifically defined by the Stores Manager. Surplus materials shall not
exceed the assigned storage space allocated for them by the Store Manager.
The Physical Plant will not store used building materials for use by residence hall students or
student clubs to be used for the purpose of modifying their residence hall rooms or any other
part of a residence hall, or for any other building type project, or for sandwich signs. This
prohibition includes but is not limited to, plywood, framing lumber, concrete masonry, paint,
etc.
No less than once every 24 months the Stores Manager shall require all responsible managers
authorized storage to reaffirm that material or equipment they have entered into this special
inventory shall remain in storage. Responsible managers shall notify the Stores Manager
when an item located in storage that is included in the special inventory has been removed for
reuse, salvage to the State, or disposed. Service request manifest procedures described in this
policy shall also be used for removal of inventoried storage. The Stores Manager shall use
these manifests to update the special inventory report.
Every effort will be made by responsible managers and the Stores Manager to limit storage of
items designated for reuse, as well as to provide for the expeditious turnover of items stored
for reuse. Decisions to store any such items shall consider the cost of storage relative to the
true value of the item being stored and the benefits of its reuse. While reuse can be a
desirable sustainable initiative, there is a cost associated with storage to include loss of
valuable space, risk of shrinkage, breakage, obsolescence, and the cost of continuous
management of the special inventory.
All superintendents and managers shall prepare a written report of items covered by this
directive which are currently stored or proposed to be stored in other remote campus
locations. This does not include short term storage of construction materials or equipment
being installed on a project. The report shall generally describe the items being stored,
quantities, and location by building and room number.
Remote storage that is intended to avoid the purpose of this directive is deemed
inappropriate.
Long term remote storage is discouraged and shall be carefully considered by a responsible
manager for cost versus benefit as well as risks associated with long term remote storage. The
responsible manager is accountable for security, proper controls, and safety of any remote
storage that is associated with their functions.
WHAT IS COLOUR CODED CLEANING?
It was in the late 1990s that The British Institute of Cleaning Science (BICSc) first began to
develop a universal colour code which would be recommended for use for the cleaning
industry.

BICSc believes all materials within a hospital janitorial cupboard should be colour coded
including; cloths, mops, buckets, aprons, and gloves. Over the years the BICSc has reviewed
its recommendations to align with those from organizations such as the National Patient
Safety Agency.
COLOUR CODED CLEANING EXPLAINED
Colour coded cleaning is the process of designating colour to cleaning equipment in certain
areas of a venue, reducing the spread of germs across areas and increasing hygiene
throughout a business or home. The four main colour used and to separate out areas such as
bars, public areas, kitchen & food preparation areas and washrooms, are red, blue, green and
yellow.
From 1 January 2006, a number of new food and hygiene legislations were applied to the UK.
As good practice, the Food Standards Agency suggested that separate cleaning equipment
such as cloths, sponges and mops, should be used in areas where ready-to-eat foods are
stored, handled and prepared.
Colour coding is used throughout a variety of industries and trades where health and safety
are paramount, in particular catering and healthcare as cross contamination will lead to
illness. The cleaning equipment colour are representative to their area of use. For example,
you would not want to clean the floors of a kitchen with a mop that has been previously used
to clean the bathroom floors. Colour coding can be broken down into 4 areas:

 Public areas – such as lobbies, receptions and hallways

 Washroom and toilets – this can include shower rooms and bathrooms
 Restaurant and bar – including dining areas and cafe lounge spaces
 Kitchen and food preparation areas – any kitchen, food station or area where food is
kept and/or prepared
For this system to work, you will need to assign a different mop (and other cleaning
equipment) to each area, with a colour handle, head or bristles to make it easily identifiable.
This hygienic cleaning system can be applied to any cleaning equipment that is used in each
area; from mops and brushes to cloths and gloves.

Three Colour Coded Items You Should Have

So what items are colour coded to help you keep your business as hygienic as possible? The
list is extensive, but here's the top three that we think every business should have as a
priority:

 Mops
 Mop Buckets
 Dustpan and Brushes
With these three items you should be able to ensure the hygiene of your premises never slips.
Extras such as cleaning cloths and cleaning buckets should also be considered for a thorough
and strict colour coded cleaning environment.

WHERE IS COLOUR CODING USED AND WHO USES IT?

The colour coordination of cleaning products can vary from business to business and the
system you choose is entirely up to you. However, the above guide is the most broadly
accepted system that most catering establishment adhere to. The colour you assign to each
area is your choice, so long as your staff members are trained on the system you choose.
There are, however, laws and regulations for healthcare establishment that must be followed
to ensure patient care.
As businesses must now conform to the Environmental Health Officer (EHO), the use of
colour coded cleaning equipment is particularly useful and has been widely adopted by the
catering industry, as well as offices, factories and the retail sector. The EHO handle
complaints about food quality, hygiene and safety issues and make sure that people’s living
and working surroundings are safe, healthy and hygienic. Choosing to employ a colour
system in your workplace can make cleaning easy, efficient and in turn, increase general
hygiene and cleanliness.

WHY IS COLOUR CODING SO USEFUL?

Using a single mop to clean every floor in a restaurant, for example, can spread bacteria from
the washrooms and toilets to kitchen and food preparation areas. This carries with it an
inherent risk of cross contamination and consequently, illness. Applying a colour coded
system to segregate sensitive areas from one-another is the most efficient and effective way
of reducing the risk of cross contamination.

5s System:

What Is 5S?

5S is a systematic form of visual management utilizing everything from floor tape to

operations manuals. It is not just about cleanliness or organization; it is also about
maximizing efficiency and profit. 5S is a framework that emphasizes the use of a specific
mindset and tools to create efficiency and value. It involves observing, analysing,
collaborating, and searching for waste and also involves the practice of removing waste.

5S includes five terms that all start with the letter "S."

What Does 5S Stand For?

5S, sometimes referred to as 5s or Five S, refers to five Japanese terms used to describe the
steps of the 5S system of visual management. Each term starts with an S. In Japanese, the five
S's are Seiri, Seiton, Seiso, Seiketsu, and Shitsuke. In English, the five S's are translated as
Sort, Set in Order, Shine, Standardize, and Sustain.

There are five key practices involved in 5S. They are as follows:

Japanese Term American Term Definition

Sort through materials,
keeping only the essential
items needed to complete
tasks. (This action involves
going through all the
Seiri Sort contents of a workspace to
determine which are needed
and which can be removed.
Everything that is not used to
complete a work process
should leave the work area.)
 Ensure that all items are
organized and each item has
a designated place. Organize
all the items left in the
workplace in a logical way so
they make tasks easier for
Seiton Set in Order
workers to complete. This
often involves placing items
in ergonomic locations where
people will not need to bend
or make extra movements to
reach them.
Proactive efforts to keep
workplace areas clean and
orderly to ensure purpose-
driven work. This means
cleaning and maintaining the
Seiso Shine newly organized workspace.
It can involve routine tasks
such as mopping, dusting,
etc. or performing
maintenance on machinery,
tools, and other equipment.
Create a set of standards for
both organization and
processes. In essence, this is
where you take the first three
Seiketsu Standardize S's and make rules for how
and when these tasks will be
performed. These standards
can involve schedules, charts,
lists, etc.
Sustain new practices and
conduct audits to maintain
discipline. This means the
previous four S's must be
Shitsuke Sustain continued over time. This is
achieved by developing a
sense of self-discipline in
employees who will
participate in 5S

SAFETY CHECK-LIST FOR NEW MACHINERY

1. Operation manual.
2. Safety manual.
3. Safe operating procedure.
4. Safety instructions.
 5. Start-up & shut-down procedure.
6. Trouble shooting guide.
7. Doe’s & don’ts.
8. Encasing or effective guards to:
Set screw, bolt or key on revolving shaft
Spindle, wheel or pinion
Spur, worn and other toothed or friction gearing (while in motion).
9. Any projection that creates hazardous condition.
10. Inbuilt safety:
Trips.
Interlocks.
Auto controls.
11. Maintenance manual (procedure & schedule).
12. Details of spares(availability).
13. After sale-service.

Machinery Purchasing Safety Checklist

1. New equipment –
2. general
• Do our intended manufacturers/suppliers have a good reputation within the industry?
.........................................................................................................
• Can the manufacturers/suppliers give us contact details of other users of their
equipment? ...................................................................................................
• Does the new machinery come with a CE mark? ..................................................
• Does the new machinery have a “Certificate of Conformity”? ...............................
• Is full installation data provided? ...........................................................................
• Are full operating instructions provided? ...............................................................
• Can the manufacturer/supplier provide full safety information for the machine, e.g. a
description of all risks associated with its use? ................
• Can the manufacturer/supplier arrange safety and general training for our
employees? ...........................................................................................................
• Does the manufacturer/supplier offer a maintenance contract? ............................
• Have we made an allowance in our budget for unexpected “extras” e.g. removal and
safe disposal of the old equipment? ..........................................
• Will the manufacturer/supplier take our old equipment in part exchange? ............
• Does the manufacturer/supplier offer a range of accessories designed to be used with
the machinery, e.g. noise reduction devices? ..................................
• Do we have noise reduction devices fitted to our existing equipment? .................
• If so, can it be used on the new equipment that we’re proposing to buy? .............

3. Used equipment –
general
 • Does the supplier of used machinery have a good reputation in the business?
..............................................................................................................
• Can the manufacturer/supplier give us contact details of other users of their used
equipment? ..........................................................................................
• Are the original manufacturers of the machinery still in business? ..........................
• If not, are spare parts still available for the machines, (possibly from an independent
supplier)? .........................................................................................
• Are the prices of spares for used machines significantly lower than for its new
equivalent? ....................................................................................................
• Can full safety information be provided? ...............................................................
• Is full installation data provided? ...........................................................................
• Are full operating instructions provided? ...............................................................
• If the used machinery has been totally refurbished and modified in some way, does
it have a CE mark? ..............................................................................
• Is the purchase price significantly less than its new equivalent? ...........................
• Will the supplier take our old machinery in part-exchange? ..................................
• Do we have noise reduction devices fitted to our existing machinery? .................
• If so, can it be used on the equipment we’re planning to buy? ..............................
• Have we made an allowance in our budget for unexpected “extras” e.g. removal and
safe disposal of the old equipment? ..........................................
• Does the supplier offer a maintenance contract on its used machines? ...............
• If so, does it charge more for contracts on used machines? .................................

4. Sound and vibration levels

• Has the machine been designed to minimize the noise and vibration levels
produced? .............................................................................................................
• Does the supplier specify the sound levels in the machine’s specification? ..........
• Does the sound level value exceed 85dBA? .........................................................
• If applicable, are there any accessories available to reduce the sound level produced
by the machinery? .................................................................................
• If applicable, are there any accessories available to reduce vibration? ................
• Can we afford these accessories within our budget? ............................................
• If applicable, have we allowed for the cost of having sound level measurements
carried out? ..................................................................................

This checklist has been completed to the best of my knowledge. Signed:

.............................................. Date: ..................................................................

Note: This checklist is to be retained on file for at least three years.

Electrical Hazards at Workplace:
Places of work generally have power nominally supplied at 230 volt (single phase) and 400
volts (3 phase) although some larger workplaces will receive electricity at a higher supply
voltage. The information below relates to workplaces using 230 and 400-volt supplies.
The main hazards with electricity are:

 contact with live parts causing shock and burns

 faults which could cause fires;
 fire or explosion where electricity could be the source of ignition in a potentially
flammable or explosive atmosphere, e.g. in a spray paint booth. (this is dealt with in
more detail in our ATEX Section

The risk of injury from electricity is strongly linked to where and how it is used and there is
greater risk in wet and/or damp conditions.

Basics of Contact with Electricity

It is the level of voltage the body is exposed to and the resistance to flow of electrical current
offered by the body that determines the impact of exposure to electricity. The following
factors determine the severity of the effect electric shock has on your body:

 The level of voltage

 The amount of body resistance you have to the current flow
 The path the current takes through your body
 The length of time the current flows through your body

If a worker has come into contact with electricity the worker may not be able to remove
themselves from the electrical source. The human body is a good conductor of electricity. If
you touch a person while they are in contact with the electrical source, the electricity will
flow through your body causing electrical shock. Firstly, attempt to turn off the source of the
electricity (disconnect). If the electrical source cannot readily and safely be turned off, use a
non-conducting object, such as a fibreglass object or a wooden pole, to remove the person
from the electrical source.

Safe limits of amperages, voltages:

There are many dangers associated with electricity. An accidental shock can
cause severe burns, damage to internal organs, and even death. Interestingly,
while most people think of electricity in terms of voltage, the most dangerous
aspect of electrical shock is the amperage, not the voltage.

Voltage vs. Amperage

Voltage and amperage are two measures of electrical current, or flow of

electrons. Voltage is a measure of the pressure that allows electrons to flow,
while amperage is a measure of the volume of electrons. An electrical current at
 1,000 volts is no deadlier than a current at 100 volts, but tiny changes in
amperage can mean the difference between life and death when a person
receives an electrical shock.

Effects of Amperage on Electrical Shock

Different amounts of amperage affect the human body in different ways. The
following list explains some of the most common effects of electrical shock at
various amperage levels. To understand the amounts involved, a milliampere
(mA) is one-thousandth of an ampere or amp. A standard household circuit that
supplies your outlets and switches carries 15 or 20 amps (15,000 or 20,000
mA).

 1-10 mA
Little or no electrical shock is felt.
 10-20 mA
Painful shock, but muscle control is not lost.
 20-75 mA
Serious shock, including a painful jolt and loss of muscle control; victim cannot
let go of wire or another source of shock.
 75-100 mA
Ventricular fibrillation (uncoordinated twitching of ventricles) of the heart can
occur.
 100-200 mA
Ventricular fibrillation occurs, often resulting in death.
 Over 200 mA
Severe burns and severe muscle contractions occur. Internal organs can be
damaged. The heart can stop due to chest muscles applying pressure to the
heart, but this clamping effect can prevent ventricular fibrillation, greatly
improving the chances of survival if the victim is removed from the electrical
circuit.

This gives you an idea of just how much danger there is in the home wiring
system we take for granted, where wires carry 15,000 or 20,000 mA.

Staying Safe

The best way to prevent electrical shock is to follow standard safety

procedures for all electrical work. Here are some of the most important basic
safety rules:

 Shut off the power. Always turn off the power to a circuit or device that you will
be working on. The most reliable way to shut off the power is to switch off the
breaker for the circuit in the home's service panel (breaker box).
 Test for power. After turning off a circuit's breaker, check the wiring or devices
you will be working on with a non-contact voltage tester to confirm the power
is off. This is the only way to be sure you turned off the correct circuit.
 Use insulated ladders. Never use an aluminum ladder for electrical work.
Always use an insulated fiberglass ladder to keep you safe.
 Stay dry. Avoid wet areas when working around electricity. If you are outdoors
in damp or wet conditions, wear rubber boots and gloves to reduce the chance
of getting shocked. Plug power tools and appliances into a GFCI (ground-fault
circuit-interrupter) outlet or GFCI extension cord. Dry your hands before
grabbing any cord.
 Post warnings. If you are working on the service panel or a circuit, place a
warning label on the face of the panel to warn others not to turn on any
circuits. Before turning the power back on, make sure no one else is in contact
with the circuit.

Capacity and protection of conductor:

The purpose of overcurrent protection for conductors is to open the

electric circuit if the current reaches a value that will cause an excessive
or dangerous temperature in the conductor or conductor insulation. A
grounded conductor is protected from overcurrent if a protective device of
a suitable rating or setting is in each ungrounded conductor of the same
circuit.
Overcurrent protection of conductors. Each conductor must be
protected in accordance with its current carrying capacity, except a
conductor for the following circuits which must meet the following listed
subparts of this chapter:
(1) Propulsion circuits
(2) Steering circuits
(3) Motor circuits
(4) Flexible cord and fixture wire for lighting circuits
(5) Switchboard circuits
(c)Fuses and circuit breakers.
(1) This rating must not be larger than 150 percent of the current-
carrying capacity of the conductor; and
(2) The effect of temperature on the operation of fuses and thermally
controlled circuit breakers must be taken into consideration.
(d)Parallel overcurrent protective devices. An overcurrent protective
device must not be connected in parallel with another overcurrent
protective device.
(e)Thermal devices. No thermal cut out, thermal relay, or other device
not designed to open a short circuit may be used for protection of a
conductor against overcurrent due to a short circuit or ground, except in a
motor circuit
(f)Ungrounded conductors. A fuse or overcurrent trip unit of a circuit
breaker must be in each ungrounded conductor. A branch switch or circuit
breaker must open all conductors of the circuit, except grounded
conductors.
(g)Grounded conductor. An overcurrent device must not be in a
permanently grounded conductor,

Means of cutting off power:

In electrical distribution, a fuse cutout or cut-out fuse is a combination of a fuse and a

switch, used in primary overhead feeder lines and taps to protect distribution
transformers from current surges and overloads. An overcurrent caused by a fault in the
transformer or customer circuit will cause the fuse to melt, disconnecting the transformer
from the line. It can also be opened manually by utility linemenstanding on the ground and
using a long insulating stick called a "hot stick"

No load protection:
here are occasions when the water pump runs idle when there is no water in
the sump/underground tank or the treadmill machine is left on,
unintentionally. In such cases, motors of these electrical machines run
unnecessarily. Running these for a long time may lead to burnout. Such
situations can be addressed by using this no-load and overload protector
circuit. It can switch off the appliance in case of overload. The author’s
prototype is shown in Fig. 1.
Earth Fault Protection
Earth fault is the unintended fault between the live conductor and the earth.
It also occurs, because of the insulation breakdown. When the fault occurs,
the short-circuit currents flow through the system, and this current is
returned through the earth or any electrical equipment. This fault current
damaged the equipment of the power system and also interrupted the
continuity of the supply.
The earth fault can be dispersed by using the restricted earth fault protection
scheme. The earth fault protection scheme consists the earth fault relay,
which gives the tripping command to the circuit breaker and hence restricted
the fault current.

The earth fault relay is placed in the residual part of the current transformers
shown in the figure below. This relay protects the delta or unearthed star
winding of the power transformer against the fault current. The connection of
earth fault relay with the star or delta winding of the transformer is shown in
the figure below.
The current transformers are placed on both sides of the protective zone. The
secondary terminal of the current transformer is connected in parallel with
the relay. The output of the current transformer is equal to the zero
sequence current flows in the line. The zero-sequence current is absent for
the external fault and for the internal fault it becomes twice the value of fault
current

Earthing Standards:

Electrical Earthing or Grounding System for buildings to be carried out all in accordance with
the international standards in conjunction with the local authority requirements and
recommendations. Earthing standards and methods are highly depending on the nature of the
utilities and equipment installed / used at the premises. Simple earthing system we provide to
the domestic connections while complex systems are being used in the power stations and
industries.
Medium and large-scale building projects require simple system for residential areas
and rest requires medium complex system. In most cases earthing integrates with
lightning protection system and low current systems. Following are the most
recommended and used standards across the world:

IEC 60364-1 and 60364-4-41: Electrical Installations in Buildings.

BS 7671 Requirements for Electrical Installations (lEE Wiring Regulations 16th

Edition).

Comply with BS 6651 (Protection of Structures against Lightning) when

interconnecting with lightning protection system.
ANSI / IEEE / std 80: IEEE Guide for Safety in AC Substation Grounding.

ANSI / IEEE / Std 81: IEEE Guide for Measuring Earth Resistivity, Ground
Impedance, and Earth Surface Potential of a Grounding System.

BS 7430: Code of Practice for Earthing.

DIN VDE 0141: Earthing Systems for Power Installations with Rated Voltages above
1 kV.

BS EN 1360I Copper and copper alloys. Copper rod, bar and wire for general
electrical purposes.

BS 1433: Specification for copper for electrical purposes. Rod and bars.

BS EN 1057: Copper and copper alloys. Seamless round tubes for water and gas in
sanitary and heating applications.

BS EN 12449: Copper and copper alloys. Seamless round tubes for general
purposes.

BS EN 12451: Copper and copper alloys. Seamless, round tubes for heat
exchangers.

BS 7668: Specification for weldable structural steels. Hot finished structural hollow
sections in weather resistant steels.

BS 6360: Specification for conductors in insulated cables and cords.

BS EN 10029: Specification for tolerances on dimensions, shape and mass for hot
rolled steel plates 3 mm thick or above.

BS EN 10113-1: Hot-rolled products in weldable fine grain structural steels. Delivery

conditions for thermo-mechanical rolled steels.

BS EN 10113-2: I: Hot-rolled products in weldable fine grain structural steels.

Delivery conditions for normalized/normalized rolled steels.

BS EN 10113-3: Hot-rolled products in weldable fine grain structural steels. Delivery

conditions for thermo-mechanical rolled sheets.

BS EN 10155: structural steels with improved atmospheric corrosion resistance.

Technical delivery conditions.
BS EN 10210-1: Hot finished structural hollow sections of non-alloy and fine grain
structural steels. Technical delivery requirements.

BS EN 10137-1: Plates and wide flats made of high yield strength structural steels in
the quenched and tempered or precipitation hardened conditions. General delivery
conditions.

BS EN 10137-2: Plates and wide flats made of high yield strength structural steels in
the quenched and tempered or precipitation hardened conditions. Delivery conditions
for quenched and tempered steels.

BS EN 10137-3: Plates and wide flats made of high yield strength structural steels in
the quenched and tempered or precipitation hardened condition. Delivery conditions
for precipitation hardened steels.

BS EN 10025: Hot rolled products of non-alloy structural steels. Technical delivery

conditions.

BS 7655-1-5: Specification for insulating and sheathing materials for cables.

Elastomeric insulating compounds. Flame retardant composites.

BS 7655-0: Specification for insulating and sheathing materials for cables. General
introduction.

BS 6004: Electric cables. PVC insulated, non-armoured cables for voltages up to

and including 450/750 V, for electric power, lighting and internal wiring. ISO 630:
Structural steels.

IEC 60502-1: Extruded solid dielectric insulated power cables for rated voltages from
I kV to 30 kV.

Voltage fluctuations
Most of us are familiar with the odd flickering light in the living room. This flickering is
the direct result of voltage fluctuations in the grid.

Generally, these fluctuations do not present any real nuisance because your distribution
system operator has specific and multiple safety measures in place. For example,
heavy-duty installations will not be connected to the low-voltage grid.

Unplanned and unintended interruptions in the mains power supply are quite rare,
although they sadly can never be completely ruled out. Their causes may vary:
 short circuits: e.g. due to a broken cable that was ripped up during excavation works
 overload: e.g. as a result of a lightning strike
 voltage spikes: e.g. as a result of the sudden wide-scale installation of solar panel

Possible voltage fluctuation effects on

electrical devices
Your home is connected to the low-voltage grid, which delivers power at a voltage of
230 volts. To prevent electrical appliances from getting damaged or breaking down
altogether, standards exist which set limits on the maximum deviation from this
mains voltage.

In turn, electrical appliances need to be designed in such a way that they operate
properly within these limits. An appliance built to operate at 230 V will serve its
maximum lifetime at this voltage.

If the voltage is too low, the amperage increases, which may result in the components
melting down or causing the appliance to malfunction. If the voltage is too high, this
will cause appliances to run ‘too fast and too high’ which will shorten their service life.
Leads, cables, cords and power lines are not at risk.

Hazards arising out of 'borrowed' neutrals

• Neutrals are grounded but carry current under load.
• The source of neutral current cannot always be identified.
• Breaking a neutral under load could create a shock hazard.
• Individuals contacting a lifted neutral potentially provide an alternate path to ground.
• A broken neutral or lifted neutral could result in a shock or an arc.
• A neutral was misidentified and inadvertently opened creating an arc (ORPS EM-SR-
WSRC-FTANK-2005-0009)
• A circuit was moved to a different distribution panel, but the neutral was spliced in
the original panel (ORPS EM-RL-PHMC-PFP-2005-0011)
• An electrician received a shock after lifting a neutral from its bus bar. The neutral
received its power through an emergency light that received power from another
distribution panel. (ORPS SC-PNSO-PNNL=PNNLBOPER-2005-0018)
Electrical Protective Device

A device used to protect equipment,machinery,components and devices,in electrical

and electronic circuit, against short circuit, over current and earth fault, is called as
protective devices.

Necessity of Protective Devices

Protective devices are necessary to protect electrical appliance or equipment against

a) Short Circuit
b) Abnormal variations in the supply voltage
c) Overloading of equipment
d) To protect operator against accidental contact with the faulty equipment, falling
which the operator may get a severe shock.

Types of Protective Device

Different types of the protective device that are commonly used in electrical and
electronic circuit

1.Fuse Wire or Fuse

2.MCB – Miniature circuit breaker
3.ELCB – Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker
4.ELCB & MCB
5.Earthing or Grounding

Hazardous Area Classification for Flammable Gases and Vapours

Area classification may be carried out by direct analogy with typical installations described in
established codes, or by more quantitative methods that require a more detailed knowledge of the
plant. The starting point is to identify sources of release of flammable gas or vapour. These may arise
from constant activities; from time to time in normal operation; or as the result of some unplanned
event. In addition, inside process equipment may be a hazardous area, if both gas/vapour and air are
present, though there is no actual release.

Catastrophic failures, such as vessel or line rupture are not considered by an area classification
study. A hazard identification process such as a Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA) or a Hazard and
Operability Study (HAZOP) should consider these abnormal events.

The most commonly used standard in the UK for determining area extent and classification is BS EN
60079 part 101, which has broad applicability. The current version makes clear the direct link between
the amounts of flammable vapour that may be released, the ventilation at that location, and the zone
number. It contains a simplistic calculation relating the size of zone to a rate of release of gas or
vapour, but it is not helpful for liquid releases, where the rate of vaporisation controls the size of the
hazardous area.
Other sources of advice, which describe more sophisticated approaches, are the Institute of
Petroleum Model Code of Practice (Area Classification Code for Petroleum Installations, 2002), and
the Institution of Gas Engineers Safety Recommendations SR25, (2001). The IP code is for use by
refinery and petrochemical type operations. The IGE code addresses specifically transmission,
distribution and storage facilities for natural gas, rather than gas utilisation plant, but some of the
information will be relevant to larger scale users.
 Zoning
Hazardous areas are defined in DSEAR as "any place in which an explosive atmosphere may occur
in quantities such as to require special precautions to protect the safety of workers". In this context,
'special precautions' is best taken as relating to the construction, installation and use of apparatus, as
given in BS EN 60079 -101.
Area classification is a method of analysing and classifying the environment where explosive gas
atmospheres may occur. The main purpose is to facilitate the proper selection and installation of
apparatus to be used safely in that environment, considering the properties of the flammable
materials that will be present. DSEAR specifically extends the original scope of this analysis, to
consider non-electrical sources of ignition, and mobile equipment that creates an ignition risk.

Hazardous areas are classified into zones based on an assessment of the frequency of the
occurrence and duration of an explosive gas atmosphere, as follows:

 Zone 0: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is present continuously or for long periods;
 Zone 1: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is likely to occur in normal operation;
 Zone 2: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal operation
and, if it occurs, will only exist for a short time.
Various sources have tried to place time limits on to these zones, but none have been officially
adopted. The most common values used are:

 Zone 0: Explosive atmosphere for more than 1000h/yrs.

 Zone 1: Explosive atmosphere for more than 10, but less than 1000 h/yrs.
 Zone 2: Explosive atmosphere for less than 10h/yrs., but still sufficiently likely as to require controls
over ignition sources.
Where people wish to quantify the zone definitions, these values are the most appropriate, but for the
majority of situations a purely qualitative approach is adequate.

When the hazardous areas of a plant have been classified, the remainder will be defined as non-
hazardous, sometimes referred to as 'safe areas'.

The zone definitions take no account of the consequences of a release. If this aspect is important, it
may be addressed by upgrading the specification of equipment or controls over activities allowed
within the zone. The alternative of specifying the extent of zones more conservatively is not generally
recommended, as it leads to more difficulties with equipment selection, and illogicality’s in respect of
control over health effects from vapours assumed to be present. Where occupiers choose to define
extensive areas as Zone 1, the practical consequences could usefully be discussed during site
inspection.

As an example:
A proposal was made to zone an aircraft hangar as Zone 1, although the use of fuels handled above
their flash point would be a rare event. It proved difficult to obtain a floor-cleaning machine certified for
Zone 1 areas, though the floor needed sweeping regularly. The option of writing out an exception to
normal instructions to allow a non-Ex-protected machine to be used regularly is not recommended.
Instead, a more realistic assessment of the zones is needed, and special instructions issued for the
rare event of using more volatile fuels.

A hazardous area extent and classification study involves due consideration and documentation of the
following:

 The flammable materials that may be present;

 The physical properties and characteristics of each of the flammable materials;
 The source of potential releases and how they can form explosive atmospheres;
 Prevailing operating temperatures and pressures;
 Presence, degree and availability of ventilation (forced and natural);
 Dispersion of released vapours to below flammable limits;
 The probability of each release scenario.
These factors enable appropriate selection of zone type and zone extent, and also of equipment. The
IP code gives a methodology for estimating release rates from small diameter holes with pressurised
sources, and shows how both the buoyancy and momentum of the release influence the extent of a
zone. It tabulates values for an LPG mixture, gasoline, natural gas, and refinery hydrogen for
pressures up to 100barg. Similarly, the IGE code gives a methodology for natural gas, relating the
leak rate to the hole-size and the operating pressure. The tables of dispersion distances to the zone
boundary address in the main quite large diameter deliberate vents. There is in practice little overlap
between the codes.

The results of this work should be documented in Hazardous Area Classification data sheets,
supported by appropriate reference drawings showing the extent of the zones around (including
above and below where appropriate) the plant item.

The NFPA way

What follows is a brief, nine-step outline of NFPA practices. The actual practices and associated
references should be consulted when performing any EAC.

To determine an electrical area classification:

1. Assemble pertinent information, including: codes, standards, practices, and reference; process
and operating descriptions; process flow diagrams and material and heat balance chart; piping
and instrumentation diagrams; equipment arrangement drawings and plot plans; and
commissioning, testing, operating, and safety procedures.

2. List all flammable and combustible materials and their pertinent properties, such as ignition
temperatures and flash points.

3. Confirm the need for classification by assessing the likelihood of the presence of flammable
and combustible materials.

4. Locate material release sources, such as open process points, control valves, pump seals,
drains, metering points, sampling points, and vents. See NFPA 497 and 499 for additional
guidance in identifying sources. As a practical matter, areas with large quantities of process
equipment and piping that handle flammable/combustible materials can, as an area, be
considered a release source.

5. Determine an area’s Class and Group from the chemicals present.

6. Determine the degree of hazard (Division 1 or Division 2) by assessing the probability of

presence.

7. Determine the extent (or distance from the source) of hazardous areas by reviewing the plant’s
equipment layout drawings.

8. Consider using recognizable boundaries (walls, floors, ceilings, and column lines) to delineate
Classified Areas. This approach will greatly simplify both design and installation.

9. Prepare the recommended documentation for the EAC project team to review and approve.
 Selection of Equipment
DSEAR sets out the link between zones, and the equipment that may be installed in that zone. This
applies to new or newly modified installations. The equipment categories are defined by the ATEX
equipment directive, set out in UK law as the Equipment and Protective Systems for Use in Potentially
Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 1996. Standards set out different protection concepts, with
further subdivisions for some types of equipment according to gas group and temperature
classification. Most of the electrical standards have been developed over many years and are now set
at international level, while standards for non-electrical equipment are only just becoming available
from CEN.

The DSEAR ACOP describes the provisions concerning existing equipment.

There are different technical means (protection concepts) of building equipment to the different
categories. These, the standard current in mid-2003, and the letter giving the type of protection are
listed below.

Zone 0 Zone 1 Zone 2

Category 1 Category 2 Category 3
Electrical
Type 'n' - EN 50021
'd' - Flameproof 1999
'ia' intrinsically safe enclosure Non-electrical
EN 50020, 2002 EN 50018 2000 EN 13463-1, 2001
Ex s - Special protection if specifically certified for 'p' - Pressurised
Zone 0 EN 50016 2002
'q' - Powder filling
EN 50017, 1998
'o' - Oil immersion
EN 50015, 1998
'e' - Increased safety
EN 50019, 2000
'ib' - Intrinsic safety
EN 50020, 2002
'm' - Encapsulation
EN 50028, 1987
's' - Special protection

Correct selection of electrical equipment for hazardous areas requires the following information:

 Classification of the hazardous area (as in zones shown in the table above);
 Temperature class or ignition temperature of the gas or vapour involved according to the table
below:
Temperature Maximum Surface Ignition Temperature of gas or
Classification Temperature, °C vapour, °C
T1 450 >450
T2 300 >300
T3 200 >200
T4 135 >135
T5 100 >100
T6 85 >85

If several different flammable materials may be present within a particular area, the material that gives
the highest classification dictates the overall area classification. The IP code considers specifically the
issue of hydrogen containing process streams as commonly found on refinery plants. Consideration
should be shown for flammable material that may be generated due to interaction between chemical
species.

STATIC ELECTRICITY:

We take electricity for granted: it's easy to forget that homes, offices, and factories have been
powered in this clean and convenient way only since the end of the 19th century—which, in
the broader run of human history, is no time at all. It was during the 19th century that
pioneers such as Alessandro Volta, Michael Faraday, Joseph Henry, and Thomas Edison
figured out the secrets of electricity, how to produce it, and how to make it do useful things.
Before that, electricity was largely a curiosity: it was very interesting for scientists to study
and play with, but there wasn't much else they could do with it. In those days, people cooked
and heated their homes using wood or coal stoves and lit their rooms with candles or oil
lamps; there were no such things as radios or TVs, much less cell phones or computers.

The "modern electricity" that powers everything from the phone in your pocket to the subway
you ride to school or work is what we call current electricity (or electric current). It's energy
that travels down a metal wire from the place where it's produced (anything from a
gigantic power plant to a tiny battery) to the thing it powers (often an electric motor, heating
element, or lamp). Current electricity is always on the move, carrying energy from one place
to another.
Before the 19th century, the only kind of electricity people really knew about or tried to use
was static electricity. The ancient Greeks understood that things could be given a static
electric "charge" (a build-up of static) simply by rubbing them, but they had no idea that the
same energy could be used to generate light or power machines. One of the people who
helped to make the connection between static and current electricity was American
statesman, publisher, and scientist Benjamin Franklin. In 1752, when Franklin tried to figure
out the mysteries of electricity, he famously did so by flying a kite in a thunderstorm to catch
himself some electrical energy (an extremely dangerous thing to do). A lightning bolt zapped
down the kite to the ground and, had Franklin not been insulated, he might well have been
killed. Franklin realized that static electricity, accumulating in the sky, became current
electricity when a lightning bolt carried it down to the surface of the Earth. It was through
research such as this that he developed one of his most famous inventions, the lightning rod
(lightning conductor). Franklin's work paved the way for the electrical revolution of the 19th
century—and the world really changed when people such as Volta and Faraday, building on
Franklin's discoveries, learned how to produce electricity at will and make it do useful things.

USE OF STATIC ELECTRICITY:

Now static electricity is all very interesting, but what possible use is it? You can't make toast
from a lightning bolt and you can't charge your cell phone simply by rubbing its case on your
pullover. You might think static is one of those fascinating but ultimately quite useless bits of
science that has no practical applications—but you'd be wrong: static electricity is used in all
kinds of everyday technology!
Laser printers and photocopiers use static electricity to build up ink on a drum and transfer it
to paper. Crop spraying also relies on static electricity to help herbicides stick to the foliage
of plants and distribute themselves evenly over the leaves. Factory paint-spraying robots use
a similar trick to ensure that paint droplets are attracted to metal car bodies and not the
machinery around them. In many power plants and chemical factories, static electricity is
used in smokestacks to scrub away pollution (read more in our article on electrostatic smoke
precipitators).

Of course, static electricity has its drawbacks too. It can cause sparks and explosions in fuel
depots and stray static is a real nuisance if you're working with electronic components. That's
why engineers and chemists have developed all kinds of anti-static technologies (from simple
wires to ingenious, slightly conducting paints and coatings) that prevent static build up in
sensitive places. While you're reading these words, you can be sure that someone, somewhere
is trying to find a new way to harness static electricity or a better way to stop it causing
problems. Static electricity may be stationary, but it's never standing still!

HAZARDS OF ELECTROSTATIC ELECTRICITY:

Electrostatic charging can occur when solids or liquids move relative to the plant they are
contained in or charged by induction. Electrostatic charging therefore occurs frequently in
industrial process plant. If charge is allowed to accumulate and discharge, an electrostatic
hazard may arise. A static related incident can cause a serious fire or explosion. These
incidents can cause significant loss of life and plant followed by legal action and associated
bad publicity. Any process plant that handles or processes flammable liquids, dusts, gases or
vapours is at risk from electrostatic induced ignition.

Static electricity is an imbalance of electric charges within or on the surface of a material.

The charge remains until it is able to move away by means of an electric current or electrical
discharge. Static electricity is electricity that does not flow in a current. Static electricity
generated by rubbing two nonmagnetic objects together. The friction between the two objects
generates attraction because the substance with an excess of electrons transfers them to the
positively-charged substance. Usually, substances that don’t conduct current electricity
(insulators) are good at holding a charge. These substances may include rubber, plastic, glass
or pitch. The electrons that are transferred are stored on the surface of an object.

Static electricity presents fire and explosion hazards during the handling of petroleum and
tanker operations. Certain operations can give rise to accumulations of electric charge which
may be released suddenly in electrostatic discharges with sufficient energy to ignite
flammable hydrocarbon gas/air n-fixtures; there is, of course, no risk of ignition unless a
flammable mixture is present. There are three basic stages leading up to a potential static
hazard:

1. Charge separation,
2. Charge accumulation and
3. Electrostatic discharge.

All three of these stages are necessary for an electrostatic ignition

Lightning Arrestors:

lightning arrester is a device used on electrical power systems and telecommunications

systems to protect the insulation and conductors of the system from the damaging effects of
lightning.

The typical lightning arrester has a high-voltage terminal and a ground terminal

In a direct hit, the electrical charge strikes the person first. Splash hits occur when lightning
jumps to a person (lower resistance path) from a nearby object that has more resistance,
striking the person on its way to the ground. In ground strikes, the bolt lands near the person
and is conducted by a connection to the ground (usually the feet), due to the voltage gradient
in the earth. This can still cause substantial injury.

lightening stroke- discharge of lightning between a cloud and the earth, esp. one that causes
damage

(veterinary science) sudden death due to being struck by lightning, esp. of cattle, horses or
sheep

A Lightning Protection System (LPS) is designed to protect a structure or building and

contents from damage caused by the intensely high voltage currents of a lightning strike
(often exceeding a 1,000,000,000 Volt Amps).

Lightning protection systems act like a Faraday Cage for buildings. Protecting the building
and its contents from external electric fields by migrating that energy around the cage instead
of through its contents.

A Faraday cage or Faraday shield is an enclosure formed by conductive material or by a

mesh of such material, used to block electric fields. Faraday cages are named after the
English scientist Michael Faraday, who invented them in 1836.
 With a lightning protection system, lightning rods or air terminals are strategically sited on a
structure to increase the chances of intercepting a lightning strike before it hits the property
being protected. The highly conductive lightning rods of a lightning protection system are
normally made of copper or aluminium and are designed to emit positive streamers into the
air instead of the structure they are protecting.

These positive streamers from the rods intercept the negative leaders of a lightning strike
drawing the high voltage currents safely into the lightning protection system and away from
the building’s structure. A lightning protection system significantly increases a building
safekeeping from the damage caused by lightning and not its probability of being struck.

Facts about Lightning:

• A strike can average 100 million volts of electricity

• Current of up to 100,000 amperes
• Can generate 54,000oF
• Lightning strikes somewhere on the Earth every second
• Kills 100 US residents per year
• Lightning can strike ground up to ten miles from a storm (Lightning out of the blue)
• There is an average of 2-3 miles between strikes
• So how can we tell how far away lightning has struck?

Use the Five Second Rule:

• Light travels at about 186,291 miles/second

• Sound travels at only 1,088 feet/second
• You will see the flash of lightning almost immediately
• 5280/1088= 4.9
• About 5 seconds for sound to travel 1 mile

Types of Lightning Arrester

 Rod gap arrester

 Sphere gap arrester
 Horn gap arrester
 Multi gap arrester
 Electrolyte type arrester
 Metal-oxide lightning arrester

Maintenance of Lightning Arrester

 Cleaning the outside of the arrester housing.

 The line should be de-energized before handling the arrester.
 The earth connection should be checked periodically.
 To record the readings of the surge counter.
 The line lead is securely fastened to the line conductor and arrester.
 The ground lead is securely fastened to the arrester terminal and ground.
 Stepped Leader Streamers

Effect of lightning strike

The effects of lightning are those of a high-strength impulse current that propagates initially
in a gaseous environment (the atmosphere), and then in a solid, more or less conductive
medium (the ground):

 visual effects (flash): caused by the Townsend avalanche mechanism

 acoustic effects: caused by the propagation of a shock wave (rise in pressure)
originating in the discharge path; this effect is perceptible up to a range of around 10
km
 thermal effect: heat generated by the Joule effect in the ionized channel
 electrodynamic effects: these are the mechanical forces applied to the conductors placed
in a magnetic field created by the high voltage circulation. They may result in
deformations
 electrochemical effects: these relatively minor effects are consisting in the form of
electrolytic decomposition in accordance with Faraday’s law –– induction effects: in a
varying electromagnetic field, each conductor becomes the seat of an induced current
 effects on a living being (human or animal): the passage of a transient current of a
certain r.m.s value is sufficient to incur risks of electrocution by heart attack or
respiratory failure, together with the risk of burns.
Lightning causes two major types of accidents:

 accidents caused by a direct stroke when the lightning strikes a building or a specific
zone. This can cause considerable damage, usually by fire. In order to prevent any risk
of accident, lightning air terminals should be used
  accidents caused indirectly, as when the lightning strikes or causes power surges in
power cables or transmission links.
Hence the need to protect with SPD the equipment at risk against the surge voltage and
indirect currents generated.
Direct effects

Thermal effects:: These effects are linked to the amount of charge associated with lightning
strikes. They result in fusion points melting holes of varying sizes at the point of impact of
materials with high resistivity. For material which is a poor conduc
conductor,
tor, a large amount of
energy is released in the form of heat. The heating of water vapour contained in the material
results in very high abrupt localized pressure which may cause it to explode.
Effects due to the initiation:: In the event of a lightning st
strike
rike a substantial increase in the
ground potential of the installation will occur depending on the grounding network and soil
resistivity. Potential differences will also be created between various metal elements. Hence
the need to pay particular attentio
attention when installing earth rods and inter-connection
connection of metal
structures adjoining the conductors.
Acoustic effects - thunder:: Thunder is due to the sudden increase in pressure (2 to 3
atmospheres) of the discharge channel developed by the electrodynamic fo forces during the
lightning flash. The duration of a thunder clap depends on the length of the ionized channel.
For high frequencies, propagation of the spectral components released by the shock wave is
perpendicular to the channel. For low frequencies, proppropagation
agation is omnidirectional; hence the
different forms of rumbling or claps heard by an observer according to the distance and
orientation of the successive channels used by the lightning flash.
Luminous effects:: A lightning strike nearby violently sensitiz
sensitizes
es the retina of an observer.
The eye is dazzled and vision is lost for several long seconds.
Electrodynamic effects:: Electrodynamic effects between conductors and other parts occur
due to large magnetic field of the lightning current. This results in substantial mechanical
forces, both attractive and repulsive, that are all the stronger when the conductors are close
together or the current is high.

Electrochemical effects:: The fleeting nature of lightning impacts (compared to stray gground
currents) mean that these effects are highly negligible and without influence on earth rods
CHAPTER 5:SAFETY IN ENGINEERING INDUSTRIES

AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY

This is a part of an engineering industry and carries out various processes like casting,
forging, machining, electroplating, painting, assembly, testing etc. the safety measures
include:
1. Noise and vibration control
2. Dust, fumes and gas pollution control by exhaust ventilations
3. High temperature control near furnaces by insulating material or heat - reflective
surfaces to heat source
4. Heat protective clothing, eye and face protection
5. Mechanical lifting
6. Guarding of drilling, reaming, grinding milling machines, power presses, conveyor
belt etc.Machine tools with splash guard
7. Barrier creams and oil - resistant aprons
8. Welding and soldering precautions
9. Electroplating baths with special lip ventilation and anti - farming surface tension
agents
10. Solvent and spray fumes controls with special booths in painting requiring worker
outside are safer.
11. Driers with exhaust ventilation
12. Controls for chemicals which are toxic, flammable and explosive
13. Electrical safety
14. Precautions against silicosis, solvent poisoning, lead poisoning, skin diseases, X-rays
for non - distractive testing etc.

FOUNDARY OPERATION:

Casting of various shapes and sizes are formed in foundry by melting and pouring the molten
metal in molds. Foundries will normally have a Core Room, Molding Section, Melting &
Pouring Section and Fettling Section besides service departments including Pattern Shop,
Stores and Maintenance Department.

Foundry operations, machines and equipment used, hazards inherent in foundry operations
including health hazards, methods of safe guarding against these hazards, safe practices &
procedures in foundry operations and general preventive measures are discussed department-
wise in the paragraphs below.

CORE ROOM
A) Operations:
Sand is received in bags or loose, drying of sand in sand drier, feeding of sand to core sand
mixer through the skip hoist, sieving of sand for some cores, mixing of sand in core mixer,
after mixing prepared sand is taken in a trolley bucket for supply to core making machined

Cores are made by:

Blowing - First the sand is blown in the core box, then the core is drawn in a drawer (plate)
on rollover, the core along with the plate is then put on oven for baking.
Jolting - sand is manually put in the core boxes which are mounted on the machines. Jolting
of core box is done on machine table itself.

Hot and shell core Making - sand is supplied by a trolley bucket to the machine hopper by a
hoist. Sometime the sand is wet and sometime dry but mixed with resins. Box is
automatically heated up to& desired temperature.

Hand- some cores are made by hand i.e. putting the sand in core fixtures manually Small
parts of cores are at times assembled/joined

Handling of Core Boxes, Core Plates & Cores. Manual loading of cores in core baking ovens,
unloading after baking. Painting of some cores, drying of assembled cores in hot room with
portable gas burners. Assembly of a few cores on core assembly fixture. Cleaning of core
boxes. Cutting of reinforcement wires. Prepared cores are passed on to molding section.]

B) Machine Used:
Sand driver, Core Sand Mixers, Core Making Machines, Molding Machines for heavy cores,
Hettinger’s Hot & Shell Core making machine, Core Ovens

C) Hazards in Core Room:

1) Filling or collapsing of stacked sand bags, if not stacked properly or when wet sand bags
become dry.
2) Drying of sand in drier will give out smoke, it should be exhausted out through an outlet
or chimney. Chain drive of the driver to the enclosed.
3) All the pits and openings to be fenced (skip hoist, area below sand mixer platform).
Overhead platforms and steps to be provided side rails, toe guards (sand mixer platform
and approach to core making machines, core oven platforms), fixed ladders for reaching
heights.
4) Sand mixer platform and steps to be kept clear of sand accumulation.
5) Interlocking arrangements should be made for sand mixer hood or cover. Inspection
windows to be provided for sampling of sand. Samples to be taken by wooden spoons and
not by hand (this is a common unsafe practice causing injuries)
6) Sufficient space and arrangements for fencing around rollover type core making machines
to prevent accidental hit to persons working nearby while the machine is rolling over.

7) All V-Belt drives and chain drives to be guarded with fixed guards.
8) Possibility of fingers getting caught or pressed in between the core plate and squeeze
plate while making core on machine. Job Safety Training.
9) Back Fire hazard while lighting kerosene burner of sand drier and kerosene core baking
oven. Kerosene fired oven have not pilot arrangements. Piece of cloth or cotton waste
soaked in kerosene is tied to one end of a long stick and lighted. Kerosene and air are
slowly released and is lighted with the stick.
If Kerosene and air is not slowly released there will be a back fire.
Similarly, the lighting device should not be allowed to go off. Otherwise the kerosene and
air will get accumulated and later on while lighting there may be an explosion.
To overcome this a gas burner should be provided for lighting the ovens. Job Safety
Training to the operator's.
10) While loading and unloading cores on core baking oven hazard of cores falling down.
Employees will be exposed to heat, smoke & fumes, inform red rays and falling of hot
 sand on head. While handling core boxes, core plates & cores fall on feet & toes. Training
in safe methods of handling to the employees, asbestos hand gloves or aluminized hand
gloves for handling hot cores, light green goggles, fume mask, caps and safety shoes to be
used.
11) Outlet & exhaust arrangements to be provided for smoke and fumes generated in core
baking ovens.
12) Heating of core with portable gas burners to be done on tables and not on floor. Proper
area should be provided and heating should be done in that area. This area should be kept
clear of combustible material.
13) Burners, hoses and gas line valves should be checked and maintained once in fortnight,
Burners should be lighted with electronic lighters, to be fixed near heating tables.
14) Tongs should be used for feeding lead and other material to the container used for heating
the same. Splashes of molten lead may cause bum injuries.
15) Heating of cores with gas burners should never be done in closed rooms. In case of gas
leakage, the room will be full of gas, fire and explosion, may take place as ‘there will be
no ventilation. I
16) Painting of cores should be done' in proper paint booths and exhaust arrangements should
be provided. Paint booth should be cleaned regularly and accumulated paint removed.
17) Hoists, trolleys, wire ropes etc., should be visually checked by the users, for any defects,
before taking them into use.
18) Industrial waste, spilled sand, cotton waste, scrap, broken cores should be removed from
core room regularly.
19) While making cores on hot end shell core making machine, vapours from resins will be
generated. Those vapours are only a nuisance because the concentration needed to
produce toxic effects cannot be usually tolerated by men.
20) Employees making cores by hand may suffer from dermatitis due to contact with core oil
and sand. Washing with soap and water will prevent this.

MOULDING

A) Operations:
Sand plant prepares and supplies blended sand for making the molds Sand is fed to sand
mixer through a conveyor. After the sand is blended it is supplied to molding machines.
Molds are made on molding machines. Some molds are made by hand also. After drag
(bottom mould) is ready it is placed on the mould car conveyor. Cursor core assemblies are
placed in position. Drag is then closed by cope (top mould). After placing the cope of drag
clamps are put. (to avoid metal run out during pouring). In some foundries the molds are
placed on floor for pouring. Thereafter the mould moves forward to pouring stage for
pouring. Pouring is done manually by ladles traveling on gantry. Small ladles (crucibles) are
handed manually. Bigger ladies are handled by crane.

After pouring, the mould is allowed to cool down and the castir.gs are knocked out on the
knock-out machines. Some castings are knocked out manually. Sometime the hot castings are
also knocked out.

From knock out stage, castings are taken for shaking out operation and then carried to fettling
section for further finishing.

After knocking out of the castings from mould box, the sand is reprocessed. It falls on the
return sand conveyor below the knock out machine and passes through the magnetic pulley
 for separation of metallic pieces from sand Then through the return sand eleva’. jr and a small
conveyor the sand is stored in sand bunkers. From bunkers the sand falls on mix id sand
conveyor where fresh sand is also added and then through a screen and mixed sand elevator
the sand is stored in surge hoppers. Sand is fed to sand mixers from surge hopper through a
conveyor.

B) Machines Used:
Sand Mixers, Blended Sand Conveyor, Blended Sand Elevator, Sand Plant Aerator,
Distribution Belt Conveyors, Molding Machines (Jolt squeeze type), Mould Car Conveyor,
Knock Out Machines, Return Sand Conveyor, Return Sand Elevator, Vibrating Screen,
Mixed Sand Conveyor, Mixed Sand Elevator, Hoist and Lifting Machines. Motors, belt
conveyors etc. in pits.

C) Hazards in MoldingOperations:
1.Sand mixer platforms, approach to belt conveyors and hoppers, maintenance platforms and
steps leading to those platforms should -be provided side rails. Platforms should have toe
boards. All pits and openings at floor level to be provided with fencing and gratings.

2.Sand mixer should be kept covered with a hood, hood should be provided with an
interlocking arrangement and a small opening for sampling of sand.

3.Bucket type elevators to be property fenced. Before opening the fencing doors for
maintenance work, electrical isolation procedure to be strictly followed. M.S. Rod to be
inserted in between the elevator and over the elevator's frame to prevent accidental movement
of the elevator. Clamps may be used for locking.

4.Individual safety switch fuse units should be provided for machines. This switch should be
put off and fuses removed before entering these machines for maintenance etc. This should
be done by the mechanic himself who has been assigned the maintenance work. This is an
additional safety measure over and above the electrical isolation procedure.

5.Dust, fumes and smoke generated during various molding and knocking out operations
should be arrested at source and exhausted out. Dust masks to be used.

6.Knocking out to be done in separate enclosures to minimize noise pollution. Ear protection to
be provided.

7.Magnetic pulley used for separation of metallic pieces from sand some time allows these
pieces to escape. These pieces further escape through the damaged screen and fall on mould
boxes through the hoppers, injuring the employees engaged in making molds. Screen's mesh
to be checked regularly Strong metal gratings to be put over the screen to arrest bigger pieces
and sand lumps.

8.Core assembly fixtures, hook fixtures used for turning the mould boxes are left hanging at
height on the gangways near molding area. Employees may dash against these fixtures and
receive injuries. These fixtures to be kept in proper place and not allowed to hand on the
gangways.

9.Mould boxes should be inspected regularly by a competent authority. Heat, moisture and
jolting impacts cause damage to these boxes. Damaged boxes should be removed from the
 operations area to prevent their accidental usage. (Damaged boxes may explode during
pouring or cause metal runout.

10. While making mould on machines and while handling it for placing on the mould car
conveyor, placing the cope over the drag, hand molding, hazard of fingers getting caught,
trapped or presses between the boxes and other equipment. job Safely Training to the
employees, proper supervision, two button system for molding machines (jolt squeeze type)
to operate its arm. Small wooden blocks to be provided with handles.

11. Hazard of mould boxes and castings falling on feet and toes while handling manually and by
using hooks and hoists due to breaking of wire ropes or hooks or slipping from hooks. Visual
inspection of lifting machines before use, job safety training to employees, proper supervision
and safety shoes to be used. Castings fall down due to overloading of wheel barrow, resulting
in feet and toe injuries. Safety shoes to be used.

12.Proper clamping of mould boxes, before pouring, with clamps to prevent accidental separation
and metal runout.

13.Vent holes of the mould boxes should be kept clear for proper ventilation and for exhausting
out the hot gases, generated dung pouring due to heating of undried sand, to avoid explosion.

1. Empty mould boxes and poured mould boxes should not be stacked too high (one over the
other) as these could fall down due to vibration and tilting. T beam fencing to be provided.

MELTING/POURING

A) Operations:
Receiving of scrap and coke, breaking of scrap and coke, handling of scrap and coke on
wheel barrows to charging area, filling up of the skip charger with scrap, coke and additives,
firing of cupola, charging of cupola, slag discharging, tapping of molten metal in the ladles,
closing of cupola tap hole with clay bots. Handling of molten metal ladles on gantry to
different pouring bays, manual handling of small ladles (crucibles). Pong, dropping of cupola,
cupola lining.

Feeding of molten metal from cupola through ladles to electric induction furnaces for super
heating. Lighting the burner of cupola recuperate, starting cupola blower. Cooling down
operations, removal of slag and waste.

B) Machines Used:
Cupola charges, Cupola Blower, Cupola Recuperate, Cupolas, Electric Induction Furnaces
and ladles.

C) Hazards in Melting and Pouring Operations:

1) Employees engaged in breaking of scrap and coke will be exposed to flying chips and
cuts, falling of scrap on feet & toes while removing the same from pile. Safety goggles
and safety shoes to be used.
2) Scrap to be checked properly before charging for any moisture or water accumulation.
Cylinders, cans and drums to be broken to avoid explosion risk.

3) While leading the scrap and coke on wheel barrows for carrying to charging area, it falls
on feet & toe due to overloading, tilting of wheel barrows due to imbalance or uneven
floors. Overloading to be stopped, flooring to be maintained in good condition, safety
shoes to be used.

4) Cupola charger pit and charging area to be properly fenced to avoid injuries due to falling
of scrap pieces while charging.

5) Hazard of cupola getting clogged due to clogging of tap hole or while dropping. Vibrating
device to be used or hot air to be blown inside the cupola.

6) Slag tap hole to be properly fenced, to avoid slag sparks flying in all directions.

7) Molten metal spout should be dried before use. It should be covered with a circular metal
guard to safe guard the cupola operator against bum injuries, due to accidental spurting of
molten metal,

8) Ladies should be dried completely before use, Safety locks provided for ladles, to prevent
accidental tilting, should be checked before use and maintained in good condition. This
lock must be used all the time, except when the pouring is done.

9) Cupola operators and pourers should be instructed against the use of wet scrapper for
clearing metal or slag spouts and removing slag from ladles

10) Cupola Operators and Pourers must use helmets, safety goggles with green glasses,
leather arms, hand gloves, aprons, leg guards & slip type safety shoes.

11) Cupola platforms to be maintained in good condition and provided with side rails and toe
boards.

12) Area around cupola, charging area, trapping area and pouring area should be kept clear of
unwanted material and water accumulation. There should be no obstruction whatsoever
for the movement of operator.

13) Sufficient light at pounng stage (operators may not be able to see the pouring spout due to
usage of dark green goggles).

14) Exhaust arrangements for smoke and gases. Hood and ducting to be provided so as to
enclose the mould car conveyor completely and arrest the stroke and gases at source and
to exhaust the same out of foundry.
15) Hoists used for handling molten metal ladles and cupola chargers should be visually
checked every day in addition to the fortnightly inspection and maintenance and quarterly
testing by the competent authority. Mechanical locking arrangements at the gantry ends,
provided to prevent the gantry trolley from coming out of the gantry, to be cleaned and
lubricated periodically, (side supports may be provided to stop the gantry trolley from
coming out of the gantry end and falling down along with molten metal ladle).

16) Precautions to be taken while dropping cupola should be written down and everyone
starting from Engineer In charge to Helper must be familiar with these precautions.
Cupola dropping must be done under strict supervision of a responsible person.
 drop area should be completely free of any water accumulation or moisture.
 After connecting the hook of the wire rope to the locking bolt, for pulling out the belt
from a distance, opening below the cupola must be closed and everyone should clear the
area. One person should: sure that no one is in the dropping area. Alarm to be sounded
before and during dropping
 Wire rope connecting the bolt of the cupola door, should be pulled from a distance.
After the bolt or pin is pulled out, cupola doors open by dropping down.
 After dropping of the cupola, 10-15 minutes should be given for cooling, before starting
the cooling operations by water hoses.

17) Persons repairing cupola lining should use helmets, goggles and safety shoes to safe
guards against injuries due to falling o\ bricks, clay pieces and scrap. Persons breaking
slag should also use goggles and safety shoes.

18) Before cleaning the cupola charges pit, a beam should be placed over the pit to avoid any
injury due to accidental fall of the charger.

19) Cupola recuperate, cupola blower room and other rooms housing electrical switch boards
etc. should be kept clean and clear of any unwanted material. These rooms should not be
used as rest rooms.

FETTLING SECTION

A. Operations:
Shaking out of the castings on shakeout machine, shot blasting, chipping of fins & flashes,
parting lines, grinding, welding, painting and dispatch.
B. Machines used:
Shakeout machines, Grinders of all types, Wheel Arborator, Monorail Wheel Arborator,
Chipping Guns (pneumatic) and Paint Booth.

C. Hazards in Fettling Operations:

1) Shakeout machines generate lot of dust and noise. These machines should be isolated in
closed rooms. Pit around those machines should have proper gratings and railings. Motor
drive of the machine should be fenced. Wet or dry (bag filter type) dust collectors should
be provided to arrest the dust at the point of generation. Dust make for protection against
dusts, ear muffs or ear plugs for protection against noise should be used.

2) Hazards of castings falling down due to slipping from hooks of the hoist while loading or
unloading on shakeout machines, while loading on the hooks of monorail wheel
 arborator, while handling manually or on wheel barrows. Job Safety Training to the
employees. Safety shoes to be used.

3) Flying of small chips & cuts during various fettling operations. Face shield and safety
goggles to be used.

4) Grinders should be provided peripheral guards. V-belt drives of the swing grinders to be
guarded. Handles of the swing grinders to be provided additional protectors so as to
prevent the hands dashing against the castings.

5) Mounting of the grinding wheel should be done by persons trained for such work.
Mounting procedure should be strictly followed i.e. visual inspection of the wheel for any
cracks or damages, checking of the expiry date of the wheel, checking of the speed
mentioned on the wheel and the speed of the grinding machine, sound of ring test, flanges
of proper size washers, tightening of the nuts etc.

6) Fortnightly inspection & maintenance of grinders including checking of the speed and
any defects in the speed governors, to avoid accidental breaking of the wheel due to over
speeding.

7) Grinding wheels should be stored in racks or storage provided for the same. Precautions
should be taken while handling the wheel to avoid any damage. This is most important
specially for the machines where guards cannot be used due to nature of operation. Such
areas should be enclosed to expose minimum number of employees in case of any
breakage of the wheel. Employees should be provided leather aprons, face shields and
helmets.

8) Dust collectors to be provided for pedestal grinders. Dust should not be allowed to fall on
floors. It should be collected in closed containers and removed as and when the containers
are full

9) Dust masks, goggles, face shields, safety shoes, ear muffs/plugs, aprons should be used
for protection against various hazards during fettling operations.

10) Roller conveyors, work tables/ benches to be provide for handling of castings and fettling
operations. Dome time the chipping of castings is done on floor and the floor gets
damaged. Castings fall down due to uneven flooring. Employees strain/sprain their backs
due to bending.

11) Welding booths with exhaust arrangements to be provided for welding.

12) Rocks, wire ropes and hoists used for handling castings should be checked visually before
taking into use.
13) Grinding machines, when not in use, should be stopped and not left running. Employees
may dash against running wheels while moving around and got injured. Wheel may also
get damaged.

14) Side plates of the wheel arborator should be checked regularly. Damaged plates should be
replaced. These plates get worn out due to nature of operation and steel shots fly out
injuring the employees.

15) Steel shots get scattered on floor near wheel abrators. These should be swept & removal
regularly. Metal gratings to be provided for safe movement of employees and to prevent
falls due to slipping on these shots (grating allow the shots to remain in grooves).

SAFE PRACTICES & PROCEDURES IN FOUNDRY

1) Employees required to enter various pits for removal of dust and for maintenance work
should use dust mask (supplied air respirators will be preferable) and helmets. Proper
ladders with side rails for climbing up and down proper lighting in the pits should be
provided.
2) Fortnightly inspection and maintenance of all lifting machines, hoists, cranes, hooks, wire
ropes, slings, in addition to half yearly testing by a competent authority. Lifting machines
used hot areas should be tested once in three months. Defects noticed should be rectified
immediately.
3) Ail pressure vessels should be tested and inspected once in a year.
4) Monthly inspection and maintenance of all gas lines, valves and hoses including LPG
lines.
5) After coolers and moisture separators of the compressor should be cleaned regularly
Sometime after coolers get choked. Sometime the carbon gets deposited on the moisture
separator and the separator may become red hot due to burning of carbon. The carbon may
also get deposited at joints and bends of compressed air lines and around the valves and
may catch fire due to sparks and not air (in case the after coolers are not functioning or not
provided)
6) Fortnightly inspection and maintenance of all safety devices, guards, covers, hoods,
interlocking switches, safety switch fuse unit, red lights and warning bells.
7) Fortnightly inspection and maintenance of grinders (check speed governors, speed of the
machine, cracks, on wheels, flanged and guards).
8) Electrical lockout &isolation procedure should be strictly followed. All the concerned
employees specially from maintenance & electrical department should be trained and
made familiar with this procedure. Surprise checks should be carried out to ensure that this
procedure is followed. This procedure should be written down and displayed on safety
bulletin boards at conspicuous locations. The procedure may be as follows: -

Switching off of the main switch, removing the fuses, locking the switch in off position,
switching off of the additional switch fuse unit provided on various machines by the
 person undertaking repairs, removal of the fuse, display of warning signs and ensuring that
no one is in the danger zone before starting the machine after repairs.
9) Area around electrical switch boards should be clearly marked and provided with sturdy
fencing. Approach to the boards and area inside the fencing should be kept clear of
unwanted material and waste.
10) Use of roof ladders, cat walks or duck boards should be strictly enforced for any work on
A.C. sheet roofs. Safety bolts and helmets must be used.
11) Work permit must be issued for any work at heights, work on LPG lines and hot lines,
and for entry in confined spaces.
12) Use of compressed air for cleaning body and clothes to be stopped. It is a common
unsafe practice. Improper use of compressed air hose and horseplay have caused severe
Injuries.
13) Unsafe practice of blowing sand from castings and patterns without regard to the cloud of
dust produced should be stopped.
Vacuum cleaning equipment can be used instead of cleaning by compressed air.
14) Leakages of rain water during monsoon should be avoided, especially in pouring &
melting area, (some time drainage gets choked and starts overflowing. At times water jets
out of the drain)
15) Employees may be sleeping or resting near stacks of mould boxes, on or abound sand
bags and sand storage area. • This should be stopped.
16) Production incentive scheme should not be introduced in foundry. Employees tend to
overwork resulting in various health problems.

SAFETY IN FORGING OPERATIONS

Forging process is used for the deformation of metals & alloys, either hot or cold by applying
the compressive forces. Hammer or impact forging exerts multiple forces while press or roll
forging exerts single force. Accidents in forge shops are generally due to hot & cold metal
coming out, falls on the top, accidental starting of the machine, crushing, radiant heat, burns,
high noise etc. Forge workers may suffer chronic rheumatism, digestive disorders,
inflammatory skin disease, respiratory trouble & hearing loss due to noise & vibration.

General safety measures

Good plant layout, uncongested machine and process layout, good housekeeping, proper
ventilation, good draft to furnace, efficient exhaust of gases, water curtains and reflective or
insulating screens for protection against radiant heat and hot air, local exhaust system at the
furnaces, cold air showers at hot work places, noise absorbent panels,
deep & massive foundations to suppress vibrations. Protective heat-resistant armlets, aprons,
safety foot wear, eye & face shield, ear muffs or plugs should be given to workers and their
pre-employment & periodical medical examinations and safety training are also necessary.
Storage - Adequate storage facilities should be provided with overhead crane or hoist
facilities (or safe mechanical handling. When piling is done in racks, retaining posts
separating the materials should be used to retain max. load.
The bundles should be separated by tie timber of sufficient strength.

Forging Furnaces

When lighting the oil-fired furnaces, a lighting torch should be provided and placed on the
furnace hearth near the burner opening where the mixture of oil and air will strike the torch
flame. The operator should stand clear of the furnace openings. With gas fired furnaces, the
charge & discharge doors should be opened and the furnace purged to remove any cone, of
gas.
Forging furnaces should be shielded as much as possible to protect employees from radiant
heat. This can be done by means of asbestos covered screens, metal shield backed by
refractory material and stainless steel or aluminium sheet stock having radiant heat reflective
qualities.

Types of Forging Hammers

Open frame hammers

The anvil assembly is separate from the foundations of the frame and operating mechanism
for the hammer. Flat dies are generally used on these hammers the work done allows for
more materials to be machined off later These hammers are used where the quantities of
forgings are rather small to warrant the expense of costlier impression dies or where the
forgings are very large or are such irregular shape as to contained in the usual impression
dies.

Gravity drop hammers

Drop forgings in closed impression dies are produces on these hammers. The impact of the
hammer shapes the forging*-, through one or more stages to the finished shape. The forgings
rang in weight from very small ones to as large as 40 to 50 kg. (About 100 lbs.) they may be
made from any type of malleable metal such as steel, brass, bronze or magnesium allows. The
alignment between the dies is maintained by the use of guides, die - pins, die -locks or by a
combination of these devices. On these hammers, the ram and the upper die are raised to the
top of the hammer stroke and the impact blow is given by the free fall of the ram and the
upper-die.

Steam Hammer

They are also classified drop hammers. Most of these steam hammers are double - acting and
use steam) or compressed air) pressure through the medium of a piston and cylinder to raise
the ram and the dire and this medium also employ to assist in striking the impact blow. Since
steam or air power is used in addition to the weight of the falling ram and the die this type of
hammer will strike a heavier blow than will a gravity drop hammer, using an equivalent
falling weight the 1000 to 50000 lbs. the forgings produced range from small ones to above
500 lbs. and at times up to 2000 lbs.

Hammer Hazards

I All types of forging hammers have identical hazards.'

These re the following:
a) Workers can be struck by flying drift and key fragment or by flash or slugs.
b) Using feeler gauges to check guide wear or the matching of dies.
c) Using materials handling equipment such as tongs etc. improperly.
d) Crushing of fingers, hands or arms between the dies.
e) Crushing of fingers between tong handles.
f) Receiving kick - backs from tongs.
g) Using tools / or scale blowing pipes with short handles
h) Receiving bums by hot scale.
i) Dropping of stock on the feet.

Guarding of Hammers

A variety of simple guarding devices are employed on hammers. These would mainly include
the following:
a) A positive sweep device which moves form back to front and is actuated by the hammer
ram
b) Two - handed tripping controls are provided where the operator is also required to hold
the material being forged by his hands or by hand tools or where a sweep device,
safety stop or a tripping lever cannot be installed.

c) Provision of a ram stop and a safety chain (on a stem hammer a safety basket will hold
the piston road, when the steam is hut off. The ends of the steel bars of the basket
around the chain eyes are bent which hold the basket)
d) A scale guard is provided to confine pieces of flying scale on the back of the hammer.
e) In addition to the above, may other sophisticated safeguard devices be also employed
such as trapping of steam lines a quick shut off valve to regulate steam or air pressure
etc.

Safety Props

These equipped with handles should also be provided and their use is required when repairs
or adjustments are to be made on the dies or when the dies are to be changed. Tie props
should be held in place, while the power is released to permit the weight of the upper die and
the ram to rest safely on the props. The n best be chained to the hammers so that they cannot
slip out of position etc. the material most commonly used for ram props not is hardwood
timber of not less than 4" square in cross - section.

Hand tools

These usually are pliers, tongs and such other specially designed devices used for feeding the
material so that the
operators’ hand need not be placed under the hammer at any time. Oil swabs and scale
brushes or pipes used
should have handles long enough to make it unnecessary for the operator to place his hands
or underneath the die
Safe Operating Practices

Theses play a vital role in the subject of safety in forging operations. The hammer man
controlling the activities of the crew should be made responsible for the following safety
practices. There is a big list of safe operating practices. Some of the more important ones are
 given hereafter. Before starting work, the hammer crew must make its own inspection to
ensure that the working conditions and the equipment’s employed are in good order and state
of repair and maintenance. Drop hammers should never be operated when the dies are cold.
They should be preheated before use. Whenever an operator leaves the hammer even if only
for a few minutes the upper die should be left resting on the lower die, to prevent its
accidental descent. Fly wheel speeds must be carefully observed and should not exceed the
RPM or the peripheral speed given on the specification sheets.
Setting up dies etc.

This again a big subject and would cover safe set - up and removal of dies, design of dies and
such other related matters.
Maintenance & Inspection of forging hammers
Planned preventive maintenance programmer forging hammers will help to reduce the
frequency and severity of accidents by minimizing part breakage and wear out. Regular
inspections will highlight production units which are not operating up to the standard, so the
repairs or adjustments can be made in time. Maintenance check - lists for hammers will form
the basis for formulating a definite planned inspection programme. A written check - list is a
great often forgotten or misunderstood.

HAZARD ASSOCIATED WITH PROCESS OF MELTING:

Molten metal is a serious hazard in melting pouring applications of metal casting. Workers
who execute tasks with or near the molten metal are highly prone to risks, such as coming in
contact with metal splashes or be exposed to electromagnetic radiation.

Some of the circumstances that may increase the risk of hot metal splashes are -

 Charging a furnace with impure or moist scrap metal and alloys

 Using damp tools, moulds or other material when touching the molten metal
 Pouring or tipping the molten metal into a holding furnace or ladle
 Slagging or skimming processes
 Pouring the molten metal from ladles into moulds

Extreme caution should be taken to ensure that the metal or metal slag does not come in
contact with water, as it may result in an explosive reaction or ejection of molten metal with
catastrophic effects.

Molten metal also emits electromagnetic radiation in the furnace and pouring areas. Foundry
workers are primarily endangered to infrared and UV radiation.
 Workers and other visiting people with medical implants, plates, joints or similar objects
should move into the induction furnace region with care as the magnetic fields of the melting
process may cause a charge in the metallic implant. People with cardiac pace makers are
especially at risk and should be restrained from entering the induction furnace or touching the
equipment.

Health consequences of molten metal

Splashes of the molten metal and the radiant heat during the melting and pouring process may
result in serious burns on the body. Sparks from molten metal may also affect the eyes.
Vulnerability to infrared and ultraviolet rays may result in the damage of eyes including
cataract.

Control measures

There are several measures and options, which can be adopted alone, or in combination, to
prevent or minimize the risks associated with the handling of molten metal in foundries.

Mechanical control measures

The risks associated with the molten metal can be reduced or minimized by implementing
mechanical controls. Barriers and other protecting covering, including the mobile shields
should be used or set up to protect workers against the splashes of molten metal and
electromagnetic radiation.

Administrative control measures

Administrative controls include the development and inclusion of safe working practices and
procedures.
Some of common examples of administrative control measures for molten metals include -
 Keep all the combustible materials and volatile liquids at a safe distant place from the melting
and pouring areas.
 Make sure that the molten metal does not come in contact with water or other contaminants.
All charge materials, ladles and other equipment, which may come in contact with the molten
metal should be totally dry.
 Restrain the unauthorized access by barriers and signages to the furnace and pouring areas.
 Restrain the workers and other personnel from wearing synthetic clothing, including
undergarments while entering the furnace and pouring regions.
 Ensure proper use and maintenance of personal protective equipment.

Personal protective equipment

Personal protective equipment is a must to reduce or eliminate the risks associated with the
handling of molten metal in foundries. These may include -

 Heat resistant protective clothing - headgear, footwear, face shields, aprons, fire retardant
spats, coats and gaiters
 Eye protection with side shields

Special UV and infra-red glasses

HAZARD AT WORKPLACE:

Hazards exist in every workplace, but how do you know which ones have the most potential
to harm workers? By identifying hazards at your workplace, you will be better prepared to
control or eliminate them and prevent accidents, injuries, property damage, and downtime.

In a hazard assessment, it is important to be as thorough as possible because after all, you

can’t protect your workers against hazards you are unaware of. Avoid blind spots in your
workplace safety procedures by taking into consideration these six main categories of
workplace hazards.
Safety Hazards:
Safety Hazards are unsafe working conditions that that can cause injury, illness, and death.
Safety hazards are the most common workplace hazards.
 Anything that can cause spills or trips such as cords running across the floor or ice
 Anything that can cause falls such as working from heights, including ladders, scaffolds,
roofs, or any raised work area
 Unguarded machinery and moving machinery parts that a worker can accidentally touch
 Electrical hazards like frayed cords, missing ground pins, improper wiring
 Confined spaces.
Biological Hazards:
Biological Hazards include exposure to harm or disease associated with working with
animals, people, or infectious plant materials. Workplaces with these kinds of hazards
include, but are not limited to, work in schools, day care facilities, colleges and universities,
hospitals, laboratories, emergency response, nursing homes, or various outdoor occupations.
 Blood and other body fluids
 Fungi/mold
 Bacteria and viruses
 Plants
 Insect Bites
 Animal and bird droppings
Physical Hazards:
Physical hazards can be any factors within the environment that can harm the body without
necessarily touching it.

 Radiation: including ionizing, non-ionizing (EMF’s, microwaves, radio waves, etc.)

 High exposure to sunlight/ultraviolet rays
 Temperature extremes – hot and cold
 Constant loud noise

Ergonomic Hazards:
Occur when the type of work, body positions, and working conditions put a strain on your
body. They are the hardest to spot since you don’t always immediately notice the strain on
your body or the harm that these hazards pose. Short-term exposure may result in “sore
muscles” the next day or in the days following the exposure, but long-term exposure can
result in serious long-term illness.

ERGONOMIC HAZARDS INCLUDE:

 Improperly adjusted workstations and chairs
 Frequent lifting
 Poor posture
 Awkward movements, especially if they are repetitive
 Having to use too much force, especially if you have to do it frequently
 Vibration
Chemical Hazards:
Are present when a worker is exposed to any chemical preparation in the workplace in any
form (solid, liquid or gas). Some are safer than others, but to some workers who are more
sensitive to chemicals, even common solutions can cause illness, skin irritation, or breathing
problems.
BEWARE OF:
 Liquids like cleaning products, paints, acids, solvents – ESPECIALLY if chemicals are in an
unlabeled container!
 Vapors and fumes that come from welding or exposure to solvents
 Gases like acetylene, propane, carbon monoxide and helium
 Flammable materials like gasoline, solvents, and explosive chemicals
 Pesticides
Work Organization Hazards:
Hazards or stressors that cause stress (short-term effects) and strain (long-term effects).
These are hazards associated with workplace issues such as workload, lack of control and/or
respect, etc.
EXAMPLES INCLUDE:
 Workload demands
 Workplace violence
 The intensity and/or pace
 Respect (or lack thereof)
 Flexibility
 Control or say about things
 Social support or relations
 Sexual harassment
Remember that these lists are non-exhaustive. When you are completing a workplace hazard
assessment, consider these six larger categories to think of factors that may affect your
workers in their particular circumstances.

TEXTILE INDUSTRY

The textile industry consists of a number of units engaged in spinning, weaving, dyeing,
printing, finishing and a number of other processes that are required to convert fibre into a
finished fabric or garment. There are several safety and health issues associated with the
textile industry. This article aims at studying each of these issues in relation to the US and
Indian textile industries in detail, along with the possible solutions for these problems.

The major safety and health issues in the textile industry can be stated as under:
1) Exposure to cotton dust
2) Exposure to chemicals
3) Exposure to noise
4) Ergonomic issues

AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY

This is a part of an engineering industry and carries out various processes like casting,
forging, machining, electroplating, painting, assembly, testing etc. the safety measures
include:
15. Noise and vibration control
16. Dust, fumes and gas pollution control by exhaust ventilations
17. High temperature control near furnaces by insulating material or heat - reflective
surfaces to heat source
18. Heat protective clothing, eye and face protection
19. Mechanical lifting
20. Guarding of drilling, reaming, grinding milling machines, power presses, conveyor
belt etc.Machine tools with splash guard
21. Barrier creams and oil - resistant aprons
22. Welding and soldering precautions
23. Electroplating baths with special lip ventilation and anti - farming surface tension
agents
 24. Solvent and spray fumes controls with special booths in painting requiring worker
outside are safer.
25. Driers with exhaust ventilation
26. Controls for chemicals which are toxic, flammable and explosive
27. Electrical safety
28. Precautions against silicosis, solvent poisoning, lead poisoning, skin diseases, X-rays
for non - distractive testing etc.

ELCTRONICS INDUSTRY

The use of electronic items is day by day increasing in industry, at homes and many
places. Their manufacturing should include.
1. Exhaust ventilation for fumes of lead, zinc, etc. and also for molten- solder tanks
2. Eye protection for organic peroxide hardeners and respirators for quartz flour, epoxies
with phenol compound and airborne concentrations
3. Prevention of flammable or explosive mixtures of solvents, and source of ignition
4. Exhaust ventilation for printing process
5. Acid resistant and non - slip flooring, exhaust ventilation, eye bath and PPE in etching
processes. Use closed containers for etching liquids
6. Good industrial hygiene.

FERTILISER INDUSTRY

Fertilizers are natural (measures) or artificial. Artificial fertilizers are produced in chemical
plants and they may be organic or inorganic, nitrogenous, phosphatic, potash and fertilizers.
In the warehousing stage, phosphate, potassium -. alt and other dusts are released. In
chemical processing plant air pollution by toxic gases (fluorine compounds, H.SQ4, NO,
HCL, CO, NH3) and dust, high air temperature and nose are notice. Closed and efficient
ventilation is necessary. In finishing processes, weighing begging and storing, gaseous
emissions and fluorine compounds are released Phosphates and other raw material contain
10% or more free silica which may cause pneumoconiosis. The dust of soluble fertilizers
causes irritation. The safety measures include
Mechanization and automation of production processes, provision of remote control, careful
assembly and operation of equipment and heat insulation
Process segregation and wall floors covering to absorb fluorine compounds General
ventilation, exhaust ventilation of enclosed plant, cleaning of exhaust air and waste water
Education personal hygiene Use of PPE
Safety and sanitary supervision Pre and post medical examination including radiographs of
the locomotors system and lungs.

PESTICIDE INDUSTRY
Pesticide is a chemical used to destroy an organism detrimental to human interest. It includes
insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rod pesticides, bactericide, miticides, nematicides,
molluscicids. They are generally halogenated (Cyclodirenes, Bischlorophenyls,
Cycloparaffins and Chlorinated terpenes) or organ phosphorus (parathion, malatblone, TEPP,
OMPA, DDVP, abate, chordin etc.) type. They classified as extremely hazardous, highly
hazardous moderately hazardous, slightly hazardous etc. for these classifications and their
details including LD5o values see reference no. 1 given at the end of this Chapter. Strict safety
rules are necessary during their processing, handling, packaging etc. exhaust ventilation and
use of PPE is essential.

PETROCHEMICAL INDUSTRY
This is relatively a recent industry. The plants are modern, mostly automatic and totally
enclosed. It uses gaseous, liquid or solid hydrocarbons. Toxic exposures and high pressure -
high temperature reactions pose health fire and explosion hazards Proper FFEs and PPEs
should be used. Pre and post medical examinations are necessary. Other aspects similar to
chemical industry.

PETROLEUM REFINERY
A simple refinery carries out atmospheric and vacuum distillation and produce naphtha's and
limited products. Other refineries have more processing units such as cracking, alkylation's,
reforming, isomerization hydro treating and lubricant processing. A refinery operation
includes 7 areas
1. Separation of crude oil
2. Conversion of hydrocarbon molecules
3. Treating crude oil fraction
4. Blending hydrocarbon products
5. Auxiliary operating facilities
6. Refinery offsite facilities and
7. Emission and diffluent control
Safety measures include:
1. Continuous monitoring of hydrogen Sulphide gas, carbon monoxide and other toxic
gases
2. Safer shutdown procedure and startup procedure should be followed" with sequential
steps

3. Good maintenance by blinding or blanking off electrical lockouts, gas tests and hot work
permits.
4. Protective clothing and equipment.
5. Ventilation and air pollution control.
6. Gas monitoring programs.
7. Leak and fault detection.
8. Control of catalysts hazards.
9. Medical checkups and industrial hygiene.
10. Fire protection.
 PHARMACEUTICAL INDUSTRY
Because of the strict requirements of Drugs Act and Rules, generally pharmaceutical factories
are neat and clean and the plants are properly laid out. Some safety measures include.
1. Safe operating procedures.
2. Safe chemical handling procedure.
3. PPE.
4. Guarding of all machineries, their drives and dangerous parts.
5. Hood and exhaust ventilation for solvent baths and similar processes.
6. Temperature controls for heaters and driers.
7. Extremely sensitive methods of sampling and analysis.
8. Medical check – ups.
9. Good manufacturing practice.
10Good housekeeping.

Safety in Docks Operations:

This information sheet provides guidance on some of the main hazards encountered in port
and dock operations. It will be of assistance to employers when conducting a risk assessment
of their or their employees’ work activities in ports and docks. It will also be of interest to
anyone who visits ports and docks during the course of their work. When conducting the risk
assessment, the following non-exhaustive list of hazards should be considered and
appropriate control measures put in place.

Wherever possible, avoid the need for people to climb onto vehicles. If people cannot work
from the ground, appropriate safe access must be provided for sheeting etc. • Appropriate
ship to shore access must be provided and should comply with relevant Marine Notices (see
www.dttas.ie/maritime). • Appropriate measures and safe systems of work must be in place to
prevent falls from height and to ensure compliance with Part 4 of the Safety, Health and
Welfare at Work (General Application) Regulations 2007, as amended.

Falls from Height

Falls from height can occur whilst carrying out trimming, sheeting and container lashing,
securing loads, accessing ships, working on board a ship or working on heavy machinery. •
Edge protection must be in place on all open edges where there is a risk of falling from
height. • Falls through openings in holds or from cargo must be prevented. • All access or
lashing cages must be appropriately protected with guard rails and toe boards and have robust
gates or doors. Documented instructions for their safe use should be available. Wherever
possible, avoid the need for people to climb onto vehicles. If people cannot work from the
ground, appropriate safe access must be provided for sheeting etc. • Appropriate ship to shore
access must be provided and should comply with relevant Marine Notices (see
www.dttas.ie/maritime). • Appropriate measures and safe systems of work must be in place to
prevent falls from height and to ensure compliance with Part 4 of the Safety, Health and
Welfare at Work (General Application) Regulations 2007, as amended.

Falling Objects

Whilst carrying out loading and unloading operations and stacking and stowing goods there is
a risk of falling objects. Items may be loose and incorrectly or poorly slung or stacked.
Fittings and fixtures used during lashing operations may be dropped. Loads or objects may
collapse or fall having become unstable during transport or having been poorly loaded. Safe
systems of work must be in place to ensure that pre-slung and loose loads can be lifted safely.
• All securing equipment, such as twist locks and lashing bars, must be adequately inspected
and maintained. • Loads must be appropriately secured especially during movement around
the dock. • Marked safe areas should be provided for lorry drivers during loading and
unloading operations, especially in container terminals. • Marked safe areas should be
provided for customs officials to carry out examination and sealing of containers. • Good ship
to shore liaison and cooperation is required for the loading and unloading of solid and rigid
bulk cargoes. • Appropriate documented safe systems of work must be in place for the
stacking of full and empty containers. Empty containers should not be stacked within 7
meters of occupied buildings. • Stacks adjacent to buildings and perimeter fences should be
stepped back. • If linking containers together, a safe system of work must be in place to
enable the attachments that link the containers to be put in position, and removed, safely.

Lifting Equipment

• All lifting equipment must be inspected and tested and records of such tests kept in
accordance with the Safety, Health and Welfare at Work (General Application) Regulations
2007, as amended. • A register of lifting equipment and lifting accessories must be
maintained. • Appropriate procedures must be in place to verify that a ship’s lifting
equipment, has been inspected and tested, in accordance with legal requirements, prior to
allowing workers to use it, including cargo lifts. • All lifting equipment must be capable of
lifting the required load.

Fire/Electrocution

• All electrical equipment and installations must be designed, constructed, installed,

maintained, protected and used so as to prevent danger. • All such equipment and
installations, including distribution boards, sockets and connections, must be protected from
the ingress of moisture and from foreseeable impacts. • Any equipment used in wet, dirty,
flammable or explosive environments must be suitable for use in such conditions. Page 2 •
Loading and unloading activities must not be carried out in the vicinity of overhead electric
power lines. • Flammable liquids and gases must be properly transported and stored.

Moving Vehicles and Equipment

An appropriate traffic management system must be in place and will aid both safety and
operational control of the port. • As far as reasonably practicable, vehicles and pedestrians
must be segregated. • Marked and signposted walkways should be in place. • Signage should
be in place advising drivers of the side of the road on which they should drive. • Members of
the public, private vehicles, taxis and delivery vehicles should be restricted from accessing
operational areas. • Appropriate control and supervision of vehicle and pedestrian movements
should be in place, especially on vessel ramps. • Documented safe systems of work should be
in place for: o Personnel who have to enter areas where vehicles and plant are operating, such
as container stacking areas or bulk storage warehouses. o People carrying out maintenance
work in operational areas, for example tire repairers or reefer engineers. o Trailer coupling
and uncoupling activities. • All port users should be aware of the traffic plan and the safe
systems of work. Where traffic routes have to change for operational reasons, sufficient
notice of the change should be provided. • All operational areas and access routes to them
should be provided with suitable and sufficient lighting to ensure safe working during hours
of darkness or at other times of reduced visibility. • All vehicle drivers and plant operators
(including terminal tractor drivers, straddle carriers and forklift truck and side loader
operators) should be carefully selected and must have appropriate instruction, information
and training for the vehicles and plant that they operate. • Only authorized drivers should
operate vehicles or plant. Adequate supervision is required to ensure that drivers are
competent and that safety standards do not deteriorate. • All vehicles and plant must be
adequately maintained in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations. •
Appropriate high visibility clothing should be worn by all workers.

Noise

Equipment and engines may produce noise which is augmented when they are operated in a
ship’s hold or a warehouse. As a rule of thumb, you may be at risk if you have to shout to be
clearly heard by someone 2 meters away, if your ears are still ringing after leaving the
workplace or if there are noises due to impacts such as those caused by hammering. • Noisy
areas need to be identified and a risk assessment carried out. • Appropriate measures must be
in place to ensure compliance with Part 5, Chapter 1 of the Safety, Health and Welfare at
Work (General Application) Regulations 2007, as amended.

Slips and Trips

The majority of dock accidents reported to the HSA are due to slips, trips and falls on the
same level. • The employer or person in control to any extent of the place of work must
ensure safe access and egress. • Appropriate pedestrian routes must be provided to the
waterside and to ships. • All parts of the port should be kept in a clean, orderly condition.
Poor housekeeping and badly stowed ropes, cables and other equipment can all be a hazard. •
All access and emergency routes and operational areas must be kept free of objects and
materials that may result in accident and injury.
CHAPTER 6:Destructive Testing, Non-Destructive Testing and Heat Treatment

Break Strength Testing:

One of the most common of all testing requirements is the determination of break strength.
Break strength is generally the tensile or compressive load required to fracture or to cause the
sample to fail.

To determine the failure point or break strength, you will need to define what a break is
(break detector). Generally, there are two common types of breaks: the sharp break is referred
to the measurement when load or force drops by 5% from its peak load measurement. A
percentage break is another form of break and is generally determined by the sample material
and its relationship to load degradation from a peak load measurement. A plastic material is
likely to have a load drop of 5%, but will not represent a break. In this case, a percentage
break would need to be applied. In a tensile test, the breaking load is the break strength.

Virtually any test standard for a product or material will have a break strength characteristic.
Pass/fail criteria can be defined for each test for quality control purposes. There are many
ASTM standards for break strength for specific materials.

Other common results available for break strength are:

- Maximum Load at Break
- Deflection at Maximum Load
- Load at Break
- Deflection at Break

Typical graph showing break strength test:

Tensile Stress Load testing:

A tensile test, also known as a tension test, is one of the most fundamental and common types
of mechanical testing. A tensile test applies tensile (pulling) force to a material and measures
the specimen's response to the stress. By doing this, tensile tests determine how strong a
material is and how much it can elongate. Tensile tests are typically conducted
on electromechanical or universal testing instruments, are simple to perform, and are fully
standardized.

We can learn a lot about a substance from tensile testing. By measuring the material while it
is being pulled, we can obtain a complete profile of its tensile properties. When plotted on a
graph, this data results in a stress/strain curve which shows how the material reacted to the
forces being applied. The point of break or failure is of much interest, but other important
properties include the modulus of elasticity, yield strength, and strain.

Ultimate Tensile Strength

One of the most important properties we can determine about a material is its ultimate tensile
strength (UTS). This is the maximum stress that a specimen sustains during the test. The UTS
may or may not equate to the specimen's strength at break, depending on whether the material
is brittle, ductile, or exhibits properties of both. Sometimes a material may be ductile when
tested in a lab, but, when placed in service and exposed to extreme cold temperatures, it may
transition to brittle behaviour.
Nondestructive Testing:
Non-destructive testing (NDT) is the process of inspecting, testing, or evaluating materials,
components or assemblies for discontinuities, or differences in characteristics without
destroying the serviceability of the part or system. In other words, when the inspection or test
is completed the part can still be used.
In contrast to NDT, other tests are destructive in nature and are therefore done on a limited
number of samples ("lot sampling"), rather than on the materials, components or assemblies
actually being put into service.
These destructive tests are often used to determine the physical properties of materials such
as impact resistance, ductility, yield and ultimate tensile strength, fracture toughness and
fatigue strength, but discontinuities and differences in material characteristics are more
effectively found by NDT.
Today modern non-destructive tests are used in manufacturing, fabrication and in-service
inspections to ensure product integrity and reliability, to control manufacturing processes,
lower production costs and to maintain a uniform quality level. During construction, NDT is
used to ensure the quality of materials and joining processes during the fabrication and
erection phases, and in-service NDT inspections are used to ensure that the products in use
continue to have the integrity necessary to ensure their usefulness and the safety of the public.
It should be noted that while the medical field uses many of the same processes, the term
"non-destructive testing" is generally not used to describe medical applications.

NDT Test Methods:

1. Magnetic particle Testing:

Magnetic Particle Testing uses one or more magnetic fields to locate surface
and near-surface discontinuities in ferromagnetic materials. The magnetic
field can be applied with a permanent magnet or an electromagnet. When
using an electromagnet, the field is present only when the current is being
applied. When the magnetic field encounters a discontinuity transverse to the
direction of the magnetic field, the flux lines produce a magnetic flux leakage
 field of their own as shown in Figure 1. Because magnetic flux lines don't
travel well in air, when very fine coloured ferromagnetic particles ("magnetic
particles") are applied to the surface of the part the particles will be drawn into
the discontinuity, reducing the air gap and producing a visible indication on
the surface of the part. The magnetic particles may be a dry powder or
suspended in a liquid solution, and they may be colored with a visible dye or a
fluorescent dye that fluoresces under an ultraviolet ("black") light.

2. Electromagnetic Testing:

 Electromagnetic testing is a general test category that includes Eddy Current testing,
Alternating Current Field Measurement (ACFM) and Remote Field testing. While
magnetic particle testing is also an electromagnetic test, due to its widespread use it is
considered a stand-alone test method rather as than an electromagnetic testing
technique. All of these techniques use the induction of an electric current or magnetic
field into a conductive part, then the resulting effects are recorded and evaluated.

 Eddy Current Testing

 Eddy Current Testing uses the fact that when an alternating current coil induces an
electromagnetic field into a conductive test piece, a small current is created around the
magnetic flux field, much like a magnetic field is generated around an electric
current. The flow pattern of this secondary current, called an "eddy" current, will be
affected when it encounters a discontinuity in the test piece, and the change in the
 eddy current density can be detected and used to characterize the discontinuity
causing that change. A simplified schematic of eddy currents generated by an
alternating current coil ("probe") is shown in Figure 14-a. By varying the type of coil,
this test method can be applied to flat surfaces or tubular products. This technique
works best on smooth surfaces and has limited penetration, usually less than ¼".
 Encircling coils (Figure 14-b) are used to test tubular and bar-shaped products. The
tube or bar can be fed through the coil at a relatively high speed, allowing the full
cross-section of the test object to be interrogated. However, due to the direction of
the flux lines, circumferentially oriented discontinuities may not be detected with this
application.

3. Ultra-sonic Testing:
Ultrasonic testing uses the same principle as is used in naval SONAR and fish finders. Ultra-
high frequency sound is introduced into the part being inspected and if the sound hits a
material with a different acoustic impedance (density and acoustic velocity), some of the
sound will reflect back to the sending unit and can be presented on a visual display. By
knowing the speed of the sound through the part (the acoustic velocity) and the time required
for the sound to return to the sending unit, the distance to the reflector (the indication with the
different acoustic impedance) can be determined. The most common sound frequencies used
in UT are between 1.0 and 10.0 MHz, which are too high to be heard and do not travel
through air. The lower frequencies have greater penetrating power but less sensitivity (the
ability to "see" small indications), while the higher frequencies don't penetrate as deeply but
can detect smaller indications.
The two most commonly used types of sound waves used in industrial inspections are the
compression (longitudinal) wave and the shear (transverse) wave, as shown in Figure 10.
Compression waves cause the atoms in a part to vibrate back and forth parallel to the sound
direction and shear waves cause the atoms to vibrate perpendicularly (from side to side) to
the direction of the sound. Shear waves travel at approximately half the speed of longitudinal
waves.

Sound is introduced into the part using an ultrasonic transducer ("probe") that converts
electrical impulses from the UT machine into sound waves, then converts returning sound
back into electric impulses that can be displayed as a visual representation on a digital or
LCD screen (on older machines, a CRT screen). If the machine is properly calibrated, the
operator can determine the distance from the transducer to the reflector, and in many cases,
an experienced operator can determine the type of discontinuity (like slag, porosity or cracks
in a weld) that caused the reflector. Because ultrasound will not travel through air (the atoms
in air molecules are too far apart to transmit ultrasound), a liquid or gel called "coolant" is
used between the face of the transducer and the surface of the part to allow the sound to be
transmitted into the part.
Thermography testing:
Thermal/Infrared Testing, or infrared thermography, is used to measure or map surface
temperatures based on the infrared radiation given off by an object as heat flows through, to
or from that object. The majority of infrared radiation is longer in wavelength than visible
light but can be detected using thermal imaging devices, commonly called "infrared
cameras." For accurate IR testing, the part(s) being investigated should be in direct line of
sight with the camera, i.e., should not be done with panel covers closed as the covers will
diffuse the heat and can result in false readings. Used properly, thermal imaging can be used
to detect corrosion damage, delamination’s, disbands, voids, inclusions as well as many other
detrimental conditions.

Radiography Testing:
Industrial radiography involves exposing a test object to penetrating radiation so that the
radiation passes through the object being inspected and a recording medium placed against
the opposite side of that object. For thinner or less dense materials such as aluminium,
electrically generated x-radiation (X-rays) are commonly used, and for thicker or denser
materials, gamma radiation is generally used.
Gamma radiation is given off by decaying radioactive materials, with the two most
commonly used sources of gamma radiation being Iridium-192 (Ir-192) and Cobalt-60 (Co-
60). IR-192 is generally used for steel up to 2-1/2 - 3 inches, depending on the Curie strength
of the source, and Co-60 is usually used for thicker materials due to its greater penetrating
ability.
The recording media can be industrial x-ray film or one of several types of digital radiation
detectors. With both, the radiation passing through the test object exposes the media, causing
an end effect of having darker areas where more radiation has passed through the part and
lighter areas where less radiation has penetrated. If there is a void or defect in the part, more
radiation passes through, causing a darker image on the film or detector, as shown in Figure
8.

Safety in IT and Electronic Industry and Service Sector:

Various hazards in electronics industries:

 Ergonomic hazards
 Musculoskeletal Disorder
 Electrical Hazards
 Physical Hazards
 Radiation Hazards
 Fire Hazards
 Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS)
 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome ( CTS)
 Repetitive Strain Injury (RSI)

PHYSICAL HAZARDS

 A physical hazard is defined as "A factor within the environment that

can harm the body without necessarily touching it. Vibration and noise are examples
of physical hazards" electricity, radiation, pressure, noise, heights and vibration.
 Slips, trips and falls: Slips occur when a person's foot loses traction with the
ground surface, trips occur when a person unexpectedly catches their foot on an object
or surface. Falls may result from a slip or trip but many occur during falls from low
heights or into a hole, ditch or body of water.
  Slips and trips result in thousands of injuries each year with the most
common injuries being musculoskeletal. Cuts, bruises, fractures, dislocations and
more serious injuries also occur.

Control of Slips, trips and falls

a) Eliminate the hazard: Remove slip and trip hazards at the design stage such as
eliminating changes in floor levels and installing more power outlets to avoid trailing
cords.
b) Substitution: Replace flooring with a more slip-resistant surface.
c) Isolation: Replace flooring with a more slip-resistant surface Prevent access to high
risk areas, for example cordon off wet floor areas while cleaning is in progress.
d) Engineering controls (redesign): Apply floor treatments to increase slip resistance,
improve lighting, stop leaks from equipment or pipes, provide adequate drainage,
clearly mark edges of steps and any changes in floor heights.
e) Administrative controls: Implement good housekeeping practices including keeping
access ways clear and cleaning up spills promptlyUse signage to warn of wet or
slippery areas, Provide training and supervision.
f) Personal protective equipment Wear slip-resistant footwear

I. COMPUTER VISION SYNDROME (CVS)

1) Computer vision syndrome (CVS), also referred to as Digital Eye Strain, is a
condition resulting from focusing the eyes on a computer or other display device for
protracted, uninterrupted periods of time. Some symptoms of CVS include headaches,
blurred vision, neck pain, fatigue, eye strain, dry eyes, irritated eyes, double vision,
vertigo/dizziness, polyopia, and difficulty refocusing the eyes.

2) Dry eye is a major symptom that is targeted in the therapy of CVS. The use of over-
the-counter artificial-tear solutions can reduce the effects of dry eye in CVS.
3) Asthenopia symptoms in the eye are responsible for much of the severity in CVS.
Proper rest to the eye and its muscles is recommended to relieve the associated eye
strain. Various catch-phrases have been used to spread awareness about giving rest to
the eyes while working on computers. A routinely recommended approach is to
consciously blink the eyes every now and then (this helps replenish the tear film) and
to look out the window to a distant object or to the sky—doing so provides rest to the
ciliary muscles. One of the catch phrases is the "20 20 20 rule" every 20 mins, focus
the eyes on an object 20 feet (6 meters) away for 20 seconds. This basically gives a
convenient distance and timeframe for a person to follow the advice from the
optometrist and ophthalmologist. Otherwise, the patient is advised to close his/her
eyes (which has a similar effect) for 20 seconds, at least every half-hour.
4) Many of the visual symptoms experienced by users are only temporary and will
decline after stopping computer work or use of the digital device. However, some
individuals may experience continued reduced visual abilities, such as blurred
distance vision, even after stopping work at a computer.
5) CAUSES OF CVS OR DES (Digital eye strain)
i. Viewing a computer or digital screen is different than reading a printed page.
Often the letters on the computer or handheld device are not as precise or
sharply defined, the level of contrast of the letters to the background is
reduced, and the presence of glare and reflections on the screen may make
viewing difficult.
ii. Viewing distances and angles used for this type of work are also often
different from those commonly used for other reading or writing tasks. As a
result, the eye focusing and eye movement requirements for digital screen
viewing can place additional demands on the visual system.
iii. In addition, the presence of even minor vision problems can often significantly
affect comfort and performance at a computer or while using other digital
screen devices. Uncorrected or under corrected vision problems can be major
contributing factors to computer-related eyestrain.

6) SIX STEPS TO REDUCE THE IMPACTS OF CVS

i. Keep blinking. It washes your eyes in naturally therapeutic tears.
ii. Remember 20-20-20. Every 20 minutes, spend 20 seconds looking at
something 20 feet away, minimum.
iii. Get the right light. Good lighting isn’t just flattering – it’s healthy for your
eyes. So, keep bright lighting overhead to a minimum. Keep your desk lamp
shining on your desk, not you. Try to keep window light off to the side, rather
than in front or behind you. Use blinds and get a glare screen. Position the
computer screen to reduce reflections from windows or overhead lights.
iv. Monitor your monitor. Keep it at least 20 inches from your eyes. Center
should be about 4 to 6 inches below your eyes. Also, make sure it’s big
enough and with just the right brightness and contrast. Adjust the screen so
you look at it slightly downward and are about 24 to 28 inches away. Adjust
the screen settings to where they are comfortable — contract polarity,
resolution, flicker, etc.
v. Wear those computer glasses. Your doctor can prescribe a pair of eyeglasses
just for viewing the computer screen well. If necessary, wear the appropriate
corrective lenses while at the computer.
vi. Talk to your doc. Have a comprehensive
eye exam by a doctor. During your eye
exam, your eye doctor can check for more
than just computer vision problems.
They’ll look for signs of health conditions
like diabetes, high cholesterol, high blood
pressure, glaucoma, and macular
degeneration. It’s an important part of your
overall health routine.
 7) VIEWING OF COMPUTER Proper body positioning for computer use.
Some important factors in preventing or reducing the symptoms of CVS have to do
with the computer and how it is used. This includes lighting conditions, chair comfort,
location of reference materials, position of the monitor, and the use of rest breaks.
i. Location of computer screen - Most people find it more comfortable to view
a computer when the eyes are looking downward. Optimally, the computer
screen should be 15 to 20 degrees below eye level (about 4 or 5 inches) as
measured from the center of the screen and 20 to 28 inches from the eyes.
ii. Seating position - Chairs should be comfortably padded and conform to the
body. Chair height should be adjusted so your feet rest flat on the floor. If your
chair has arms, they should be adjusted to provide arm support while you are
typing. Your wrists shouldn't rest on the keyboard when typing.
iii. Rest breaks - To prevent eyestrain, try to rest your eyes when using the
computer for long periods. Rest your eyes for 15 minutes after two hours of
continuous computer use. Also, for every 20 minutes of computer viewing,
look into the distance for 20 seconds to allow your eyes a chance to refocus.
iv. LIGHTING ANTIGLARE BLINKING ARE OTHER MEASURES TO
BE TAKEN.

II. CARPEL TUNNEL SYNDROME

1) Carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS) is a medical condition due to compression of the
median nerve as it travels through the wrist at the carpal tunnel. The main symptoms
are pain, numbness, and tingling, in the thumb, index finger, middle finger, and the
thumb side of the ring fingers.
2) Symptoms typically start gradually and during the night. Pain may extend up the arm.
Weak grip strength may occur and after a long period of time the muscles at the base
of the thumb may waste away.
3) The median nerve and several tendons run from your forearm to your hand through a
small space in your wrist called the carpal tunnel. The median nerve controls
movement and feeling in your thumb and first three fingers (not your little finger).
4) Suggested healthy habits such as avoiding repetitive stress, work modification
through use of ergonomic equipment (mouse pad, taking proper breaks, using
keyboard alternatives (digital pen, voice recognition, and dictation), and have been
proposed as methods to help prevent carpal tunnel syndrome.
5) Stretches and isometric exercises will aid in prevention for persons at risk. Stretching
before the activity and during breaks will aid in alleviating tension at the wrist. [61]
Place the hand firmly on a flat surface and gently press for a few seconds to stretch
the wrist and fingers. An example for an isometric exercise of the wrist is done by
clenching the first tightly, releasing and fanning out fingers.
6) The carpal tunnel is a space in the wrist surrounded by wrist bones and by a rigid
ligament that links the bones together.
7) Through this small tunnel pass the flexing tendons of the fingers and thumb as well as
the median nerve. These tendons attach muscles to bones in the hand and transfer the
 movement of the fingers from muscles to bones. The median nerve carries signals
from the brain to control the actions of the fingers and hand.

8) It also carries information about temperature, pain and touch from the hand to the
brain, and controls the sweating of the hand. The thumb, index, middle and ring
fingers are under the control of the median nerve.

FIG 1 FIG2-The Carpal Tunnel with

Tendon and Median Nerve

9) Diagnosis of carpal tunnel syndrome is confirmed by performing certain tests to

detect damage to the median nerve.

Tinel's test - The physician taps the median nerve at the wrist. A tingling response in
one or more fingers indicates damage to the median nerve.

Phalen's test - The patient puts the backs of the hands together and bends the wrists
for one minute. Tingling of the fingers indicates damage to the median nerve.

Electromyography - Electrodes are placed on the forearm and electrical current is

passed through the patient. Measurements on how fast and how well the median nerve
transmits messages to muscles indicate if there is damage to this nerve.

10) Generally accepted treatments include: physiotherapy, steroids either orally or

injected locally, splinting, and surgical release of the transverse carpal ligament.
Splints corticosteroids, surgery and physical therapy.

III. REPETITIVE STRAIN INJURY (RSI)

1) A repetitive strain injury (RSI) is an "injury to the musculoskeletal and nervous
systems that may be caused by repetitive tasks, forceful exertions, vibrations,
mechanical compression, or sustained or awkward positions" OR
“Repetitive strain injury (RSI) is a general term used to describe the pain felt in
muscles, nerves and tendons caused by repetitive movement and overuse.”
 It's also known as work-related upper limb disorder, or non-specific upper limb pain.
2) The condition mostly affects parts of the upper body, such as the a) forearms and
elbows b) wrists and hands c) neck and shoulders
3) CAUSES OF RSI: RSI is related to the overuse of muscles and tendons in the upper
body.
Certain things are thought to increase the risk of RSI, including:
i. repetitive activities
ii. doing a high-intensity activity for a long time without rest
iii. poor posture or activities that require you to work in an awkward position
4)
5) Some of symptoms experienced by patients with RSI are aching, pulsing pain,
tingling and extremity weakness, initially presenting with intermittent discomfort and
then, with a higher degree of frequency
6) The most-often prescribed treatments for early-stage RSIs include analgesics, my
feedback, biofeedback, physical therapy, relaxation, and ultrasound therapy. Low-
grade RSIs can sometimes resolve themselves if treatments begin shortly after the
onset of symptoms. However, some RSIs may require more aggressive intervention
including surgery and can persist for years.
7) PREVENTION OF RSI maintaining good posture at work – see how to sit at a desk
correctly
i. taking regular breaks from long or repetitive tasks – it's better to take smaller,
more frequent breaks than one long lunch break
ii. trying relaxation techniques if you're stressed
iii. If you work at a computer all day, make sure your seat, keyboard, mouse and
screen are positioned so they cause the least amount of strain.
8) There are three pieces of equipment that require special attention:
i. Keyboard: positioned above your thighs, you shoulder be able to reach the
keys with your elbows at your side and bent at 90 degrees, and your forearms
roughly parallel to the ground. If your elbows are at more than a 90 angle, it
will surely tire you out quickly.
ii. Mouse: just to one side of your keyboard, so that you don't have to lean,
stretch, or hunch to work it. Many people have one shoulder noticeably lower
than the other - this can be caused by repetitive stretching for a mouse;
iii. Monitor: directly in front of you (not off to the side), such that your eye level
is somewhere between the top of the screen and 20% from the top. The screen
should be about 15-25 inches from your eyes.
9) There are three keys to proper typing technique.
i. Keep your wrists straight: the straighter your wrists, the less strain you put
on the tendons and nerves that run through your wrist. A split keyboard may
aid you in keeping your wrists straight.
ii. Let your hands float: This means don't rest your wrists on the desk,
keyboard, or a wrist rest when you are typing. Let them hover over the keys.
This has three advantages: (i) You allow the big muscles in your back to share
some of the work; (ii) It allows you to keep your wrists straight, which is
 impossible if they're planted on a wrist rest; (iii) It's easier to reach the hard-
to-reach keys (next item).
iii. Don't strain your fingers: When you need to press a hard-to-reach key, like
CTRL, SHIFT, BACKSPACE, etc., don't stretch out your pinky. Instead,
move your whole hand and use your index or middle finger to press the key.
Don't use one hand when you need to hit two keys simultaneously, e.g. CTRL-
X, SHIFT-Y. Think before you type: unnecessary retyping/editing can add up.
Use a light touch when typing: don't pound the keys.

10) Stretching and strengthening(i) Wall stretch (ii) Doorway stretch (iii) back and neck
stretching

IV. VARIOUS HAZARDS IN MALL/COMMERCIAL SECTOR – PREVENTIVE AND

CONTROL MEASURES
1) Security threat to the shopkeeper and visitors. security structure provides a
comprehensive coverage of all area and provide a comprehensive safer environment.
2) Terrorism concern are common this days, fake bomb threats exist and to counter that
a specialized team terror prevention and protection should be readily available within
a call reach.
3) Moving parts of escalators or elevators Keep your hands and any loose clothing
clear when using escalators and elevators to avoid getting pinched or caught in the
mechanism.
4) Large Crowds Avoid large store openings with large crowds, especially if you have
children with you. You may easily be pushed or could trip, causing injury.
“Lost children” is a one of the major concern/hazards at crowded area. “Children
safe zone system” are prominently provided to assist the process of informing and
identifying the child lost through surveillance camera and other security feature.
always keep small children securely in a stroller and do not let them wander away
from you.
5) Theft individual store are increasingly at risk of becoming victims of shoplifting.
6) RIOTS
7) NIGHT TIME DUTY security guardLet deliveries in to the center and assist with the
process patrolling the shopping center in the night. feature of intruder alarm if some
burglaries or theft happen.
8) Heavy items may fall and strike unsuspecting customers.
9) Other hazards are Unrestricted access to peripheral areas such as parking lots,
Unrestricted access to areas adjacent to buildings, Limited employee background
checks, Limited security force, Large number of access points, Lack of exercises for
emergency plans,etc.
10) Mobbing: Psychosocial terror or mobbing in working life as ‘hostile and unethical
communication, which is directed in a systematic way by one or a few individuals
mainly towards one individual who, due to mobbing, is pushed into a helpless and
defenseless position, being held there by means of continuing activities
11) Bullying Workplace bullying is repeated, unreasonable behavior directed towards an
employee, or group of employees, that creates a risk to health and safety.
Bullying often involves a misuse or abuse of power, where the targets can experience
difficulties in defending themselves.
12) Harassment: The term harassment covers undesirable hostility or offensive behavior.
It may also include sexual harassment.
13) Working hours
 QUALITY CONTROL IN OCCUPATIONAL SAFETY, HEALTH & ENVIRONMENT
MANAGEMENT

CONTENT
Page No.

1 Safety Appraisal & Control Techniques, Plant Safety Rules & Procedures,
Plant Safety Observation Plan, Safety Survey, Plant Safety Inspection, Job
Safety Accident Prevention Tags.

2 Hazard Identification Analysis & Risk Assessment Chart, HAZOP Study,

Failure Mode Effect Analysis, Event Analysis, Safety Sampling, Fault Tree
Analysis, Risk Assessment (Quantitative Analysis), System Safety
Technique Management Oversight & Risk Tree (MORT)

3 Accident rate – definition, accident reporting, investigation & analysis,

safety performance measures (frequency/severity rates), accident reports &
records.

4 Major Accident Hazard (MAH) Factory, Maximum Credible Accident

5 Safety Inventory, Safety Programme, Safety Tour, Critical Incident

Technique, Damage Control, Total Loss Control.
6 Safety Inventory, Safety Programme, Safety Tour, Critical Incident
Technique, Damage Control, Total Loss Control.
 Chapter 1: Safety Appraisal & Control Technique
Safety appraisal system is a system, method, practice, & procedure to measure the safety
performance of standard for the purpose of evaluating its effectiveness and reliability, to find out
drawbacks or deficiency if any to suggest the safety measures to raise its safety value. This is first step of
any safety organisation in i0ts march towards accident or loss prevention programmes.
TYPES OF SAFETY APPRAISAL SYSTEM:
1. QUANTITATIVE APPRAISAL: - Quantitative Appraisal is the method of computing accident
frequency, severity, incidence & their index rates and a safety activity rate. Frequency rate and
severity rate are useful in comparing safety performance of different units in a given time.

2. QUALITATIVE APPRAISAL: - Qualitative Appraisal is carried out to find the areas where
safety improvement is necessary. It includes safety inspection, safety audit, accident analysis etc.
Safety inspection, safety audit help to identify

3. PREVENTIVE APPRAISAL: - preventive Appraisal includes preventive maintenance before any

accident occurs. Safety sampling, safety survey, fault tree analysis, HAZOP &HAZAN studies,
safety inventory, system safety, safety standards, work permit system, safety tags, are used for
this purpose.

4. CORRECTIVE APPRAISAL: - Corrective Appraisal includes corrective maintenance after any

accident takes place or any defect (crack, corrosion etc ) detected Accident investigations,
analysis, application of remedy are carried out for this objective.

5. STATUTORY APPRAISAL: - It includes statutory inspection & testing of boilers, unfired

pressure vessels, lifting tackles & tools, hoist &lifts. It also includes work place monitoring,
medical check- up etc.

PLANT SAFETY RULES AND PROCEDURES

NEED FOR RULES AND PROCEDURE :- Safely rules are not new things. They were formed hundred
year ago as and when need arise. Fire precaution rules are such oldest rules. Industrialization.
Need for safety rules, procedures, codes and standards are.
(a) To fix the safe standard to be followed
(b) To measure the performance with such rule or standard.
(c) Human behaviour needs to be regulated by safety rules: otherwise it may cause more accidents.
(d) Management’s safety policy can be conveyed by rules and regulations for all employees.
(e) They are necessary for safe job performance, orderliness and security.
(f) If the rule is fixed (enacted or accepted), its breach can be easily shown to explain duty or
responsibility for its observance.
(g) Disciplinary action is possible for violation of rules.
 (h) Follow up of rules increases and maintains good discipline.
(i) Even if the rules are enforced, their need is permanent cannot be denied.
(j) Safety rules are the good foundation of training. Therefore there exists a strong need of safety
rules which may be statutory or non statutory.
FORMULATION OF RULES :- Criteria to be observed in formulating safety- rules are :
Each rule should be short, clear and unambiguous.
It should be need based. Unwanted rules should not be formulated. Where there is no combustible
material rule against smoking may not be necessary.
Rule should exactly describe the course of action to be followed and should cover all safety points.
The number of general rules should be minimum necessary.
Rule should be practicable so that it can be enforced.
Safety rules should be formulated from real experience of knowledge and with active participation of
employee concerned.
TYPES OF RULES:
A. STATUTORY RULES:- statutory acts, rules and forms are enacted by parliament and legislative
assemblies.
They are applicable to larger area and enforceable by government authorities. Non statutory plant
rules are formulated by individual companies. But , such rules should not be in derogation with
statutory rules need not be covered by non – statutory rules. Statutory rules are generally under some
Act.
The Act provides major items and their details are provided by rules. The Factories Act 1948 is a
Central Act applicable to the whole of India, while different states have enacted different rules under
that.
B. NON STATUTORY RULES
PSYCHOLOQICAL SAFETY RULES
a) Prevention is better than cure.
b) Accidents do not happen, they are caused. Safety is my responsibility. It begins from me, I will
maintain it. It also needs cooperative and coordinate efforts.
c) Safety is duty as well as right performs the duty and enjoys the right.
d) Small things make perfection but perfection is not a small thing. Safety should be made perfect
by smallest precaution.
e) Solutionof a problem lies through the problem. To achieve safety try through all stages in
sequence.
f) It is the knowledge that works and not the designation. Increase the knowledge of safety
perpendicular (in your own branch) and then horizontal (in other or side branches)
g) Rules of safety are absolute and not negotiable.
RULES FOR SAFE CONDITION :-
These rules are most important as they supply engineering, health and hygiene controls to make
plant, premises, process, equipment etc. safe and sound from the design stage to the maintenance stage
such rules should be grouped subject wise and classified systematically. Majority chapters of this book
deal with such rules.
RULES FOR SAFE ACTION:-
These rules touch the behaviour aspect of work-people and cover work methods, procedures and
human actions connected with work performance they may be philosophical if they cover the material
behaviour, thinking or action and may be physical, mechanical, electrical, chemical etc. if they cover such
environmental subjects.

PLANT SAFETY RULES AND PROCEDURES

NEED FOR RULES AND PROCEDURE: - Safely rules are not new things. They were formed hundred
year ago as and when need arise. Fire precaution rules are such oldest rules. Industrialization.
Need for safety rules, procedures, codes and standards are.
(k) To fix the safe standard to be followed
(l) To measure the performance with such rule or standard.
(m) Human behaviour needs to be regulated by safety rules: otherwise it may cause more accidents.
(n) Management’s safety policy can be conveyed by rules and regulations for all employees.
(o) They are necessary for safe job performance, orderliness and security.
(p) If the rule is fixed (enacted or accepted), its breach can be easily shown to explain duty or
responsibility for its observance.
(q) Disciplinary action is possible for violation of rules.
(r) Follow up of rules increases and maintains good discipline.
(s) Even if the rules are enforced, their need is permanent cannot be denied.
(t) Safety rules are the good foundation of training. Therefore there exists a strong need of safety
rules which may be statutory or non statutory.
FORMULATION OF RULES :- Criteria to be observed in formulating safety- rules are :
Each rule should be short, clear and unambiguous.
It should be need based. Unwanted rules should not be formulated. Where there is no combustible
material rule against smoking may not be necessary.
Rule should exactly describe the course of action to be followed and should cover all safety points.
The number of general rules should be minimum necessary.
Rule should be practicable so that it can be enforced.
Safety rules should be formulated from real experience of knowledge and with active participation of
employee concerned.
TYPES OF RULES:
C. STATUTORY RULES:- statutory acts, rules and forms are enacted by parliament and legislative
assemblies.
 They are applicable to larger area and enforceable by government authorities. Non statutory plant
rules are formulated by individual companies. But , such rules should not be in derogation with
statutory rules need not be covered by non – statutory rules. Statutory rules are generally under some
Act.
The Act provides major items and their details are provided by rules. The Factories Act 1948 is a
Central Act applicable to the whole of India, while different states have enacted different rules under
that.
D. NON STATUTORY RULES
PSYCHOLOQICAL SAFETY RULES
h) Prevention is better than cure.
i) Accidents do not happen, they are caused. Safety is my responsibility. It begins from me, I will
maintain it. It also needs cooperative and coordinate efforts.
j) Safety is duty as well as right performs the duty and enjoys the right.
k) Small things make perfection but perfection is not a small thing. Safety should be made perfect
by smallest precaution.
l) Solutionof a problem lies through the problem. To achieve safety try through all stages in
sequence.
m) It is the knowledge that works and not the designation. Increase the knowledge of safety
perpendicular (in your own branch) and then horizontal (in other or side branches)
n) Rules of safety are absolute and not negotiable.
RULES FOR SAFE CONDITION:-
These rules are most important as they supply engineering, health and hygiene controls to make
plant, premises, process, equipment etc. safe and sound from the design stage to the maintenance stage
such rules should be grouped subject wise and classified systematically. Majority chapters of this book
deal with such rules.
RULES FOR SAFE ACTION:-
These rules touch the behaviour aspect of work-people and cover work methods, procedures and
human actions connected with work performance they may be philosophical if they cover the material
behaviour, thinking or action and may be physical, mechanical, electrical, chemical etc. if they cover such
environmental subjects.
PLANT SAFETY RULES AND PROCEDURES
NEED FOR RULES AND PROCEDURE: - Safely rules are not new things. They were formed hundred
year ago as and when need arise. Fire precaution rules are such oldest rules. Industrialization need for
safety rules, procedures, codes and standards are.
(u) To fix the safe standard to be followed
(v) To measure the performance with such rule or standard.
(w) Human behaviour needs to be regulated by safety rules: otherwise it may cause more accidents.
(x) Management’s safety policy can be conveyed by rules and regulations for all employees.
(y) They are necessary for safe job performance, orderliness and security.
(z) If the rule is fixed (enacted or accepted), its breach can be easily shown to explain duty or
responsibility for its observance.
(aa) Disciplinary action is possible for violation of rules.
 (bb) Follow up of rules increases and maintains good discipline.
(cc) Even if the rules are enforced, their need is permanent cannot be denied.
(dd) Safety rules are the good foundation of training. Therefore there exists a strong need of
safety rules which may be statutory or non statutory.
FORMULATION OF RULES: - Criteria to be observed in formulating safety- rules are :
Each rule should be short, clear and unambiguous.
It should be need based. Unwanted rules should not be formulated. Where there is no combustible
material rule against smoking may not be necessary.
Rule should exactly describe the course of action to be followed and should cover all safety points.
The number of general rules should be minimum necessary.
Rule should be practicable so that it can be enforced.
Safety rules should be formulated from real experience of knowledge and with active participation of
employee concerned.
TYPES OF RULES:
E. STATUTORY RULES:- statutory acts, rules and forms are enacted by parliament and legislative
assemblies.
They are applicable to larger area and enforceable by government authorities. Non statutory plant
rules are formulated by individual companies. But , such rules should not be in derogation with
statutory rules need not be covered by non – statutory rules. Statutory rules are generally under some
Act.
The Act provides major items and their details are provided by rules. The Factories Act 1948 is a
Central Act applicable to the whole of India, while different states have enacted different rules under
that.
F. NON STATUTORY RULES
PSYCHOLOQICAL SAFETY RULES
o) Prevention is better than cure.
p) Accidents do not happen, they are caused. Safety is my responsibility. It begins from me, I will
maintain it. It also needs cooperative and coordinate efforts.
q) Safety is duty as well as right performs the duty and enjoys the right.
r) Small things make perfection but perfection is not a small thing. Safety should be made perfect
by smallest precaution.
s) Solution of a problem lies through the problem. To achieve safety try through all stages in
sequence.
t) It is the knowledge that works and not the designation. Increase the knowledge of safety
perpendicular (in your own branch) and then horizontal (in other or side branches)
u) Rules of safety are absolute and not negotiable.
RULES FOR SAFE CONDITION:-
These rules are most important as they supply engineering, health and hygiene controls to make
plant, premises, process, equipment etc. safe and sound from the design stage to the maintenance stage
such rules should be grouped subject wise and classified systematically. Majority chapters of this book
deal with such rules.
RULES FOR SAFE ACTION:-
These rules touch the behaviour aspect of work-people and cover work methods, procedures and
human actions connected with work performance they may be philosophical if they cover the material
behaviour, thinking or action and may be physical, mechanical, electrical, chemical etc. if they cover such
environmental subjects.

Safe Operating System:

Definition:
A standard operating procedure is a set of instructions having the force of a directive, covering those
features of operations that lend themselves to a definite or standardized procedure without loss of
effectiveness. Standard Operating Policies and Procedures can be effective catalysts to drive performance
improvement and improving organizational results. Every good quality system is based on its standard
operating procedures (SOPs).
A Safe Work Procedure is a working risk control document created by teams within the company that
describes the safest and most efficient way to perform a certain task.
This document stays in the Health & Safety system for regular use as a guide when completing that
particular task on site.

Safety Checklist:
Safety checklists are documents used during safety inspections for the identification of potential
hazards. OSHA has provided a wide range of checklists for the identification of potential
hazards in a variety of industries and applications.
Each workplace and industry has its own set of hazards, and health and safety professionals
must be able to identify which checklists are appropriate to specific workplaces and processes
in order to ensure that full compliance with safety standards is achieved in the workplace. Safety
checklists provide a tool for determining possible workplace hazards and should be completed
during inspections, reported on, used as a basis for safety recommendations and filed for
record-keeping purposes. OSHA provides checklists for industries including: radiation safety,
explosion safety, fall protection, electrical safety work practices, fixed stars and ladders,
occupational injury and illness reporting and more.

A workplace health and safety audit checklist is a tool used in performing internal and external audits of
an office or any working environment. Use this digital checklist to assess if workplace health and safety
(WHS) practices are followed. Maximize this template by using the points below as a guide:
1. Perform a site inspection and assess areas of the workplace including emergency procedures, first aid, and
PPE’s in place
2. Take or attach photo of issues identified
3. Add notes or comments to inspections
4. Assign corrective measures for non-compliant items.
5. Sign off with digital signatures

Inspectors: Date:
(O)Satisfactory
(X) Requires Action
Location Condition Comments

Fire Emergency Procedures

Is there a clear fire response plan posted for each work area?
Do all workers know the plan?
Are drills held regularly?
Are fire extinguishers chosen for the type of fire most likely in that area?
Are there enough extinguishers present to do the job?
Are extinguisher locations conspicuously marked?
Are extinguishers properly mounted and easily accessible?
Are all extinguishers fully charged and operable?
Are special purpose extinguishers clearly marked?
Electrical
Is the Canadian Electrical Code followed for operation, use, repair and maintenance?
Are all machines properly grounded?
Are portable hand tools grounded or double insulated?
Are junction boxes closed?
Are extension cords out of the aisles where they can be abused by heavy traffic?
Is permanent wiring used instead of extension cords?
Confined Spaces
Are the confined space procedures and training available and followed by all involved?
Are entry and exit procedures adequate?
Are emergency and rescue procedures in place (e.g. trained safety watchers)?
Housekeeping
Is the work area clean and orderly?
Are floors free from protruding nails, splinters, holes and loose boards?
Are aisles and passageways kept clear of obstructions?
Are permanent aisles and passageways clearly marked?
Are covers or guardrails in place around open pits, tanks and ditches?
Safety Tag System:
Safety tags are used to prevent accidents in hazardous or potentially hazardous situations that are out
of the ordinary, unexpected, or not readily apparent. Tags shall be used until the identified hazard is
eliminated or the hazardous operation is completed. Tags give their safety alert with a signal word and a
major message. e. Just as with safety signs, the signal word is the one that leaps out and gets your
attention. It can be DANGER, CAUTION, BIOLOGICAL HAZARD, BIOHAZARD or the biohazard symbol.

According to OSHA, you use a

Tags may also use a signal word we didn’t discuss with signs: WARNING. According
tag that says WARNING for a situation whose hazard level is somewhere between DANGER and
CAUTION.

Sometimes a tag may use a picture instead of, or in addition to, words. The pictures are usually easy to
understand. For instance, if the tag contains a message about wearing hard hats or ear protection, there
might be a picture of a head wearing a hard hat or ear muffs. Again, the point of all this is to use colors,
pictures, and words to get your attention and communicate quickly what kind of risk you’re facing and
what to do to stay safe. By defining the meaning of the signal words like DANGER and CAUTION, OSHA is
trying to make sure you do not misjudge the seriousness of a hazard.

PLANT SAFETY INSPECTION

One of the techniques used for identification of hazards, safety inspection is carried out with the help of
“Check List”.
ADVANTAGES OF SAFETY INSPECTION ARE :
1. Day to day or fortnightly, management is provided with clear picture of accident potential.
2. Defects (unsafe practices) are cleared on the spot.
3. Managers/supervisors are accountable if they fail to take action after the defects have been
pointed out by inspection team.

Check-List
Check Observation Location Action Taken
 1 House keeping

2 Access
3 Condition of floor,
staircase, railing, platform
etc.
4 Electrical fillings

5 Leakages

6 Bonding/earing
7 Pipeline supports

8 Noise/vibration
9 Use of PPE

10 Guards

11 Display of instructions
boards

12 Condition of storm drain

water

13 Fire extinguishers

PLANT SAFETY OBSERVATION PLAN

It is the one of the plant safety inspections. Each & every time inspection team encourages &
motivates employee to correct any unsafe method, conditions of work and unsafe act. The inspection of
work practices is done by observing the activities of worker.
In actual practice, although the workers are instructed to work safely, they may not do so, the
reason may be either they forgot safety instructions/rules or they do not give much importance to the
rules/instructions. Such behaviour may lead to accident. To prevent accident an effective observation pan
is required, hence concept of ‘Plant Safety Observation Plan’ come to existence.
PROCEDURE/TECHNIQUE
 Team should fix the priority – like safety first, improvement of operation second and need of
training third.
 Team should know about the job & responsibility of the operator.
 Team should go ahead with a check-list for actual observation and make a report of inspection
which should be simple & practical.
Main objective of safety observation plan is to identify violation of commonly accepted safe
procedure of work with ultimate aim of making all operations safe and efficient. Safety observation plan
ensures that the supervisors a various levels being responsible for workers safety observe work while it is
in process.
Safety sampling is one of the technique of plant safety observation plan.
SAFETY SAMPLING
It is method of measuring hazard or accident potential by random sampling procedure sampling procedure
and by conducting safety survey while louring specific location. The survy team, experienced in safety
sampling, walks through specific (decided) location in the plant and observes all the workers doing their
task. Safety sampling team records number of workers those performing their task safety those
performing task unsafely.
STEPS :
1. Team meets at desided location and decides route for survey
2. Takes round for 15 minutes.
3. With the use of “check-list” list out the safety defects & hazards in that area.
4. Results of sampling are added to summary & plots a graph
5. Previous and present graphs are compared and safety performance is measured.
EXAMPLE :
N1 (number if safe practices) = 160
N2 (number of unsafe practices) = 40
Total Observations = 200
N = 4(1-P) /y2P Where, N = number of observations required for desired degree of accuracy
Y = degree of accuracy (10% = 0.1)
P = % of unsafe practices
P = 40/200 20%=0.2
N = 4(1-0.2)/(0.1)2 x 0.2 = 1600 observations
If
N1 (number of safe practices) = 150
N2 (number of unsafe practices) = 50
Total Observation = 200
Then N= 1200 observations
It means that % of the unsafe acts (p) is inversely proportion to the number of observations.
SAFETY SAMPLING CHECK-LIST
ITEM CHECK-LIST COUNT ROUTES
TOTAL
A Protective Guards increase or missing
Equipment

Machine under repair-switch

unlocked

Fire Extinguisher-blocked
condition
Inspection cover-misplaced

Safety notices-defective
Other items

B House Keeping Blocked passageway

Blocked stairways
Tripping hazard

Slippery patches
Chemical spillage

Blocked drains

C Tools Wrong tool used

Defective tools

Power tools, plugs, wiring

SAFETY SURVEY
A safety survey is a detailed examination of a narrow or specific major key area identified by safety
inspection or audit, individual plant, procedure or particular problem common to a works as whole. It is
followed by a formal report. Action plan and subsequent monitoring. Its different with safety audit is
evident. Safety audit covers all parts of a plant one by one, while safety picks up out bu an expert team.
In case, if employees of a chemical plant, complaint about ill-health, then expert team carries safety
survey in that plant and study the procedure of handling of chemicals, their storage conditions, safety
system in the plant to take care of gases/vapour and also team refers the medical reports of such
employees. After carrying out in depth study of that pant, team submits their expertise comments. If toxic
chemicals are really affecting the health of exposed employees, then measure are recommended to
provide safe working conditions.
 SAFETY TOUR
It is an unscheduled examination of a work area carried out by works mangers or safety committee
members to ensure that the standards of housekeeping are at an acceptable level, hazards are removed and
safety standards are observed. Its scope is less than that of a safety inspection.
Accident analysis gives the target area where accident rates are high; more emphasis is given at such
places or locations. The constituted team takes round of such identified area/location and note down the
unsafe practices. Team recommends the corrective measures and immediate action is taken to implement
the recommendations.

SAFETY INVENTORY
It is a safety data collecting technique and is carried out to promote full employee co-operation in the
implementation of the company’s safety programme. The inventory is well publicized in the plant in
advance. This help in planning the annual safety programme and provide clues to needed action. This is
done once a year like the annual stock inventory.
Select persons at random and cover about 30% of employees. The questionnaire card given to each
employee and he is required to take stock of his job and the surrounding with regard to safety, fill the card
fully, sign it and submit by certain data. The answers to many of the questions may provide clues to
needed action.

 Need of more or better guarding

 More or better PPE
Many cases revealed in the safety inventories, year after year called for tightening up of inspection as well
as more attention to safety by at least the supervisor involved. The root causes of some of the unsafe
practices were found out, say in case of safety shoes it was found that:

 Majority of workers did not wear shoes because they were not fitting properly or that they have
no faith in the efficiency of the safety shoes. This calls for better sales job.
 Majority of workers did not know where the first-aid box was loaded. The results of such safety
inventory survey can be discussed in safety committee and desired action can be determined.
In many cases experience and engineering judgment permit an engineer to decide whether or not a
proposed design provides adequate availability & reliability. So data collected are use full in evaluating
the overall reliability of system the most fundamental factor which determines the scale of the hazard is
the inventory of hazardous in process & storage also grow.
 SAFETY INVENTORY QUESTIONNARE
Name: Dept.: Group:
Division: Occupation:
Equipment used by:
M/c No.
Is the equipment properly guarded?
Kind of safety device
What safety improvements you recommend?
List of PPE use
What PPE you use?
Any work stress/strain?
The posture required for the job
Do you know the safety rules?
Are the rules benefit?
What can you suggest to improve working condition?
Have you attended safety training?
Do you want to attend safety training?
Signature of Employee:……………….

PRODUCT SAFETY:
Product safety is the ability of a product to be safe for intended use, as determined when evaluated against
a set of established rules.
TOTAL LOSS CONTROL
The concept of accident prevention when applied to prevent human injuries only, it is called “injury
Prevention or Control”. When it is applied to control property damage only, it is called “Damage
Control”. When it is applied to control by management system, human injuries and property damage both
and also extended to include injuries and property damage to society or surrounding, it is called “Total
Loss Control”.
THE CONCEPT OF TLC IS ALSO DEFINED AS :-
It is an evolution from injury prevention to the control of all business losses by the application of sound
management principles.
It is a system of reporting and controlling all incidents, however small, whether the associated loss is
small or large.
It is a programme to eliminate unnecessary cost by means of identification of grading situations,
measurement of the loss potential, selection of methods to control the situation and finally
implementation of the methods.
THE FUNDAMENTALS OF LOSS CONTROL
1. Accidents, unsafe conditions and unsafe actions are symptoms of something wrong in the
management system
2. Certain sets of circumstances can be predicted to produce severe injuries, which can be identifies
and controlled
3. Safety should be manages like any other company function. Management must direct the safety
efforts by setting achievable goals by planning, organizing, and controlling to achieve them.
4. The key to effective line safety performance is management procedures that fix responsibility and
accountability
5. The function of safety is to locate and define the operational errors that allow accidents to occur.
MANAGEMENT FOR LOSS CONTROL
1. Formulation of Total Loss Control Policy
2. Constitution of Loss prevention committee to execute the policy
3. Assigning responsibility
4. Attention to employees selection, placement, training, participation
5. Adopting safety in design
6. Safety inspection & safety audit
CONTROL MEASURES MONITORED BY THE LOSS CONTROL DEPARTMENT ARE
1. Rules & regulation
2. Traffic laws
3. Standard procedures
4. Measurement of safety performances
5. Occupational safety standards/rules
6. Investigation of losses
7. Summary analysis
 PERMIT TO WORK SYSTEM:

A safe work permit is a written record that authorizes specific work, at a specific work location, for a
specific time period. Permits are used for controlling and co-ordinating work to establish and maintain
safe working conditions. They ensure that all foreseeable hazards have been considered and that the
appropriate precautions are defined and carried out in the correct sequence.

The permit is an agreement between the issuer and the receiver that documents the conditions,
preparations, precautions, and limitations that need to be clearly understood before work begins. The
permit records the steps to be taken to prepare the equipment, building, or area for the work, and the
safety precautions, safety equipment, or specific procedures that must be followed to enable the worker(s)
to safety complete the work.

The safe work permit helps to identify and control hazards, but does not, by itself, make the job safe,

 Any industry that has a significant risk because of particular hazards.

 Any prime contractor who lets out or sub-contracts work to others to do maintenance or other
hazardous work.
 Organizations that have individual employees working in isolated areas and performing non-
routine work.
All work exposes the worker to some degree of hazard. This degree of hazard determines
the type of safeguards required to protect the worker. Most routine work has defined safe work practices
or procedures. In the absence of such procedures, safe work permits should be used. Workers engaged in
maintenance work may be at risk if the machinery they are working on is started unexpectedly. Such
machinery and equipment needs to be isolated by blanking, blinding, or a power lockout system. These
procedures can be clearly identified by a work permit system. Certain types or conditions of work, such as
confined space entry, flammable or explosive situations, exposure to harmful substances or high voltage
electrical equipment, and the transfer of hazardous work from one work shift to the next are examples of
where safe work practices or the use of work permits is essential.
Types of safe work permits
The type of safe work permit required is determined by the nature of the work to be performed and the
hazards that must be controlled or eliminated. The range of activities and locations makes it impossible
for a single type of permit to be suitable for aall
ll situations. The following types are most commonly used
and examples are provided at thehe end of this Safety Bulletin.
Hot Work Permit

Hot work permits are used when heat or sparks are generated by work such as welding, burning, cutting,
riveting, grinding, drilling, and where work involves the use of pneumatic hammers and chippers, non-
explosion proof electrical equipment (lights, tools, and heaters), and internal combustion engines.

Three types of hazardous situations need to be considered when performing hot work: (a) the presence of
flammable materials in the equipment; (b) the presence of combustible materials that burn or give off
flammable vapours when heated; and (c) the presence of flammable gas in the atmosphere, or gas entering
from an adjacent area, such as sewers that have not been properly protected. (Portable detectors for
combustible gases can be placed in the area to warn workers of the entry of these gases.)

Cold Work Permit

Cold work permits are used in hazardous maintenance work that does not involve “hot work”. Cold work
permits are issued when there is no reasonable source of ignition, and when all contact with harmful
substances has been eliminated or appropriate precautions taken.
Confined Space Entry Permit
A space that has all three of the following criteria: Large enough and so configured that an employee can
physically enter Limited or restricted means
means for entry or exit Not designed for continuous employee
occupancy Examples of confined spaces are tanks, vessels, silos, storage bins, hoppers, vaults, and pits.
It can be any enclosed or partially enclosed space where there is a risk of death or serious injury from
hazardous substances or dangerous conditions (e.g., lack of oxygen, toxic or combustible gases) may be
present. Confined space entry permits are used when entering any confined space such as a tank, vessel,
tower, pit or sewer. The permit should be used in conjunction with a “Code of Practice” which describes
all important safety aspects of the operation.

Work at Height:
Any work at height of 1.8 meter or more from the ground level or floor. Elevated working positions
where the hazard of a fall exists and where there is no physical protection such as handrails. Types of
work covered include working from all types of ladders, scaffolds, mechanical lifts, working on
transmission towers and conductors, inside confined spaces, sloped roofs,
roofs, areas where there are no
off points, when working within 6 feet (1.8mt) of the edge of a flat roof, erecting steel or
overhead tie-off
installing/replacing roofing and in pipe racks. This does not include normal work on low stepladders,
loading platforms, or similar locations.
 Electrical Isolation:

An electrical permit is require for work on electrical systems where there is a possibility of contacting
energized electrical conductors. For all electrical isolation and energisation of electrical equipments
Permit is required. To work on High Tension (HT) and Low Tension (LT) line and / or equipment is
required. For Trip reset of HT and LT equipment, the clearance shall be taken on format. Some examples
includes

1. Work involving the installation or repair of electrical conductors

2. Reaching into any panel and transformer which may have energized circuits, capacitors, wiring, etc
3. Work on instrumentation, instrument panels, or telecom equipment
4. Where removal of a part of the circuit takes place outside normal ope rating conditions
operating

Excavation:
An excavation permit is a critical component of the excavation procedure, and is always required in the
event of any excavation.
  Identify underground services prior to any excavation which involves
o A proper review of site plans and drawings
o A review of dial before you dig information
o A physical inspection of the excavation site and area, usually accompanied by a utility
services person or someone who has an understanding of that particular area
o All buried services (found by the methods above) must be located via non
non-destructive
mean and properly marked in line with requirements (more about these specific detailed
requirements can be found here)
o Completing and having an excavation permit approved.

Working On Fragile Roof:

Due to their inherent danger, access to all roofs is restricted to authorized personnel
only. This document sets out the intended policy for the safe access to roofs of
University buildings..
Policy
1. Working on university roofs has been identified as a potentially hazardous activity.

2. A formal procedure of roof access and safety management has been put in place
to manage this risk.

3. Each roof must be specifically inspected and risk assessed so that anyone visiting
a roof is not put at undue risk. See the Roof Hazard Sheet.
4. Access to university roofs is via an authorization process.

5. Doors leading to roofs will be kept locked at all times. All locks and keys will be
distributed by Facilities Management. Only certain personnel will be assigned
keys.

6. Doors leading to roofs will have a warning sign “Authorized Personnel Only“.
7. All work on roofs will require a written risk assessment.
General procedure:
Safe work permits are usually made out in either duplicate or triplicate. When a duplicate system is used,
one copy of the permit is retained by the issuer at the work site and the other is held by the
worker/department doing the work. The permit should always be available at the work site. The permit is
handed back to the issuer at the end of the shift or when the work is completed. In a triplicate permit
system, the third copy is used by the safety department to audit the work to see if the requirements of the
permit are being met.

Content Of Work Permit:

A safe work permit is a written record that identifies:
(1) The date, time of issue, and time of expiry of the permit;
(2) The location of the work —it must be as specific as possible;
(3) The department or company doing the work;
(4) A description of the work to be done;
(5) Any toxic, corrosive, flammable, or other dangerous materials in the immediate work area;
(6) Whether the work area has been inspected and found free of the above materials;
(7) The need for fire protection;
(8) the need for isolation — electrical and mechanical hazards locked out and tagged, piping blanked off,
tagged, disconnected, drained, or vented;
(9) The need for ventilation — air, steam, inert gas purge;
(10) The need for testing prior to or during the work for: ƒ harmful substances; ƒ combustible gases;
oxygen deficiency; ƒ other hazards e.g. radiation;any specific health hazard — is Material Safety Data
Sheet information required?;
(11) The need for specific personal protective equipment to protect the worker from the hazard;
(12) The need for specific personal protective equipment to protect the worker from the hazard;
(13) The need for emergency procedures and competent rescue personnel;
(14) A special instructions and comments section — special procedures, special precautions;
(15) A general instruction-to-receiver section;
(16) The name and job title of the person who issued the permit and when;
(17) The name and job title of the person who received the permit and when;
(18) That the work has been completed and the permit signed by the person returning it; and
(19) The name of the person signing off the permit and whether or not the work has been completed.

Lock Out and Tag Out (LOTO) System:

It goes without saying that industrial equipment can be dangerous when it’s being used. That’s why
machines are designed with safety equipment and operators wear personal protective equipment when
using them.

But machinery can also present hazards when it’s not in operation. As long as energy sources such as
electricity, natural gas, steam, pressurized water, and compressed air are attached to the machine, a hazard
exists. Workers who maintain or repair the equipment, or who will be working in close proximity to it,
need to be made aware of these hazards and recognize that steps have been taken to protect them.

That’s why OSHA requires a formal lockout/tagout program. While it may seem that having a formal
program with multiple steps may be overkill, it actually makes good sense. After all, most companies use
a variety of equipment that has very different safety practices. In addition, any number of workers may be
asked to deal with the equipment, and some will be more familiar with it than others.
An effective lockout/tagout program should include the following eight steps.

Step 1: Detailed procedures for equipment

Begin by making sure you’ve identified the equipment correctly and accurately, including its specific
location. Next, determine the correct procedure for shutting down and restarting the equipment. Detail
that procedure, step by step, in writing. Consider all of the energy sources that may be connected to the
equipment. Be very specific, because ambiguous language could lead to an incorrect or even dangerous
action.

Step 2: Notify affected employees

When maintenance is going to be performed, all of the employees that may be affected should be notified.
Let them know the timing of the work, and how long the equipment may be unavailable. If the
uipment requires a change in work processes, be sure they are familiar with the
unavailability of the equipment
steps to be taken.

Step 3: Shut down equipment properly

Explain the shutdown process in detail. It’s not enough to say something like “disconnect the machine.”
ne’s safety and reduce the potential for damage, the shutdown instructions should be
To ensure everyone’s
detailed. Spell out the exact actions to be taken and the correct sequence for performing those actions.

Step 4: Disconnect all primary energy sources

Although this may seem self explanatory, once again, it’s important to be very detailed. Whether
em fairly self-explanatory,
the primary energy sources include electricity, steam, water, gas, compressed air, or others, don’t assume
procedure to follow. Again, explain exactly
that the person performing maintenance will know the correct procedure
what needs to be done.

Step 5: Address all secondary sources

While disconnecting the primary energy sources may remove much of the potential danger, it’s possible
trapped heat in a thermal system, fumes that may need to be
that there sources of residual energy, such as trapped
vented, or even tension in a spring assembly. Identify the process that will relieve any remaining pressure
or other energy. Also consider other hazards, such as moving equipment that must be secured before
be work
begins.

Step 6: Verify the lockout

Once you’ve disconnected all primary and secondary sources of energy, attempt to start the equipment to
verify that the lockout has been successful. Before you try to start it, verify that nobody is in a position
where they could be hurt. Assuming that the procedures have been successful, return all switches and
other equipment back to their “off” positions so the machine won’t start unexpectedly when the energy
sources are reconnected. Once you’ve verified the lockout, attach a lockout or tagout device to the
equipment to ensure that it cannot be started without removing the device.

Step 7: Keep it in force during shift changes

The equipment must remain in lockout/tagout condition across shift changes, so that workers arriving at
the site are aware that the equipment is out of service. If individual locks or tags are used, the individual
responsible for designating the lockout/tagout and the individual responsible for it during the next shift
must both be present as the locks or tags are switched.

Step 8: Bring the equipment back on line

When the work is done and all tools and other materials have been removed, the machine can be brought
back into operation. Here again, the procedure should spell out the exact steps that are involved, along
with the correct sequence. For example, you may need to open a particular machine’s discharge valves
before you open the inlet, so any unexpected water or steam remaining in the lines has a place to go.
 CHAPTER- 2 ACCIDENT/ INCIDENT/ NEAR-MISS/ DANGEROUS OCCURENCE
REPORTING, INVESTIGATIONS

ACCIDENT REPORTS:
Accident starts with near-misses, further leads to minor injury accidents and finally ends in major one.
If we report and investigate each & every incident/accident then it is possible to prevent accident.
A good management should keep a system of identifying and recording all accidents as well as damage to
property cases.
Accidents Register (separate register for reportable, non-reportable cases), health register must be kept
update. Accident reports must be filled in details attached with the detailed investigation reports, properly
classified & filled. Causes analysis reports should also be prepared to compare the year to year
performance.
REPORTABLE ACCIDENTS (REPORTING TO STATURITY AUTHORITY)
In any factory an accident occur with causes death or which causes any bodily injury by reason of which
the person injured is prevented from working for a period of 48hrs or more immediately following the
accident.

Reportable Minor Reportable Accident Of Reportable Dangerous Reportable Polsoning

Injury Accident Serious Nature Occurrence Or Disease

Minor Injury not of 1. Accident which cause 1. Bursting of Poisoning by

serious nature. death to any person. vessel hazardous chemicals-
2. Immediate loss of (Boilers).
any part of the body. 2. Explosion,
3. Crushed or serious fire. Bursting
List is given in So 1
injury to any part of out, leakage or
the body due to escape of any & 2 of “The
which loss of the molten metal, Maharashtra
same is obvious. hot liquor, or Factories (Control of
4. Unconsciousness. gas causing Industrial Major
5. Severe burns. bodily injury Accident Hazards)
or damage to Rules, 2003”.
factory.
3. Explosion of
receiver or
container used
in process, for
storage under
pressure.
4. Collapse or
Occupational
failure of a
crane, derrick, Disease- List is given
winch, hoist. in “ The Third
5. Collapse of Schedule of the
any floor,
 gallery, roof, factories Act, 1948”
bridge, tunnel,
chimney, wall,
building.
Reporting to Jt./Dy. Director of Industrial safety & Health at Regional office in….

Form – 24 Form – 24 Form – 24 A Form – 25

Within 24 hrs Within 4 hrs Within 4 hrs Within 4 hrs

ACCIDENT RECORS
Necessary to transform a hazard, costly and ineffective work into a planned safety program more
specifically.

 To create interest in accident prevention

 To provide up to date information on the accident
 To provide information on frequent unsafe practice/unsafe conditions.
 To measure the effectiveness of safety program.
FIVE BASIC DOCUMANTS
1. Personal injury record
2. Damage control records for property & equipment
3. Register of injuries (progressive & monthly)
4. Register of damage to equipment (progressive & monthly)
PERSONAL INJURY RECORD

 They tell who keeps getting hurt

 Enable grouping injuries quickly
 Provide details of accurate costing
 Provide quick reference for analysis
CONTENTS OF PERSONAL INJURY RECORD
Name: Token No:
Occupation: Age:
Dept: Date of occurrence:
Nature of injury:
Type of injury:
Description of incident:
Signature of witnesses: Signature of supervisor
 ACCIDENT REPORTING INVESTIGATION AND ANALYSIS

Name &amp; Address of the Factory: Sr. No. ____________

Tick Type of Incident: Date ______________

First Minor Major Fatal Near Fire Properly Dangerous Environmental

Aid Miss Damage Occurrence

1. Name of the injured person :

2. Contractor :
3. Plant/Section :
4. Employee Code No./Designation :
5. Age/Sex :
6. Date &amp; Time of Incident :
7. Normal Working Hours :
8. Location of Incident :

Area Equipment No. Name of Equipment

9. Type of Incident :
10. Body part injured :
11. Nature of Injury/Incident :
12. Extent of Material LOSS/Property Damage :
13. Details of Incident
a. Sequential Occurrence Description :
b. Activity of the injured at the time of Incident :
c. Observations &amp; Inference:
14. Conclusion:
Probable Causes:
a. Immediate causes: b. Basic/Root causes:
15. Preventive Measures :
Sr. No Recommendations Action By Date Status

1.
2.

16. Evaluation:

Severity Potential Probability Potential

Major Serious Minor Frequent Occasional Rare

17. Investigated By Contractor :

Fire &amp; Safety Dept : Plant concerned :

18. Discussed &amp; Reviewed OR to be discussed &amp; reviewed at Forum:
19. Copies for Action to :

Signature
Name &amp; Designation
REPORTING AND ACCIDENT
Accidents are of vital concern to anyone involved with safety. They are the end resuit of many fauits both
on the part of the employees and the part of management. It is the primary objective of safety
practitioners to reduce accident rates.
Before an accident can be analysed &its causes established, it must be reported concerned authority or to
the safety department. Reporting minor accidents is important because. If a pattern of minor accidents can
be spotted, control measures can more likely be instituted to correct the situation before a severe accident
occurs.
Because of unsafe acts / unsafe conditions near-misses accident starts, if near-miss accidents are not
reported & investigated then minor accidents are obvious to occur and if we have not paid any attention to
these accidents finally major accident is possible.
REPOTABIE ACCIDENT (REPORTING TO STATULORY AUTHORITY)
In any factory an accident occurs which causes death or which causes any bodily injury by reason of
which the person injured is prevented from working for a period of 48 hrs or more immediately following
the accident.
1. MINOR INJURY ACCIDENT – Reportable Minor injury accident to be reported to statutory
authority in Form 24 within 24 hrs.
2. Accident of serious nature – Reportable Accident of serious nature, to be reported to statutory
authority, in Form 24 within 4 hrs.
3. Dangerous occurrence – Reportable Dangerous occurrence to be reported to statulory authority,
in Form 24 A within 4hrs.
4. Poisoning or Disease – Poisoning or Disease to be reported to statutory authority in Form 25
within 4 hrs. A register in F-30 format is to be maintained to record the reportable accidents.
Separate register is to be maintained for non – reportable accident.

Accident reportable under various statues

Sr. No. Under Act Required Form No.
1 Factory act 1948 Form No. 24
2 ESIC Act 1948 Form No. 12
3 BOCW Act 1996 Form No. 18

ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION
Once an accident has been reported, it is the department supervisor’s responsibility to investigate all
accidents no matters how small. This helps make the supervisor responsible &accountable for safety
actions. There are cases, where safety officer & departmental supervisor investigate accidents. And for
major or critical accident management constitute an investigation committee.
In case of statutory reportable accidents, generally factor inspectors investigate serious and fatal accidents
and give detailed report showing the facts, breach of law, if any, and remedial measures. They may order
to prohibit the use of some plant, equipment, process or premises, if it is found of imminent danger to
them.
In the investigation, the following points to be considered :

 Do not fix blame for an accident; only isolated the causes.

 Be as objective and factual as possible; do not let personal feeling become part of the accident
report.
 Look for the primary and secondary causes of accidents, not just symptoms
Typical unsafe acts and unsafe conditions that are line primary causes of many accidents and which show
underlying patterns of organizational problems are as follows:

UNSAFE CONDITION
1. Unguarded or inadequate guarding of dangerous part of moving machinery.
2. Inadequate design and construction (noisy, poorly lighted, machine controls difficult to operate)
3. Faulty equipment etc
UNSAFE ACTS
1. Using improper operating procedures or lack of safe performances ( improper lifting, for example
)
2. Horseplay (kidding around)
3. Not wearing correct personal protection equipment
4. Disobeying instruction or not informing supervisor about current activities
5. Ignoring warning
6. Inattention on job of employee to the task.
Situational factors affecting employees can be the root causes of longterm accident patterns. These
situational factors can be divided in to the subdivisions of
(1) Physical environment factors
(2) Physical characteristics of employees
(3) Psychological characteristics of employees &
(4) Psychological environmental factors.
PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT FACTORS
The physical environment can contribute to the accident rate. Such factors as temperature, insufficient
lights, and the length of the working day have been shown to be contributing causes of accidents.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EMPLOYEES:
This category includes situational factors that are physical in nature. Age has been the most often
investigated physical aspect of the relationship of employee to job. In most of these studies it has been
shown that the accidents rates are higher among younger or more inexperienced employees, older
workers, workers with longer experience on the job & the percentage of married men in the industrial
population were factors contributing to successful low-accident plants.
PSYCHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF EMPLOYEES:
An employee who is working under optimal physical environment condition and who is aware of his or
her equipment may till likely to have an accident. Although bad physical environment and individual
physical characteristics have been shown to contribute to higher accident rates, the most important
contributing factors are psychological.
PSYCHOLOGICAL ENVIRONMENT FACTORS:
There is ample evidence that the psychological environment does play an importantpart in accidents. One
comparison between employees indicated that accident occur with the greatest frequency in those
departments with the lowest intra company transfer mobility rates & least promotion possibility. Injury
frequency was also the greatest where employees showed disfavour toward high-producing employees
and where there was a record of garnished wages. Safety consciousness by management is another
psychological environmental factor that appears to lower accident frequency.
PURPOSE OF ACCIDENT INVESTIGATION & REPORT
The main purposes are:
1. To learn accident causes so that similar accident can be prevented by improvement of working
conditions, actions and supervision. This helps in designing accident prevention strategies.
2. To make the hazard known to the management, workers and supervisors to direct their attention
to accident prevention.
3. To determine the ‘change’ or deviation that produced an ‘error’ that in turn resulted in an accident
(systems safety analysis).
4. To find out injury rates to compare safety performance.
5. To use the record for the purpose of job safety analysis.
6. To develop safety rules, procedures, bulletins, posters and material for safety meetings and
motivation.
TECHNIQUE (PROCEDURE) FOR INVESTIGATION
The basic steps are: Observation at site, interrogation, findings and recommendations.
Some objective questions to be considered and answered by the investigator are:
Who was injured, what was he doing at that time, where he was, who was with him, what he has to say
about happening, what part of the injured is involved, how was he injured, what was unsafe the condition,
the method the action of the injured, what does the medical report
The first requirement for the injured person is to provide him medical treatment. It is a mistake to make
him up by questions. It is advisable to wait till he recollects his thought and gets his nerves under control.
Initial story should be collected from spot-checking and interrogation with co-workers and eyewitnesses.
They should not be delay in initial inquiry. The conditions should be kept unaltered pending the
investigation, Photographs, sketches, notes etc. will help much.
Chronological questions should be ask and the concerned facts should be collected viz. testing report,
registers, documents, instructions, defective or damage parts etc.
The facts finding should aim to determine exact causes of the accident. All causes should be considered
classified according to severity and responsibility for preventive purpose.
As the last step, suggestions and recommendation for the prevention should be submitted in the writing
emphasis should be given put to suggest engineering controls then to suggest human responsibilities.
CLASSIFICATION (ANALYSIS) OF ACCIDENT (AS PER IS 3786-1983)
Investigation and analysis go together. The facts found from the investigation are first analysed. The
analysis should reveal one hypothesis to explain all the facts adequately.
If the accidents are classified as per IS 3786, by taking two years or three years or five years accident
statistics (data), then it is easy to find out the weak or key areas or target areas where accidents are more
and upon concentrating on those area it is possible to reduce the rate considerably in coming year.
FACTORS THOSE ARE CONSIDERED IN ACCIDENT ANALYSIS:
1. Agency
2. Unsafe mechanical or physical condition.
3. Unsafe Act.
4. Types of accidents.
5. Nature of injury and
6. Location of injury
In analysis following factors are also considered:
1. Department
2. Category
3. Age
4. Time
EXAMPLE-I
A lathe operator lost his two fingers of left hand when it was trapped in the nip of unguarded speed-
changing pulley belts when the start switch lever war accidentally turned to ‘on position’ by striking his
body to the lever.
Analyze the accident as per I.S classification.
classification Key Factors (causes)

1 Agency Speed-changing pully-belt of the lathe

2 Unsafe Act Taking unsafe position or posture

3 Unsafe condition Unguarded pully-belt and, Start switch of the wrong type.

4 Type of accident Caught between moving objects

5 Nature of injury Amputation of two fingers.

6 Location of injury Fingers

EXAMPLE-II
A helper in a chemical plant while transforming 2,4 dichlorophenol in a carboy through pumping and
light fitting rubber hose-pipe inserted in the carboy without venting was sprayed by the chemical spray
come-out due to rupture of the pipe, died within 15 minutes.
He had not worm the PVC overall and hand gloves. Analyze this accident as per I.S classification.

Classification Key Factors (causes)

1 Agency Toxic chemical

2 Unsafe Act Not wearing protective equipment
Not allowing air-vent in the carboy i.e. unsafe placing
3 Unsafe condition Rubber hose-pipe and no venting while filling i.e. hazardous
arrangement
4 Types of accident Contact by absorption of harmful substance

5 Nature of injury Death by acute poisoning

6 Location of injury Upper limb multiple locations.

Corrective Action:
Action taken to eliminate basic cause of accident to avoid reoccurrence of similar
type of accident.

Preventive Action:
Horizontal Deployment of the corrective Action at other similar places &amp;
situation to avoid recurrence of the accident occurred.

Corrective Action Process

 Locate and document the root cause of the nonconformity.
 Scan the entire system to ensure no other similar nonconformity could occur.
 Analyze the effect such nonconformity may have had on a product or service produced before the
nonconformity was discovered, and take action appropriate to the severity of the situation by either
recalling the product, notifying the customer, downgrading or scrapping product.
 Establish thorough follow-up to ensure the correction is effective and recurrence has been prevented.
Preventive Action Process
 Take proactive steps to ensure a potential nonconformity does not occur.
 Employ process and system analysis to determine how to build in safeguards and process changes to
prevent nonconformance. For example, use a failure mode and effects analysis to identify risks and
potential deficiencies and to set priorities for improvement.
 CHAPTER 3 MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION OF SAFETY PERFORMANCE

as per IS:3786 defines as under :

Accident - Accident is an unintended occurrence arising out of and in the course of employment of a
person resulting in an injury.

Incident: an instance of something happening; an event or occurrence.

Near miss Accident:

Near miss Accident: When an Incident takes place without an Injury, it is termed as Near miss
Accident.

Dangerous Occurence: A near miss that could have led to serious injury or loss of life.

Disabling injury: (Lost Time Injury):

An injury causing disablement extending beyond the day of shift on which the accident occurred.
Accidents reportable under the Factories Act &amp; ESI Act: If a person is disabled for 48
hours or more &amp; not able to attend his duties within next 24 hrs, than it is called as Reportable
Accident. ( as per F.A.1948 &amp; MFR 1963 ) &amp; such accident is to be reported to local Jt. DISH
office in Form no. 24 in 24 hours after the 48 hrs of the happening of an Accident with Injury.

Non-disabling Injury - An injury which requires medical treat- ment only, without causing any
disablement whether of temporary or permanent nature.

Reportable Disabling Injury ( Reportable Lost Time Injury ) - An injury causing death or disablement
to an extent as prescribed by the relevant statute.

Reportable Accident:
If a person is disabled for 24 hours after 48 hours of the happening of an accident, than it is called
as Reportable Accident. ( as per F.A.1948 &amp; MFR 1963 )

Non-Reportable Accident:
If a person is disabled after an accident &amp; resumes his duty within 48 hours of happening of an
accident, than it is called as a non-reportable accident.

Days of Disablement ( Lost Time ) - In the case of disablement of a temporary nature, the number of
days on which the injured person was partially disabled. In the case of death or disable- ment of a
permanent nature whether it be partial or total disablement
man-days lost means the charges in days of earning capacity lost due to such permanent disability or
death as specified in Appendix B. In other cases the day on which the injury occured or the day the
injured person returned to work are not to be included as man-days lost; but all intervening calendar days
( including Sundays or, days off, or days of plant shut down ) are to be included. It after resump!ion of
work, the person injured is again disabled for any period arising out of the injury which caused his earlier
disablement, the period of such subsequent disablement is also to be included in the man-days lost.

Temporary Disablement and permanent Disablement Partial and Total Disablement Time
Charges :
Partial Disablement:
This is of two types;
(i) disablement of a temporary nature which reduces the earning
capacity of an employed person in any employment in which he was engaged at the time of the
accident resulting in the disablement and
(ii) disablement of a permanent nature which reduces his
earning capacity in every employment which he was capable of undertaking at the time.

Total Disablement:
Disablement, whether of a temporary or permanent nature, which incapacitates a workman
for all work which he was capable of performing at the time of the accident resulting in such
disablement, provided that permanent total disablement shall be deemed to result from every type
of injury specified in Part A of Appendix A or from any combination of injuries specified in Part B
of Appendix A where the aggregate percentage of the loss of earning capacity, as specified in that
part against those injuries, amounts to one hundred percent.
found worsening.

Temporary Disability vs. Permanent Disability

 Temporary Disability (TD): If your injury prevents you from doing your usual and customary
job while recovering, you may be eligible for temporary disability benefits, if: Your treating
physician issues a report stating that you are unable to perform your usual and customary job for
more than 3-days; or you are hospitalized; or your employer does not offer you alternate or
modified work that pays your usual wages. If you are entitled to temporary disability, you will
receive a check.

 Permanent Disability (PD): These are benefits paid if your injury or illness results in
permanent impairment which impacts your ability to compete in the job market. After your last
medical appointment, your primary treating physician will issue a final report, known as a
permanent &amp; stationary report (more commonly known as a P&amp;S report). Contained within this
report will be any permanent impairment that your physician indicates based upon his or her
final examination. Next a permanent disability rating will be calculated based upon your age
and occupation at the time of your injury or illness, which is added to your whole person
impairment rating. The injured worker receives TD at the PD rate.

Man-Hours Worked - The total number of employee-hours work- ed by all employees working in the
industrial premises. It includes man- agerial, supervisory, professional, technical, clerical and other
workers including contractors’ labour.

Scheduled Charge - Charges in days of earning czpacity lost due to permanent disability or death
Restricted Work Case: (RWC)
Restricted Work Case is when a person is so injured that they cannot perform their
normal duties. Therefore they are transferred, temporarily to some other jobs (light duties)

First Aid Case: First aid refers to medical attention that is usually administered immediately after
the injury occurs and at the location where it occurred. It often consists of a one-time, short-term
treatment and requires little technology or training to administer. First aid can include cleaning minor
cuts, scrapes, or scratches; treating a minor burn; applying bandages and dressings; the use of non-
prescription medicine; draining blisters; removing debris from the eyes; massage; and drinking fluids to
relieve heat stress.

Fatal Accident:
If a person dies as a consequence of an accident, than it is termed as a fatal accident.

Non-fatal Accident:
If a person does not dies but disabled as a consequence of an accident, it is called as Non-fatal accident.

Lost time accident: : An Accident other than near miss accidents are lost time accidents in
which an injured person is not able to work for the time as prescribed by the medical officer.

SAFETY PERFORMANCE INDICATIORS:

Frequency Rate:
It can be defined as no. of loss time accidents occurred per million man-hours
worked.

Frequency Rate = No. of Loss Time Accidents x 1000000

Average man-hours worked

NOTE 1 - If the injury does not cause loss of time in the period in which it occurs but in a subsequent
period, the injury should be included in the frequency rate of the period in which the loss of time begins.
NOTE 2 - If an injury causes intermittent loss of time, it should only be included in the frequency rate
once, that is, when the first loss of time occurs.
NOTE 3 - Since frequency rate & is based on the lost time injuriestreportable to the statutory authorities,
it may be used for official purposes only. In all other cases, frequency rate FA should be used for
comparison purposes.

Severity Rate:
It is no. of days lost due to loss time accidents per million man-hours worked.

Severity Rate = No. of days lost due to Loss Time accidents x 1000000
Average man-hours worked

Man-days lost due to temporary total disability; Man-days lost according to schedule of charges for death
and permanent disabilities as given in Appendix A. In case of multiple injury, the sum of schedule
charges shall not be taken to exceed 6 000 man-days; Days lost due to injury in previous periods, that is,
if any accident which occurred in previous period is still causing loss of time in the period under review,
such loss of time is also to be included in the period under review;

d) In the case of intermittent loss of time, each period should be incjuded in the severity rate for the
period in which the time is lost; and
e) If any injury is treated as a lost time injury in one statistical period and subsequently turns out to be a
permanent disability; the man-days charged to the injury shall be subtracted from the schedule charge for
the injury when permanent disability becomes ‘known.

Incidence Rate:
General incidence rate is the ratio of the number of injuries to the number of employees during the
period under review. It is expressed as the no. of accidents or injuries, per 1000 persons employed.

IL = No. of lost –time accidents or injuries x 1000

Average No. of persons employed

I R = No. of reportable lost time accidents or injuries x 1000

Average No. of persons employed

Frequency Severity Index or Indicator:

FSI = Sq. root of Frequency rate x Severity rate

1000

This is the square root of Disabling Injury Index. It gives combined effect of frequency and
severity rate. This index can be used to compare-plant to plant. This can be used to indicate degree
of improvement.

Safe T-Score:
It is given by
SafeT-Score =
Frequency rate now – Frequency rate past

If STS is : It indicates Between +2 &amp; -2 Change is not significant. There may be

random fluctuation only. More than +2 Records is worsening than it was in the past. Something
wrong has happened. Less than – 2 Record is improving than it was in the past. Something better
has happened. Thus Safe-T-Score is useful to compare our safety record with the past and to
control it if it is Temporary &amp; Permanent Disablement.

Cost factor:
An element or condition related to a unit of product or to an activity or to a service
for which money must be spent (as raw material, direct labour, and burden)
Methods of Collating and Tabulating Data :
For analysing a small number of reports the tabulation by hand sorting and tallyingis
efficient. Its advantage is that the original records are being used and all the information is available for
reference.For analysing and filing a large number of reports, keysort cards may be
used.This card contains the information of the original report. The code numbers assigned to the
various factors may be punched in the cards so that they can be sorted by a special needle. Sorting
is a hand operation. A third method of tabulation uses card tabulating machine. Here the code
numbers only are punched into the cards which can be quickly and accurately arranged into
various groups. This methods is very useful when the number of reports is very large, when many
classification and cross or sub classifications are required or when tabulation of numerical data
such as days lost etc. are necessary. Modern method of computer processing can also be utilised
for such tabulation.See part 13 of Chapter5 for management information system (MIS).
Follow-up for Corrective Action : Merely obtaining, recording and tabulating of safety data is of
no use. It must be followed by necessary corrective action to provide safe working condition, to
teach safe working actions, to improve existing training system,, to make new safety rules
necessary to improve inspection techniques and analysis to design -posters, safety manual and
positive actions to minimise accidents. Follow up action must be and should consider every
compliance. Reasons of prompt and immediate recommendation for not following the
recommendation or delays
necessary to make changes should be explained. The accident causation should be applied to all
identical cases in other departments also to prevent similar recurrences.
 Record Keeping :
Record of accidents reported to the plant management and to the Government authorities, facts
collected as a result of investigation, analysis of the facts, conclusion about remedial measures
necessary and status of implementation of those measures must be kept in a well documented
form. Computer is more useful in this regard. In DCS system, printouts of accident situations at the
time of accident should be kept out and preserved. Safety department should design formats of
safety records applicable to the factory, train personnel to fill such records and maintain them.
Records keeping may be ordinary or computerized and in much details. Good record is always
useful for
1. Studying past accident causes and remedial measures concluded.
2. Monitoring status of implementation of safety measures.
3. Taking decisions regarding future action in the matters of safety.
Period of maintaining record should be decided depending on the utility of the subject matter.

Fatal Accident Frequency Rate:

Fatal Accident Rate (FAR) is an indicator of

accidents used to classify the dangerousness that is a measure of individual risk
expressed as the estimated number of fatalities per 100 million hours (approximately
1000 employee working lifetimes) of this same activity.

A Fatal Accident Frequency Rate (FAFR) is a

number of fatalities per 100 million man-hours worked.
Leading & Lagging Indicator:

Lagging indicators are typically “output” oriented, easy to measure but hard to improve or influence while
leading indicators are typically input oriented, hard to measure and easy to influence.

Leading and lagging indicators are two types of measurements used when assessing performance in a
business or organisation. A leading indicator is a predictive measurement, for example; the percentage of
people wearing
ing hard hats on a building site is a leading safety indicator. A lagging indicator is an output
measurement, for example; the number of accidents on a building site is a lagging safety indicator. The
difference between the two is a leading indicator can iinfluence
nfluence change and a lagging indicator can only
record what has happened.
 Classification of industrial accidents and special cases according to IS-3786

Machines,
Prime-movers, except electrical motors
 Steam engines
 Internal combustion engines, Others
Transmission Machinery
 Transmission shafts
 Transmission belts,
 cable pulleys,
 pinions,
 chains,
 gears, Others
Metal Working Machines
 Power presses
 Lathes
 Milling machines
 Abrasive wheels
 Mechanical shears
 Forging machines
 Rolling mills, Others
Wood and Associated Machines .
 Circular saws
 Other saws
 Molding machines
 Overhand planes ,Others

Agricultural Machines
 Reapers ( including combined reapers )
 Threshers, Others
Mining Machinery
 Drilling and boring machine including augurs
 Cutting machine
 Loading machine including scrapers
 Cutter-loaders including other continuous miners, Others
 Other Machines
 Earth-moving machines
 Spinning, weaving and other textile machines
 Machines for the manufacture of foodstuffs and beverages
 Machine for the manufacture of paper and leather
 Printing machines
Means of Transportation and Mooing Equipment
Lifting Machines and Appliances
 Cranes
 Lifts and elevators
 Winches
 Pulley blocks

Means of Rail Transportation

 Inter-urban railways
 Rail transportation in mines, tunnels, qrlarries, industrial establishments, docks, etc, Others

Other Wheeled Means of Transportation, Excluding Raii

 Tractors
 Lorries
 Trucks
 Motor
 Animal-drawn vehicles
 Hand-drawn vehicles

Means of ,4ir Transportation

Means of Water 7ransportation
 Motorized means of water transportation
 Non-motorized means of water transportation

Means of Transport
 Cable cars
 Mechanical except cable-cars
 Conveyors
Other Equipment
 Pressure Vessels
 Boilers
 Pressurised containers
 Pressurised piping and accessories
 Gas cylinders
 Vacuum vessels
 Furnaces, Ovens,. Kilns
 Blast furnaces
 Refining furnaces
 Other furnaces
 Kilns
 Ovens
 Refrigerating Plants

Electrical Installations, Including Electric Motors but Excluding Elect+ Hand Tools
 Rotating machines
 Conductors
 Control apparatus

Others Electric Hand Tools

 Tools, Iu#ements and Appliances Except Electric Hand Tools
 Power-driven hand tools, except electric hand tools
Hand tools, not power-driven
Ladders, Mobile Ramps
Scaffolding
Other Equipment not Elsewhere CLass$ed Mate&is, Substances and Radiations
Explosives
Dusts, Gases, Liquids and Chemicals, Excluding Explosives
Dusts
Gases, vapours, fumes
Liquids
Chemicals not elsewhere classified 2329
Flying Objects Other Than Due to Explosion
 Radiations
 Ionising radiations

Other Materials and Substances not Elsewhere Classijicd Working

Environment
 Outdoor
 Weather
 Traffic and working surfaces
 Water
 Fire
 Others
 Confined quarters
 Stairs
 Other traffic and working surfaces
 Floor openings and wall openings
 Environmental factors ( Lighting, ventilation, temperature, noise,
etc )
 Water
 Fire
 Others

Other Agencies - Mining and Tunneling

Underground Mining and Tunneling
 Roof
 Side and face
 Floor
 Mine shaft
 Water
 Fire
 Others

Opencast Mining ( Including Quarrying)

 Overhang
 Side face
 Ground
 Water
 Fire
 Others
Other Agencies, not Elsewhere Classified
 Animals
 Live animals
 Animal products
 Other Agencies Not Elsewhere Classified
Assessment of Special Cases
General - Before inclusion in the record special cases should be assessed.
Clauses 5.2.2 to 5.2.15 are intended to assist in such assessment but these provisions/rules should not be
used to exclude a genuine work injury from the record.
5.2.2 Inguinal Hernia - An inguinal hernia shall be considered a work injury only if it is precipitated by an
impact, hidden effort, or severe strain, and meets, after investigation, all of the following conditions: a>
There is clear evidence of an accidental event or an incident, such as a slip, trip or fall, sudden effort or
over-exertion;
b) There was actual pain in the hernia region at the time of the accident or incident; and
c) The immediate pain was so acute that the injured employees was forced to stop work long enough to
draw the attention of his foreman or fellow employee, or the attention of a physician was secured within
12 hours.
5.2.3 Back Injury - A back injury or strain shall after investigation, be considered a work injury if:
a) There is clear evidence of an accident event or an incident such as a slip, triF or fall, sudden effort or
over-exertion, or blow on the back; and
b) A medical -practitioner, authorized to treat the case, is satisfied after a complete review of the
circumstances of the accident or incident that the injury could have arisen out of the accident or incident.
5.2.4 Aggravation of Pre-existing Condition - If aggravation of pre- existing physical deficiency arises out
of or in the course of employment, the resulting disability shall be considered a work injury and shall be
classified according to the ultimate extent of the injury except that if the injury is an inguinal hernia or a
back injury the requirement of
5.2.2 or 5.2.3 shall apply.
5.2.5 Aggravation of Minor Injury - If a minor injury is aggravated because of diagnosis or treatment,
either professional or non-professional, or if infection or other symptoms develop later, either on the job
or off-the-job the injury shall be classified according to its ultimate extent. 7
5.2.6 Cardiovascular Diseases - This term is used to cover the following groups:
a) Rheumatic heart disease,
b) Hypertensive disease,
c) Ischemic disease,
d) Heart disease secondary to pulmonary disease,
e) Cerebrovascular disease,
f) Diseases of arteries, arterioles and capillaries, and
g) Disease of veins and lymph vessels.

5.2.6.1 Cardiovascular diseases shall not be recorded as work injuries unless:

a) the symptoms were so severe during working hours that the atten- tion ‘of a supervisor was drawn to
them; and
b) a medical practitioner, authorized to treat the case, satisfied after a thorough investigation, that the
disease or aggravation of the disease was work caused.
5.2.7 Miscellaneous - The category includes the following:
a) Purposely inflicted injuries - An injury purposely inflicted by the employee or another person shall be
considered a work injury if it arises out of or in the course of employment;
b) Skylarking - An injury inflicted by or arising out of skylarking during employment shall be considered
a work injury.

5.2.8 Other Disabilities - The following are examples of injuries which shall be considered work injuries
if they arise out of or in the course of employment:
a) Animal and insect bites;
b) Skin irritations and infections;
c) Muscular disability;
d) Injuries arising from exposure to extreme temperature (hot or cold); and
e) Loss of hearing, sight, taste, feel or sense of smell.

Methods of Collating and Tabulating Data :

For analysing a small number of reports the tabulation by hand sorting and tallying is efficient.
Its advantage is that the original records are being used and all the information is available for
reference.
For analysing and filing a large number of reports, keysort cards may be used. This card contains
the information of the original report. The code numbers assigned to the various factors may be
punched in the cards so that they can be sorted by a special needle. Sorting is a hand operation.
A third method of tabulation uses card tabulating machine. Here the code numbers only are
punched into the cards which can be quickly and accurately arranged into various groups. This methods
is very useful when the number of reports is very large, when many classification and cross or sub
classifications are required or when tabulation of numerical data such as days lost etc. are necessary.
Modern method of computer processing can also be utilised for such tabulation. See part 13 of
Chapter5 for management information system (MIS).

Record Keeping :

Record of accidents reported to the plant management and to the Government

authorities, facts collected as a result of investigation, analysis of the facts, conclusion about remedial
measures necessary and status of implementation of those measures must be kept in a well
documented form. Computer is more useful in this regard. In DCS system, printouts of accident
situations at the time of accident should be kept out and preserved.
 Safety department should design formats of safety records applicable to the factory, train
personnel to fill such records and maintain them.

Records keeping may be ordinary or computerised and in much details. Good record is
always useful for
1. Studying past accident causes and remedial measures concluded.
2. Monitoring status of implementation of safety measures.
3. Taking decisions regarding future action in the matters of safety. Period of maintaining record should
be decided depending on the utility of the subject matter.
 CHAPTER 4 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION, RISK ASSESSMENT AND CONTROL

The identification, analysis and assessment of hazards are different than the identification,
analysis and assessment of risks, though both are interrelated. Factors of tune, frequency or ill
effects (consequence) are added in 'risk' distinguishing it from 'hazard'. Some definitions relevant
to risks are as under :

1. Exposure to Risk : A situation created whenever an act or omission gives rise to possible gain
or loss that cannot be predicted.

2. Cost of Risk : The cost imposed upon organisation because of the presence of risk. Its
component parts are

(1) the cost of losses that do occur and

(2) the cost of uncertainty itself.

3. Risk Management : A general management function that seeks to identify, assess, address,
control and review the causes and effects of uncertainty and risk on an organisation. It includes
assessment, control, financing and administration of risk as defined herein below.

4. Risk Analysis : Technical process of identifying, understanding and evaluating risk (analysing
cause and effect wise).

5. Risk Assessment : It is a judgement of significance or activities that enable the risk manager to
identify, evaluate and measure risk and uncertainty and their potential impact on the
organisation. This judgement can be taken when the measured value of hazard or risk is
compared with the value or standard legally or otherwise prescribed. This calls for an expertise
of an industrial hygienist.

6. Risk and Uncertainty Assessment : All activities associated with identifying, analysing,
measuring, comparing and concluding risk and uncertainty. Fundamentals of Industrial Safety
and Health 19 49 Hazards & Risk Identification, Assessment and Control Techniques

7. Risk Control : All activities associated with avoiding, preventing, reducing or otherwise
controlling risks and uncertainties.

8. Risk Financing : Activities providing means of reimbursing losses (i.e. finance for the cost of
risks and losses) that occur and that fund other programmes to reduce risks and uncertainties.

9. Risk Administration : Activities and strategies associated with the long-term and day-to-day
operation of the risk management function.
10. Risk Selection : The control technique best described as the conscious acceptance of risk in
accordance with an organisation's overall goals, objectives and risk taking philosophy.

11. Risk Avoidance : A risk control technique whereby a risk is proactively avoided or
abandoned after rational consideration.

12. Loss Prevention : Those strategies and activities intended to reduce or eliminate the chance
of loss.

13. Loss Reduction : Activities minimising the impact of losses that do occur.

14. The Risk Chain : Five elements or links connected with accident i.e. hazard, environment,
interaction, outcome and consequence.

15. Subrogation : Risk transfer by legal document as a loss reduction tool.

16. Risk Transfer : If risks cannot be controlled, the last resort is to transfer the risk by contract
of job, or property or insurance to pay for losses.

17. Risk Retention : A risk financing method in which the organisation experiencing a loss
retains the risk by self financing or borrowed funds, or by a group to which the organisation
belongs. Retention may be passive or active, unconscious or conscious, unplanned or planned.

18. Information Management (as a risk reduction tool) : The use of information for the express
purpose of reducing uncertainty or for enhancing stakeholder awareness or knowledge of
organisational risks.

Hazard detection techniques : Unsafe acts and unsafe conditions must be observed to find out
hazards. Statutory accidents reports (e.g. Form 21 & 29 GFR) should be seen to detect past
accident causes. Unsafe acts due to psychological and physiological personal factors should be
detected. Hazards of unsafe conditions are mechanical, electrical, chemical (including radiation)
and environmental. Some hazards are visible and some invisible. Visible hazards can be detected
by various techniques such as

(1) Plant inspection based on statutory requirement, checklist, safety survey, safety audit and
safety sampling

(2) Detection and monitoring systems

(3) Functional test of machinery and equipment

(4) Accident investigation

(5) Repair shop

(6) Store consumption and

(7) Shop feedback etc.

Examples of visible hazards are unguarded machinery, bad housekeeping, wrong practices etc.
To discover such hazards careful planning and inspecting system is necessary. Some steps are :

(1) Make a list of all statutory applicable provisions of the Factories Act and other Acts, make a
survey of the plant to compare the existing provisions and find out the missing provisions
(hazards) for implementation

(2) Make a list of materials, processes, operations, vessels, equipment, machinery and classify
them as hazardous and non-hazardous. Chemicals should be classified according to their
hazardous properties.

(3) Prepare layout of plant, machinery, equipment, premises and utility services like power,
water, air, gas Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 50 Hazards & Risk
Identification, Assessment and Control Techniques and heating / cooling media. From these
prepare a list of possible hazards.

(4) By means different techniques mentioned in Part I and 2. Further details of the hazards
should be detected and

(5) By means of a detailed inspection report preventive measures should be suggested. Invisible
hazards like gas leaks, concentration of toxic and hazardous vapour, malfunction or failure of
machinery, equipment, pressure plants and miscellaneous environmental factors may cause
sudden accident and heavy damage. They must be detected and controlled by built in self
corrective systems.

The devices used are detectors, recorders, alarms, trips, probes, sensors, limit
switches, meters, analysers, electronic or auto controls, scrubbers, incinerators etc. In modern
machines various automatic movements take place near and around point of operation. Feeding
devices, clamping action and work head movements should be interlocked with each other. Each
position of these elements must be sensed and linked with command controls.

Any malfunction of moving elements is indicated on audio-visual panel and

the machine stops. Repair shop data reveals clues to unsafe conditions like poor design, defective
material, poor construction, wear and tear etc. Repetitive repairs indicate major hazards.
Similarly store consumption data also indicates some defects.
 There should be a regular feedback of information from repair shop, stores,
operators and foremen to monitor hazards and to take corrective actions. Heating equipment
should have temperature controllers and additional thermostats for better protection and to give
audio-visual signals and to cut off power supply or heat source. In furnaces using flammable fuel
in scaled chamber, the components are charged through hydraulically operated carriages and
such carriages, fuel flow and flame curtain are sensed by various gadgets like photo-sells,
probes, limit switches etc. Failures are sensed and indicated o panel. Suitable corrective actions
are automatically taken viz. purging nitrogen etc. Toxic exposures are neutralised by scrubbers.
Flammable exposures are controlled by flameproof fittings, flare and vents. Effluents are treated
in 'treatment plants to nullify their harmful effects

HIRA is a process that consists of a number of sequential steps such as hazard identification, consequence
& frequency assessment, risk estimation based on the existing controls and recommendations to reduce
those risks which are not under acceptable limits.
Objective of HIRA study is to:

 Carryout a systematic, critical appraisal of all potential hazards involving personnel, plant,
services and operation methods
 Identify the existing safeguards available to control the risks due to the hazards
 Suggest additional control measures to reduce the risk to acceptable level
 Prepare a Risk Register that will help in continuously monitoring these risks, detect any changes
and ensure the controls are effective.

Scope of the Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment Study:

The areas of focus would be

  Study of the plant operations
 Identification of the individual tasks involved in carrying out the above operations
 Identification of potential health and safety hazards in these tasks
 Determination of the level of risk by combining the likelihood of a hazard occurring with its
severity using the Risk matrix
 Analyzing the existing control measures available to control these risks
 Provide recommendations for additional risk control measures to bring the risk to acceptable level
 Compilation of the Risk register

1. Hazard Identification (Identify sources and causes of hazards).

2. Hazard Analysis (Analyse how hazards will occur and affect).
3. Risk Analysis (Estimate risk i.e. hazard occurring per unit time).
4. Risk Assessment (Compare the risk with acceptable criteria - legal, social or political - and decide
whether the risk is lesser or higher than that criteria), and
5. Risk Management (Form organisation to carry out above exercises and to monitor, control, review
and keep the risks within permissible limits).
A stage of 'Hazard 'Assessment' is also possible after hazard
analysis. When hazard is compared with its standard prescribed e.g. noise level, light, air flow or
chemical exposure (TLV, STEL, LD/LC etc.) is compared with their statutory values or Indian Standards
and inference is drawn about their difference (measured value- prescribed value), it is called hazard
assessment.
Hierarchy of Control:

hierarchy is just a fancy name for a list. Usually a list of things that have
something in common and usually in some sort of order – big to small, good to bad, useful to
useless – you get the idea, right? So a hierarchy of controls is just a list of types of controls from
really good to less useful. Oh, did I hear you ask what the blazes is a control? Even if I didn’t I’ll
explain it anyway.

Control: A control is some type of action that reduces the chance that a risk will happen. So,
using a seat-belt when you’re driving a car reduces the chance that your head will smack into the
windscreen if you’re unfortunate enough to have a ding. So a seatbelt’s a type of control but it’s
not as effective as an air bag in protecting your head because you don’t have to do anything for
the airbag to do its job but you actually have to remember to put your seat belt on and if you
forget then it doesn’t work. So some types of controls are better than others and the hierarchy of
controls just lists the better types of risk controls at the top and the not so good ones at the
bottom.

Types of Controls in the Hierarchy

Elimination

If you stop and think about it you can probably figure out yourself what the best type of control
is – avoiding the risk by eliminating it. If there’s no risk there’s no damage and that’s why it’s at
the top of the hierarchy of controls.
So the best way of avoiding smacking your head against your windscreen is not to have an
accident while driving your car and the best way of avoiding an accident is to not drive the car.
Problem solved, right? Wrong.

It’s not really practical in our society to not drive a car or at least be a passenger in one. So
elimination, while the best type of risk control, is not always the most practical. So what other
options are there?

Substitution

If you can’t stop getting around in a car what other options do you have if you don’t want your
head getting up close and personal with your windscreen? You could substitute riding in the
front seat to riding in the rear seat but then you couldn’t drive. That’s the balancing act involved
when we’re talking about controlling risk … sometimes the alternative, while safer, is not always
something we want. The other thing to think about is that substitution doesn’t get rid of the risk;
it just reduces it and it sometimes introduces different risks. So rather than smacking against the
windscreen you now smack into the back of the front seats. Is that better or worse? Probably a bit
better but still not really something you want to go through.

Sometimes, though, substitution is a great idea. In the construction industry, for example, they
substituted dry cement deliveries to either real small (5 kg) packages or really big ones (250 kg)
to reduce manual handling injuries (the small ones are less likely to cause injury while people
won’t try to lift the big ones without help). Often really dangerous chemicals can be replaced
with safer ones that do the same job just as effectively.

So substitution reduces the risk to people without them having to do anything which it’s the
second choice in the hierarchy of controls.

Isolation

OK, back to the car. Elimination isn’t a real option and being a back seat driver doesn’t sound
too appealing either. What if we put a barrier between your head and the windscreen? That
would be great if you could see through it. But what if the barrier was only there if you were in
an accident – I hope this ringing some bells because it sounds a lot like an air bag.

If you’re in an accident while driving your car the air bag pops out and cushions your noggin
preventing it from smacking into the steering wheel or the windscreen. Sounds great doesn’t it?
But for every silver lining there’s gonna be a cloud and in this case it’s the airbag. These things
fully inflate in less than 60 milliseconds (there’s a thousand milliseconds in a second) at a speed
of about 250 kph so any part of your body that’s in its way is going to get hurt. And the powder,
have you ever seen the inside of a car after the airbags have gone off … it’s like a talcum powder
factory.

So again, isolation isn’t a perfect solution and you have to consider if new and different risks are
introduced into the process due to the method of isolation.

In the real world of work, such things as guards around rotating shafts, splash screens where
liquids are churned up, cages around auto-operating equipment such as robotic assemblers and
acoustic enclosures around noisy plant and equipment are examples of isolation.

When in place and working properly, isolation works great. But if the machine guard isn’t put on
properly, if the door on the acoustic enclosure is closed properly they don’t work as intended. So
some human intervention is necessary which is why it comes behind substitution in the hierarchy
of controls.

Engineering

Isolation used to be thought of as a type of engineering control but times change and so do the
definitions. If we return to the car, the engineering controls would be things like the airbag not
going off unless the impact speed is more than a pre-set limit. The change from windscreen’s
being made of safety glass to laminated glass prevents you getting sprayed with high speed glass
particles in a collision or when a stone hits your windscreen. The head restraint on the back of
the seat reduces the chance of whiplash injury by restricting head’s movement. Crush zones built
into the car absorb much of the impact which would otherwise be transferred directly into the
bodies of people in the car.

Engineering controls are those that you can’t necessarily see but which work to reduce the
chance of an injury happening when an unwanted event happens. Limit switches that prevent
mechanical plant from moving beyond pre-set limits or key capture systems that switch off
power to equipment when a key is removed from a lock are examples of engineering controls
that are found in workplaces.

Engineering controls are subject to failure if not looked after properly. The limit switch might
stick or corrode, the laminated windscreen may prevent bits of glass flying around at high-speed
but if you hit one with your head you’ll bounce rather than go through it. Don’t know what’s
worse really. So these types of controls aren’t as good as those that preceded them in the
hierarchy of controls but they’re better than those that follow.

Administrative

Now we’re getting into the really dodgy options in the hierarchy of controls. These are things
like defensive driver training (or any form of training) or telling people to drive more carefully.
Those ads you see on the TV telling you not to speed or not to drive when drunk or high on
drugs or tired. That annoying beeper that goes off when you go a little too fast or signs on the
side of the road telling you how fast you’re supposed to drive or even those cops hiding behind
billboards with their speed cameras. These are all attempts to persuade you to behave differently
and so avoid an accident and by avoiding an accident you prevent your head coming into contact
with the windscreen.

But how often do hear or see these things and ignore them? How often do you think, “I’m not
that tired” or “I’m not that drunk … I’m OK to drive”? How often do people curse the cops when
they’re caught speeding? Exactly! While these things have a benefit, would you rather rely on
these to protect your head or on the air bag? Me, I’ll go with the airbag because even if I’m
doing everything right there’s no guarantee that some other fool (and there’s always another
person to blame and they’re always a fool) is doing the same.

If you’ve been at work for any length of time you’ll have seen examples of these types of
controls. Warning signs telling you the surface is hot or cold or that the tank has dangerous
chemicals. Safety posters on the walls, safety training courses, policies and procedures and so the
lists go on. Sure they’re useful but certainly nowhere near as good as the other options from the
hierarchy of controls that we’ve talked about.

Personal Protective Equipment

Now for the last and probably the most unreliable option in the hierarchy of controls – personal
protective equipment (PPE ).

Continuing with our car, PPE is the seat belt. You have to consciously use it, wrap it around you,
click the end into the buckle, make sure it’s located properly and re-tension the belt. Then it’ll
work and, if you do have an accident, at least your head and the windscreen aren’t going to get
acquainted. But, if you forget or just decide not to use it then it does nothing and you are going to
get an up close view of that gunk you’ve been meaning to clean off your windscreen – just
before you bounce off it. If you have an airbag – as that’s inflating in one direction you’ll be
flying into it from the other at a great rate of knots. Probably not as bad as hitting the windscreen
but certainly not something you’d want to repeat too often.

At work, you’ve probably got safety glasses, safety helmet, safety boots, gloves, ear muffs or
plugs, overalls and so on. All are PPE and all are only effective if used and used properly as well
as being maintained properly. Safety glasses pushed to the top of your head or ear muffs strung
around your neck aren’t going to do the job they’re supposed to.

Hazard analysis or Hazan

Hazan is a hazard analysis and is a term used in safety engineering for the logical,
systematic examination of an item, process, condition, facility, or system to identify and
analyze the source, causes, and consequences of potential or real unexpected events
which can occur. A hazard analysis considers system state (e.g. operating environment)
as well as failures or malfunctions. Hazan is the identification of undesired events that
lead to the materialization of a hazard, the analysis of the mechanisms by which these
undesired events could occur, and, usually, the estimation of the consequences. Every
hazard analysis consists of the following three steps.

 Estimating how often the incident will occur.

 Estimating the consequences for the employees, the process, the plant, the public and the

environments.

 Comparing the results of first two steps with a target or criterion to decide whether or not

action to reduce the probability of occurrence or to minimize the consequences is desirable,

or whether the hazard can be ignored, at least for the time being.

Hazan is therefore the essential prerequisite for the complete risk assessment process
which includes (i) analysis of the hazards, (ii) assessment of the risks which the hazards
present, and (iii) determination of ameliorating measures, if any, required to be taken.
Hazan is the first step in the process used for the assessment of the risk. The result of a
hazard analysis is the identification of different type of hazards. A hazard is a potential
condition which either exists or not exists (probability is 1 or 0). It may in single
existence or in combination with other hazards (sometimes called events) and
conditions become an actual functional failure or accident (mishap). The way this
exactly happens in one particular sequence is called a scenario. This scenario has a
probability (between 1 and 0) of occurrence. Often a system has many potential failure
scenarios. It also is assigned a classification, based on the worst case severity of the
end condition. Risk is the combination of probability and severity. Preliminary risk levels
can be provided in the hazard analysis. The main goal of hazan is to provide the best
selection of means of controlling or eliminating the risk.

Tab 1 provides safety related severity definitions generally used in hazards analysis

Tab 1 Safety related severity definitions

Severity Definition

Catastrophic Results in multiple fatalities and/or loss of the system

Reduces the capability of the system or the operator ability to cope with adverse
conditions to the extent that there would be:

Hazardous
(i) Large reduction in safety margin or functional capability

(ii) Operators physical distress/excessive workload such that operators cannot be

 relied upon to perform required tasks accurately or completely

(iii) Serious or fatal injury to the work men

(iv) Fatal injury to personnel and/or general public

Reduces the capability of the system or the operators to cope with adverse operating
conditions to the extent that there would be:

(i) Significant reduction in safety margin or functional capability

(ii) Significant increase in operator workload

Major

(iii) Conditions impairing operator efficiency or creating significant discomfort

(iv) Physical distress to workmen including injuries

(v) Major occupational illness and/or major environmental damage, and/or major
property damage

Does not significantly reduce system safety. Actions required by operators are well
within their capabilities. Include:
Minor

(i) Slight reduction in safety margin or functional capabilities

 (ii) Slight increase in workload

(iii) Some physical discomfort to the operators

(iv) Minor occupational illness and/or minor environmental damage, and/or minor
property damage

No safety
Has no effect on safety
effect

Tab 2 gives typical likelihood of occurrence of an event for the hazard analysis

Tab 2 Likelihood of the occurrence of an event

Likelihood Definition

Qualitative – Anticipated to occur one or more times during the entire

system/operational life of an equipment

Probable

Quantitative – Probability of occurrence per operational hour is greater

than 0.00001
 Qualitative – Unlikely to occur to each item during its total life. May occur
several times in the life of an entire system or group of equipment.

Remote

Quantitative – Probability of occurrence per operational hour is less than 0.00001,

but greater than 0.0000001

Qualitative – Not anticipated to occur to each item during its total life. May occur
a few times in the life of an entire system or group of equipment.
Extremely
Remote
Quantitative: Probability of occurrence per operational hour is less
than 0.0000001, but greater than 0.000000001

Qualitative – So unlikely that it is not anticipated to occur during the entire

operational life of an entire system or group of equipment
Extremely
Improbable
Quantitative – Probability of occurrence per operational hour is less than
0.000000001

Some of the terms used in the hazan and their definition are given below.

 Hazard rate – The rate (occasions/year) at which hazards occur.

 Protective system – A device installed to prevent the hazard occurring.

 Test interval – The time interval between the testing of a protective system, and its

replacement if necessary.

 Demand rate – The rate (occasions/year) at which a protective system is called to act.

 Failure rate – The rate (occasions/year) at which a protective system develops faults (fail-

danger/fail-safe).
Maximum Credible Accident Assessment (MCAA) :

MCA means maximum credible accident i.e. an accident with a maximum reasonable damage distance
possibility.
MCAA means maximum credible accident analysis or assessment.

Here probability of accident occurrence is not calculated but the probability of maximum damaging effect
(potential and distance) is calculated to assess injury to people or/and properties in the surrounding area.

(1) Type of material stored/processed (toxicity, flammability etc.)

(2) Quantity of the material (it affects distance)
(3) Process or storage conditions (temperature, pressure, flow etc.)
(4) Location of the unit or activity with respect to adjacent population. Based on above factors,
units/activities are selected, accident scenarios established and effect (domino or cascade) and damage
calculations are carried out.

Following steps are employed in MCAA :

1. Chemical Inventory Analysis.
2. Identification of hazardous processes in individual units.
3. Identification of chemical release and accident scenarios.
4. Data acquisition for MCAA.
5. Effect and damage calculations for the primary events'
6. Analysis of past accidents of similar nature.
7. Short listing of maximum credible accident scenarios. These steps are explained below in brief. The
chemical inventory is to be identified by MSIHC Rules or Rule 68 J of the Gujarat Factories Rules (see
Part 10.8 of Chapter-28), short listed and prioritised on the basis of hazard potential.

The chemicals are generally classified as non-boiling and boiling liquids, gases/vapours and solids.
Hazardous processes- are also identified by above statutory provisions. Runaway reactions need due
consideration during preliminary MCAA.

Quantitative Risk Assessment:

Here hazard potential is quantified, possible risk is also determined if failure rate data available and then
it is compared with the 'permissible standard'. This will indicate whether calculated risk is lower or
higher than the permissible limit. Based on this, new control measures or modification in existing
control measures can be decided.

Values of following "Hazard potentials' can be quantified

1. Properties of the material.
2. Storage parameters.
3. Process parameters. Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 19 53 Hazards & Risk Identification,
Assessment and Control Techniques
4. Manual exposures.
5. Visible or measured hazards.
6. Transportation hazards.
7. Pollution hazards.

These values give 'severity' part of the risk.

Similarly values of "Control Measures provided" can be quantified depending on the poor controls to the
best controls. Proper classification of good, better and best control measures, is necessary. These values
give 'probability' part of the risk.

Then by using the formula.

Risk = Severity x Probability,

The existing risk level can be calculated and identified as low, high, higher or highest risk.
This method is useful to carry out 'material wise' risk assessment.
This method and other methods using ranking matrix are used to carry out 'activity wise' risk
assessment also.

HAZARD IDENTIFICATION TECHNIQUE:

INCIDENT RECALL TECHNIQUE (After the event approach):

This method is based on collecting information on hazards, near-misses, unsafe conditions and unsafe
actions from working people. It can be used to investigate man-machine relationship and to improve
equipment and operations. The technique consists of interviewing personnel regarding involvement in
accident or near-misses, errors, mistakes, difficulties and conditions which may cause accident. It
accomplishes the same result as an accident investigation. Even isolated incidents reported by the
technique can be investigated to determine whether corrective action is necessary or advantageous.

Plant people should be given accident case studies for reading and thinking. Then their memory should be
recalled to know their understanding and further suggestions if any.

CRITICAL INCIDENT REVIEW TECHNIQUE (Before the event approach):

The Critical Incident Technique by W.E Tarrants, is a method of identifying or reviewing potential
accident causes by collecting information on unsafe conditions and actions, near-misses, hazards etc. from
experienced plant personnel. It can be used to study man-machine operation relationship and to use the
information to improve equipment, operations and procedures.

An experienced reviewer or surveyor first explains to key personnel what he wants to know. Then he asks
each worker individually questions on safety matters. Workers involvement in accidents, near misses,
mistakes, errors, difficulties in performance and probable causes of accidents are thoroughly discussed.
Their comments including preventive measures are also asked.

It has been estimated that for every mishap there are at least 400 near-misses. Information on possible
accident causes can be obtained from participants of accidents and non-participants but having
knowledge.

When interviews report similar difficulties hazards or near misses with similar types of operation or
equipment’s, it indicates an area to be investigated and results of investigation can suggest the remedial
measures necessary.

Inductive Approaches and Some Examples

In an inductive approach to research, a researcher begins by collecting data that is relevant to his or

her topic of interest. Once a substantial amount of data have been collected, the researcher will then

take a breather from data collection, stepping back to get a bird’s eye view of her data. At this stage,

the researcher looks for patterns in the data, working to develop a theory that could explain those

patterns. Thus when researchers take an inductive approach, they start with a set of observations and

then they move from those particular experiences to a more general set of propositions about those

experiences. In other words, they move from data to theory, or from the specific to the

general. Figure 2.5 "Inductive Research" outlines the steps involved with an inductive approach to

research.

Deductive Approaches and Some Examples

Researchers taking a deductive approach take the steps described earlier for inductive research and

reverse their order. They start with a social theory that they find compelling and then test its

implications with data. That is, they move from a more general level to a more specific one. A
deductive approach to research is the one that people typically associate with scientific investigation.

The researcher studies what others have done, reads existing theories of whatever phenomenon he or

she is studying, and then tests hypotheses that emerge from those theories. Figure 2.6 "Deductive

What IF:
What will happen if toxic gases leak into a liquid pipeline? What if tank feed is increased or decreased?
What if an earthquake occurs? Such questions can be critical in reducing or eliminating risks to people
working in a laboratory environment.

A What-if Analysis consists of structured brainstorming to determine what can go wrong in a given
scenario; then judge the likelihood and consequences that things will go wrong.

What-if Analysis can be applied at virtually any point in the laboratory evaluation process.

Based on the answers to what-if questions, informed judgments can be made concerning the acceptability
of those risks. A course of action can be outlined for risks deemed unacceptable.

How to Conduct a What-if Analysis

1. Team Kickoff

The team leader walks the team through each step of the What-if Analysis. The leader may use a detailed
equipment diagram along with any prepared operating guidelines. (Include guidelines for determining
acceptable level of safety.)

2. Generate What-if Questions

 The team generates What-if questions relating to each step of the experimental procedure and each
component to determine likely sources of errors and failures.

Things to consider when developing questions:

 Potential human error

 Equipment component failures
 Deviations from the planned/expected critical parameters (e.g., temperature, pressure, time, flow
rate)

3. Evaluate and Assess Risk

The team considers the list of What-if questions, one-by-one, to determine likely sources of errors. They
then decide the probability of each error occurring and assess the consequences.

4. Develop Recommendations

Risk deemed unacceptable:

If the team concludes there’s a need for corrective action, a recommendation is recorded.

Risk deemed acceptable:

When probability is very low, consequences are not severe, and the action to correct the condition would
involve significant cost and time, the team may note a “no recommendation” response.

5. Prioritize and Summarize Analysis

The team’s analysis is summarized and prioritized.

6. Assign Follow-up Action

Responsibilities are assigned for follow-up action(s). Consider adding a column to your What-if Analysis
form to indicate the person or group responsible for each corrective action.

Benefits

 Easy to use
 No specialized tools needed
  People with little hazard analysis experience can participate meaningfully
 Leads to deeper insight, especially for person/people conducting the analysis

Limitations

 Only useful if you ask the right questions

 Relies on intuition of team members
 More subjective than other methods
 Greater potential for reviewer bias
 More difficult to translate results into convincing arguments for change

What-if Questions

Following is a list of sample What-if questions to get your group thinking in the right directions. These
questions can be modified according to experiment or process.

Human Factor

Human errors occur regardless of training and experience. Human error factors may drive consideration
of written SOPs, a decision for engineering controls, etc.

 What if material used is too concentrated (or diluted)?

 What if the valve/stopcock does not open (or close)?
 What if the valve(s) are opened (or closed) in the wrong sequence?
 What if inert gas is omitted?
 What if unintended materials are mixed together?
 What if readings are missed or ignored?
 What if warnings are missed or ignored?
 What if there are errors in diagnosis?

Utility

The following questions concern utilities, which are key to the support of any experiment or process:

 What if power is lost?

Consider: Automatic shutoffs and emergency power
 What if power is restored automatically after loss?
Consider: Manual restarts
 What if laboratory ventilation is lost?
Consider: Automatic shutoffs, emergency power, and redundant mechanical exhaust fans

Experimental or Ancillary Equipment

Consideration of failure of materials or components may result in decisions for additional controls or
changes to higher rated or alternative types of materials and components.

 What if there’s unexpected over-pressurization?

Consider: Pressure relief devices and barriers; personal protective equipment (PPE)
 What if glassware breaks during reaction?
Consider: Spill control; PPE
 What if there’s a failure of equipment cooling?
Consider: Alarms, automatic shutoffs, and emergency shut-off procedures

Personal Protection

This should be included since, despite best efforts with hazard reviews and training, incidents will occur.

 What if a body is impacted by liquids or solids?

Consider: Physical barriers
 What if someone is exposed to vapors or gases?
Consider: PPE; ventilation
 What if someone is exposed to respirable particles?
Consider: Use of wet contamination control methods, ventilation controls, and respiratory
protection
FISHBONE ANALYSIS:

• Also known as Cause and Effect Diagram or Ishikawa Diagram

• Visually displays multiple causes for a problem
• Helps identify stakeholder ideas about the causes of problems
• Allows the user to immediately categorize ideas into themes for analysis or further data gathering
• Uses the “five-whys” technique in conjunction with the fishbone diagram

The Fishbone Diagram, formally named the Ishikawa diagram, is a tool for managers to get to the
root cause of an issue in production. This diagram is used in Root Cause Analysis and is a visual
representation of the 5 Why’s strategy. Starting at the top of the diagram pictured on the left, the tail
of the fish represents the main problem or issue that is trying to be solved. Each bone of the fish
going down represents a “Why” in the analysis method, ending up at the head of the fish,
symbolizing the true root of the problem.

The Five Whys method is used to truly get to the bottom of an issue by using a process where, like
the name implies, you ask why five times in order to get to the root cause of a problem. Here is an
example of Five Whys being used in the real world:
1. Why won’t the car start?

 The battery is dead.

2. Why is the battery dead?

 Because the alternator is not working properly.

3. Why isn’t the alternator working?

 Because the serpentine belt has broken.

4. Why is the serpentine belt broken?

 Because the belt was not replaced when worn.

5. Why wasn’t it replaced?

 Because the owner did not follow the recommended service schedule

As shown from the example, the true root of the problem is identified after the question why is asked
five times. The car didn’t start just because the battery is dead, but the car wouldn’t start because
maintenance was not kept up by the owner. By fixing that problem and not just charging the battery,
the owner of the car can avoid this problem, and many others, in the future.

Important note: Ask “Why” until the root cause is discovered, even if it is more than five times!
Root Cause Analysis:
A successful root cause analysis identifies all root causes
—there are often more than one. Consider the following example:
1. A worker slips on a puddle of oil on the plant floor and falls.
2. A traditional investigation may find the cause to be “oil spilled on the floor” with the remedy
limited to cleaning up the spill and instructing the worker to be more careful.5
3. A root cause analysis would reveal that the oil on the floor was merely a symptom of a more
basic, or fundamental problem in the workplace.
4. An employer conducting a root cause analysis to determine whether there are systemic reasons
for an incident should ask: –
 Why was the oil on the floor in the first place? –
 Were there changes in conditions, processes, or the environment? –
 What is the source of the oil? –
 What tasks were underway when the oil was spilled? –
 Why did the oil remain on the floor? –
 Why was it not cleaned up? –
 How long had it been there? –
 Was the spill reported?

It is important to consider all possible “what,” “why,” and “how” questions to discover the root
cause(s) of an incident.

In this case, a root cause analysis may have revealed that the root cause of the spill was a failure to
have an effective mechanical integrity program
—that includes inspection and repair
— that would prevent or detect oil leaks. In contrast, an analysis that focused only on the immediate
cause (failure to clean up the spill) would not have prevented future incidents because there was no
system to prevent, identify, and correct leaks.
Root Cause Analysis Tools

Below is a list of tools that may be used by employers to conduct a root

cause analysis.
The tools are not meant to be used exclusively. Ideally, a combination of
tools will be used.
• Brainstorming
• Checklists
• Logic/Event Trees
• Timelines
• Sequence Diagrams
• Causal Factor Determination For simpler incidents, brainstorming and checklists may be sufficient to
identify root causes.
For more complicated incidents, logic/event trees should also be
considered. Timelines, sequence diagrams, and causal factor identification are often used to support the
logic/event tree tool.
Regardless of the combination of tools chosen, employers should use these tools to answer four
important questions:
• What happened;
• How did it happen;
• Why it happened; and
• What needs to be corrected.

Interviews and review of documents, such as maintenance logs, can be used to help answer these
questions. Involving employees in the root cause investigative process, and sharing the results of those
investigations, will also go a long way toward preventing future similar incidents.

Benefits of Root Cause Analysis for Employers

Conducting a thorough investigation that identifies root causes will help to prevent similar events
from happening again. In this way, employers will reduce the risk of death and/or injury to workers or
the community or environmental damage.

By using root cause analysis to prevent similar events, employers can avoid unnecessary costs
resulting from business interruption, emergency response and clean-up, increased regulation, audits,
inspections, and OSHA or EPA fines. Regulatory fines can become costly, but litigation costs can often
substantially exceed OSHA and EPA fines. Employers may find that they are spending money to
correct immediate causes of incidents that could have been prevented, or reduced in severity or
frequency, by identifying and correcting the underlying system management failure.

Finally, when an employer focuses on prevention by using root cause analysis, public trust can be
earned. Employers with an incident free record may be more likely to attract and retain high
performing staff. A robust process safety program, which includes root cause analysis, can also result
in more effective control of hazards, improved process reliability, increased revenues, decreased
production costs, lower maintenance costs, and lower insurance premiums.

FAULT TREE ANALYSIS

It is a deductive technique that focuses on one particular accident event and provides a method for
determining basic causes of that event. This method is used to identify combinations of failures
and human errors that can result in accident or an initiating event. FTA allows the safety analyst to
focus on preventive measures on these basic causes to reduce the probability of an accident.
SYMBOLS USED IN FAULT TREE CONSTRUCTION
Top Event (Accident/Incident)
Sub-Event (a fault) caused by a combination of contributing events
‘AND’ gate – the output exist only if all the inputs are present simultaneously.
‘OR’ gate – the output exist if any (or any combination) of the inputs are present.
Basic cause (root cause) by a component failure or human error for which a probability can be
assigned.
A fault that is not developed further due to lack of information or due to less importance.
Transfer Events – These symbols are used to transfer an entire part of the tree to other locations on
the tree.
House Event – This symbol represents a normal event (not a fault condition)
There are four steps in performing the fault tree analysis:

 Problem definitions
 Fault tree construction
 Fault tree solution (determining minimal cut sets)
 Minimal cut set ranking
PROBLEM DEFINITION :- This consists of
a) Defining accident event-top event of the fault tree analysis
b) Defining analysis boundary including an allowed event, system physical boundry, level of
resolution, other assumptions.
c) Fault tree construction – It begins with top event and proceed level by level using symbols
viz. “Or” “And” etc. until all the fault events have been developed to their basic
contribution cause.
FAULT TREE SOLUTION :- The completed fault tree provides us information by displaying the
interaction of the equipment failures that could result in an accident.
The matrix system of analysis gives the minimal cut sets, which are useful for ranking the ways in
which accident may occur, and they allow quantification of the fault tree if appropriate failure data
are available.
To evaluate adequacy of hazard control
To aim to design a foolproof system
Types – System, sub-system, components

EVENT TREE ANALYSIS (ETA)

Event Tree Analysis is a forward thinking process beings with an initiating event develops the
following sequences of events that potential accidents accounting for :
1. Successes and
2. Failure of the available safety function as the accident progresses.
The safety function includes operator response or system response to the initiating event.
The general procedure for the event tree analysis has four major steps:
IDENTIFYING AN INITIATING EVENT
This depends on the process involved and describes the system equipment failure, human error, or
any other process upset that can result in other events.
IDENTIFYING SAFETY FUNCTIONS
Safety functions include automatic shutdown system, alarm system, operator’s action, containment
method etc. The success and failure of the safety functions are accounted in the event tree.
CONSTRUCTION OF EVENT TREE
The event tree describes the chronological development of the accidents beginning with the
‘initiating event’. Considering each safety functions one nodal point is generated with the two
alternatives (A1 & A2) that is success and failure of the safety system. At every safety system two
alternatives that is success and failure is to be considered.
 RESULTS OF ACCIDENT EVENT SEQUENCE
The sequence of constructed event tree represents a variety of outcomes that can follow the
initiating event. One or more of the sequences may represent the safe recovery and return to
normal operation while the others may lead to shutdown of the plant or an accident.

CCA (Cause-Consequence Analysis)

Cause-Consequence Analysis identifies potential accident consequences and the basic causes of these
accidents.

Any hazard or risk assessment is incomplete if the consequences of a possible accident are not known.
Therefore the last step in hazard assessment is to analyse the consequences that a potential major
(credible) accident may-cause on the plant itself, on die workers, on the surrounding and on the
environment. Therefore an accident consequence analysis should contain

1. Cause of the accident (fire, explosion, rupture of a vessel, pipe, valve etc.).
2. Estimate of the mass released (flammable, explosive, toxic quantity).
3. Calculation of the dispersion of the material released and the damage distance, (liquid, vapour or
gas).
4. Estimate of the effects (heat radiation, blast wave, toxic, degree of burn, severity etc.).

Management Oversight Review Technique:

MORT Technique is developed by Bill Johnson in 1970’s in US Department of
Energy (at the time of Atomic Energy Commission) for logical Analysis of Accident with the
involvement of Management.
MORT is Tree-based Methodology.
MORT Analysi s includes Data collection based on Checklist &amp; their associated Questions, in
addition to evaluation Results. The information can be collected from Interviews, Studies of Documents
&amp; Investigations. MORT chart contains approximately 1500 items arranged into a large/complex
fault tree Primarily used for accident investigation

Purpose of MORT

To provide a systematic tool to aid in planning, organizing, and conducting detailed accident
investigation &amp; Near misses to identify those specific that are LTA and need to be corrected to
prevention the accident from recurring.
Can also be used for inspection, audit &amp; Planning of Safety Measures.

Abbreviations used
LTA - “less than adequate”
DN - “did not”
FT - “failed to”
HAP - “hazard analysis process”
JSA - “job safety analysis”
CS&amp;R - “codes standards and regulations”
Symbols used in MORT are similar to that of Fault Tree Analysis Symbols
Event s Symbols
Event Symbols
Logic Gates

Transfers

Definition
Accepted or Assumed Risk - Very specific risk that has been identified, analyzed, quantified to the
maximum practical degree, and accepted by the appropriate level of management after proper thought and
evaluation. Losses from Assumed Risks are normally those associated with earthquakes, tornados,
hurricanes, and other acts of nature.
Amelioration - Post-accident actions such as medical services, fire fighting, rescue efforts, and
public relations.

Advantage
It aids the accident investigator by identifying root causes of the accident.
Provides a systematic method of evaluating the specific control and management factors that
caused or contributed to the accident.
Serve as planning and organizational tool for the collection of evidence and other relevant
information.

Disadvantage
Extremely time consuming and tedious when learning about and first using the MORT chart.
This approach would be classified as overkill for most accidents.
Input Requirements : required regarding
 Hardware
 Facilities
 Environment
 Policies &amp; Procedures
 Personnel
 Implementation plans
 Risk assessment programs
 Project documents, etc...

General Approach

MORT analysis effort begins immediately after the accident occurs. Performed by a trained investigator.
MORT chart is used as a working tool to aid in the gathering and storage of information.
General method for working through the chart is from known to unknown.
The top of the chart is typically addressed very early in the investigation.
 FAILURE MODE EFFECT ANALYSIS (FMEA)
The method is a tabulation of system/ plant equipment, their failure modes and each failure mode’s effect
on system/plant. It is a description of how equipment fails (open, closed, on, off, leaks etc.) and the
potential effects of each failure mode (fails to open or fails to close when required, transfers to a closed
position, valve body rupture, leak of seal, leak of casing). The technique is oriented towards equipment
rather than process parameters. FMEA identifies single failure modes that either directly result in or
contributes significantly to an important accident.
FMEA Example :-
Pressure switch & Pressure transmitter are installed on storage tank. In case if pressure of storage tank
increases, then pressure switch & pressure transmitter get activated and closes the pump to stop feed to
storage tank.
Failure Mode Effect Analysis of “Pressure Switch” is done to understand the method.
The failure modes those considered are :
Bellow cracking
Below rupture
Switch fails open
Switch fails closed
Spring breaks
Pivot loose
And with their failure effects “Risk Assessment” is with the help of given chart/map.
SEVERITY CATEGORIES
CATEGORY DEGREE DESCRIPTION

I MINOR Functional failure

No potential for injury

II CRITICAL Failure without major damage

No serious injury

III MAJOR Major damage

Serious injury

IV CATASTROPHIC Complete system loss

Potential for Fatal injury

PROBABILITY LEVELS
 LEVEL PROB. VALUE DESCRIPTION INDIVIDUAL FAILURE MODE

A 10-1 Frequent Once in 10 Likely to occur frequently

B 10-2 Probable Once in Will occur several times in life of an
100 item

C 10-3 Occasional Once in Likely to occur sometime in life of an

1000 item

D 10-4 Remote Once in Unlikely but possible to occur in life

10,000
E 10-5 Improbable Once in So unlikely that occurrence may not
1,00000 be experienced.

FAILURE MODE AND EFFECT ANALYSIS WORSHEET

COMPONENT FAILURE FAILURE RISK ASSESSMENT

MODE EFFECTS
(FROM CHART/MAP)

SEV PROB RPC

1 Pressure Bellow Small release II C 2

switch
cracking

Bellow Large release IV D 1

Rupture

Switch No pump trip IV C 1

Fails open

Switch fails Pump stops I C 3

closed

Spring breaks Pump stops I D 3

Pivot loose Pump stops at II C 2
higher
pressure

RPC-1 HIGH RISK

RPC-2 MEDIUM RISK
RPC-3 LOW RISK
 JOB SAFETY ANALYSIS WORK SHEET
CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITIES
In construction sites, numerous activities would be undertaken in various stages of construction.
In this analysis, a few typical construction activities are analysed for indentifying the hazards, the
consequences and the possible control measures.

Activity Associated Effect of Hazard Preventive

Hazard Measures/Recommendations
1 Working at Person can May sustain severe  Provide guard
heights fall down injuries or prove fatal rails/barricades at the
work place.
 Use PPE like safety
belt, full body harness
with two life lines,
helmets, safety shoes
etc.
 Obtain work permit
before starting the
work at height above
2 meters.
 Fall arrest systems
like safety nets, must
be installed.
 Provide proper
working space (min.
0.6m X 0.6m).
 Tie/weld working
platform with fixed
support.
 Avoid movement on
beams
 Remove the scrap if
stacked at the ground
or in between.
Material can May hit the workers Same as above plus
fall down working at lower
levels and provide  Barricade the area at
ground level
fatal.
 Do not through or
drop material or
equipment from
height
 All tools to be carried
in a tool-kit bag.
 Ensure wearing of
helmet by the workers
at low level.
2 Working in suffocation Unconsciousness/death  Use respiratory
confined devices
spaces  Avoid overcrowding
inside a confined
space
 Provide ventilation
 Do not use loose
clothes.
 Keep the stand-by
person out side the
confined space
(lank/vessel) with life
lines.
 Check for presence of
hydrocarbons, toxic
gases, oxygen level.
 Obtain work permit
before entering a
confines space.
 All incoming lines to
space blanked or
isolated.
Presence of Installation can pose Same as above
foul smell and threat to life
toxic  Check for presence of
toxic gases
substances
 Depute one person
outside the confined
space for continuous
monitoring.
Ignition/flame Person may sustain  Keep fire extinguisher
can cause fire burn injuries or handy
explosion may occur  Remove surplus
material
 Do not allow gas
cylinders inside
 Use low voltage
(24V) explosion proof
lamps
 Use pneumatic tools
or electric tools with
max voltage of 24V
(explosion proof)
 Remove all equipment
at the end of the day.
3 Electrical Short Electron or fire  Use hand gloves &
installations circuiting other PPE.
& usage  Don’t lay wires under
carpels, mats or door
ways.
  Employee licensed
electricians to carry
out electrical
installation
 Use one socket for
one appliances
 Ensure usage of only
fully insulated
undamaged wires or
cables.
 Don’t place bare wire
ends in a socket
 Ensure earthing of
equipment
 Avoid temporary
connections
 Protect electrical
cables/equipment
from water and naked
flame
 Check all connections
before energizing
4 Hand/ Unguarded It may injure the  Use proper guard
Power tools moving part operator. Wheel may  Ensure tightening
like grinding get detached & hit mechanism of the tool
wheel, drill passer-by as flying
bit missile causing serious
injury
5 Handling & Failure of Can cause accident  Check periodically
lifting load lifting and prove fatal oil, brakes, gears, and
equipment and moving pressure of all moving
equipment machinery
 Check quantity, size
and condition of all
chain pulley blocks,
slings, U-clamps, D-
shackles, wire ropes
etc.
 Allow lifting slings as
short as possible.
Overloading Can cause accident Safe lifting capacity of
of lifting and prove fatal derricks & winches should be
equipment ascertained.
The maximum safe working
load shall be marked on all
lifting equipment.
Allow only trained operators
 and riggers during crane
operation.

Product safety aims at ensuring safety in consumer product which may otherwise cause a
substantial risk of injury or death to the consumer due to its hazardous charateristics or other defects in
the product which by reason of its consumption, handling or use may load to ant physical harm or
property damage should be adequately controlled or prevented. The user or consumer should be protected
against impure, unsafe or unhygienic foods, drinks, drugs, cosmetics, toys, equipment and other products.

 To make product safe, consumer product act provides guidelines to the manufacturers.
 To develop safety standards and promote for research study
 To evaluate consumer product safety
 To recall, replace, repair, a hazardous product
Standard for products varying according to the nature of but in general, should ensure the following basic
requirements:

 Sharp comers, rough surface should be eliminated

 Product should not liberate toxic, flammable mixtures with air or poisonous gas
 Moving &dangerous parts of machinery ( fans, belts, couplings, gears etc ) should be guarded
 Equipment which get damage due to rough handling, should be marked with “ Handle with Care”
Considering the safely requirements of the products and the possibility of risk of injury with the
hazardous products, The manufacturer should adopt the following technique to ensure that their products
are reasonably safe and chance of getting defective products is minimized.

 Use safety design criteria for a product to guard against all possible danger in the use, operation,
transport &consumption
 Build safety into product during manufacturing stage
 Inspect the finished products to ensure for its all safety measures
 Instruct users for safe use of products
 Issue/ write adequate warning against possible danger in using product
It is a legal responsibility of every manufacturer, seller, agent or supplier of supplier of each product to
make it safe to use, otherwise if any harm is caused to consumer by the product, Their legal damages are
payable to consumer as per statutory requirement.
 MAJOR ACCIDENT HAZARDS (MAH) FACTORY
MAJOR ACCIDENT
As per “THE MAHARASHTRA FACTORIES (CONTROL OF INDUSTRIAL MAJOR ACCIDENT
HAZARDS) RULES. 2003”, major accident means, an incident involving loss of life inside or outside the
factory, ten or more injuries inside and/or one or more injuries outside or release of toxic chemicals or
explosion or fire or spillage of hazardous chemicals resulting in on-site or off-site emergencies or damage
to equipment leading to stoppage of process or adverse effects to the environment.
MAJOR ACCIDENT HAZARDS (MAH) FACTORY
MAH factory means an industrial activity ordinary handling hazardous chemical equal to or in excess of
the threshold quantities specified in Column 3 of the Schedule 2 of “The Maharashtra Factories (Control
of Industrial Major Accident Hazards) Rules, 2003.
FOR EXAMPLE – If factory storing 50 ton of toxic chemical such as Ammonia then the factory comes
under MAH unit.
STATUTORY PROVISIONS
When a factory declared as MAH unit then following provisions give in “The Maharashtra Factories
(Control of Industrial Major Accident Hazards) Rules, 2003” are to be complied with:
Notification of major Accidents – Occupier shall notify major accident to statutory authority within 4hrs
in form (Sc3)
Notification of Site – Occupier has o submit a written report to statutory authority as per the content given
in Sc 4. Occupier shall prepare an “On-site Emergency Preparedness Plan” as per details given in Sc 6.
Mock-drills are to be conducted every six month and record is to be maintained. Safety Report is to be
submitted and also once in two-year safety is to be carried out.
CONTROL MEASURES
I. TOXIC CHEMICALS
1. Tanks are to be provided with dyke wall having proper slope and drain valve connected and drain
valve connected to a pit (out side the dyke wall).
2. Anticorrosive paints to pipelines & tanks
3. Proper support to pipelines
4. Earthing to tanks
5. Level, pressure, temperature indication/alarm
6. Fire protection system (water hydrant & extinguisher)
7. Suitable personal protective equipments (respiratory & non-respiratory)
8. Vents are to be connected to scrubber system
9. Spill control procedure
10. Display of Doe’s & Dint’s
11. Suitable container to collect material if leaks.
12. Statutory inspection & testing of pipelines & tanks
13. Proper ventilation, illumination
14. Proper approach/access
15. Work place monitoring
16. Emergency action plan
17. Training/education

II. FLAMMABLE CHEMICALS

1. Flameproof electrical fitting as per area classification
2. Level, pressure, temperature indication/alarm
3. Proper earthing to tanks
4. Bond wires (Al or Copper) to the flanges of pipelines
5. Proper support to pipelines
6. Proper fencing and tanks are to be provided with dyke wall having proper slope and drain valve
connected to a pit (outside the dyke wall).
7. Anticorrosive paints to pipelines & tanks.
8. Fire protection system (water hydrant, sprinklers to tanks & extinguishers)
9. Suitable personal protective equipments (respiratory & non-respiratory)
10. PV valves
11. Vents are to be provided with flame arrestor
12. Spill control procedure
13. Display of Doe’s & Dint’s
14. Suitable container to collect material if leaks.
15. Statutory inspection & testing of pipelines & tanks.
16. Proper ventilation, illumination
17. Proper approach/access
18. Work place monitoring
19. Detectors
20. Emergency action plan.
21. Training/education.

III. PRESSURE VESSELS

1. Safety valve, stop valve, excess flow valve, remotely operated isolation valve (as per SMPV
rules) to vessel.
2. Detectors
3. Flameproof electrical fittings as per area classification
4. Level, pressure, temperature indication/alarm
5. Proper earthing to tanks
6. Bond wires (Al or Copper) to the flanges of pipelines
7. Proper support to pipelines
8. Proper fencing and tanks are to be provided with dyke wall having proper slope and drain valve
connected to a pit (outside the dyke wall).
9. Anticorrosive paints to pipelines & tanks.
10. Fire protection system (water hydrant, sprinklers to tanks & extinguishers)
11. Suitable personal protective equipments (respiratory & non-respiratory)
12. Spill control procedure
13. Display of Doe’s & Dint’s
14. Suitable container to collect material if leaks.
15. Statutory inspection & testing of pipelines & tanks.
16. Proper ventilation, illumination
 17. Proper approach/access
18. Work place monitoring
19. Detectors
20. Emergency action plan.
21. Training/education.

DAMAGE DUE TO SHOCK-WAYS (EXPLOSION)

PRESSURE IN BAR DAMAGE TYPE

0.3 Heavy

0.1 Repairable
0.03 Damage of Glass

0.01 Crack of Windows

TOXIC EFFECT
EXPLOSURE TOXIC EFFECT IN AFFECTED ZONE

IDLH ACUTE EFFECT – FATAL

STEL CAN REMAIN IN AFFECTED ZONE FOR 15

MINUTES

TLV CAN REMAIN IN AFFECTED ZONE FOR 8

HOURS

THE CONCENTRATIONS CONSIDERED FOR CHLORINE GAS DIPURTION ARE :

 IDLH 25ppm
 STEL 3ppm
 LC50(rat) 293
THE CONCENTRATIONS CONSIDERED FOR AMMONIA GAS DISPURTION ARE :
 TLV 27mg/m3
 LOC 54mg/m3
 IDLH 360mg/m3
ILO code of practice for major accident control:
The practical recommendations of this code of practice are intended for the use of all those who have
responsibility for the prevention of major industrial accidents. The code is not intended to replace national
laws, regulations or accepted standards. It has been drawn up with the object of providing guidance to
those who may be engaged in the framing of provisions relating to the control of major hazards in
industry: competent authorities; works managements; emergency services; and government inspectors.
The code should also offer guidelines to employers' and workers' organisations.
International Labour Organization (ILO):
 Establishment of a Major Accident Role of DGFASLI &amp; DISH through ILO: (DGFASLI).
Important achievements of the project are –
 Setting up a three-tier Major Accident Hazards Control Advisory Division in Central Labour
Institute (CLI), Mumbai and its cells in Calcutta, Chennai and Kanpur.
 Identification of (MAH) Installations in different States and Union Territories &amp; bringing
them under a programme of intensive inspection.
 Establishing Computerized Data Bank at CLI for storage, retrieval and dissemination of
information on hazardous chemicals, MAH installations, specialists on MAH Database on
OSH etc. The Data Bank has two software’s WHAZAN and TNO for calculation of physical
effects and con sequence of release of toxic and flammable chemicals.
 Expansion of the Factory Inspection Services and enhancing their capabilities through set
ting up of laboratories and training of inspectors.
 Training of the inspection and advisory staff and key personnel from industry to develop
their competence on HAZOP study, Risk Assessment, Safety Audit, etc.
 Extended the system of MAHC to the port sector. The project had succeeded in enhancing.

ON-SITE EMERGENCY PLAN

INTRODUCTION:
Modern industry, characterized by complex process and technology is open to an ever increasing danger
form disasters, which can seriously affect the safety, security and stability of the organisation. Some of
these disasters are natural such as earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, cyclones, lightening, while others are
man-made. The man-made disasters included dangerous spills &amp; leak of chemicals, fires &amp;
explosions, hit by external objects, contamination &amp; poisoning of food, terrorist attacks, etc. All of
these have occurred several times in industries, when unprepared for such disasters creating panic,
disorder and confusion. The result has been extensive damage to men and material. Major
accidents/disasters in a factory is one which has the potential to cause serious injury or loss of life. It may
cause extensive damage to property, loss of life and serious disruption both within and outside the works.
A number of chemicals produced and used in the chemical industry are one of hazardous nature. This
hazard arises as a result of three properties, viz.: toxicity, flammability and corrosivity. Sudden and
uncontrolled leak of contaminant will give rise to a disastrous condition, magnitude of which will depend
on the type of chemicals as well as its inventory.
An emergency plan is an informative document, which acquaints the occupants of a factory or an
occupancy with procedures to be implemented, during an emergency. It details standard operational
guidelines to emergency controllers and their personnel, who may be required to fulfil a key functional
role, during the various stages of an emergency. In other words, it contains critical information, which can
assist emergency services personnel to formulate appropriate incident management strategies and tactics,
when attending on an emergency at a plant. Since it is a critical document in implementing appropriate
management strategies, it is important that the plan is comprehensive and easy to read and use.
Each works shall formulate an emergency/disaster management plan, detailing explicitly what action will
be taken in the event of a major accident occurring on site, to prevent further escalation and to ensure
rapid control. The emergency planning within the factory premises is known as On-Site Emergency Plan.
This is to be dovetailed with Off-Site Emergency Plan.
This article will deal with the details of On-Site Emergency Plan.
LEGAL PROVISIONS:
The On-Site Emergency Plan is a mandatory document under various statutes of India. By
virtue of the provision under Section 41-B (4) of the Factories Act, 1948 and its amendments
of 1987, the occupier is expected to draw up the On-Site Emergency Plan along with detailed
control measures for his factory. The occupier should also make the plan known to the
workers and general public in the vicinity of the factory, with safety measures required to be
taken by them in case of an emergency. The various state Factories Rules made under the
Factories Act, 1948, also prescribe the procedures to be followed in emergency planning, for
example, Rule 73 (M), (N), (O), (P), (Q) and (R) of the Maharashtra Factories Rules, 1963,
prescribe in details regarding the procedures to be followed in emergency planning,
informing workers and the people in the neighborhood, district administration and Chief
Inspector of Factories. Incidentally, under Rule 13 and 14 of the Manufacture, Storage and
Import of Hazardous Chemicals (MSIHC) Rules, 1989, framed under the Environment (Protection) Act,
1986, it is the responsibility of District Collector or District Emergency Authority to prepare an Off-Site
Emergency Plan.
MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES:
An On-Site Emergency Plan must be related to final assessment of the size and nature of events foreseen.
It means that it should be specific. The effectiveness of response during emergencies depends on the
amount of planning and training. If management is not interested in employee protection and minimizing
property loss, very little can be done to promote a safe workplace. It is therefore, management’s
responsibility to see that a programme is instituted and that it is frequently reviewed and updated. The
input and support of all employees must be obtained to ensure an effective on-site emergency programme.
The emergency response plan should be developed locally and should be comprehensive enough to deal
with all type of emergencies.
SALIENT FEATURES OF EMERGENCY PLAN:
An On-Site Emergency Plan must include the following features:
 Emergency escape procedures and emergency escape route assignments.
 Procedures to be followed by employees, who remain to perform critical plant operations
before they evacuate.
 Procedures to account for all employees after emergency evacuations has been
completed.
 Assigning Rescue and Medical duties for these employees who have to perform them.
 The procedures for reporting fire and other emergencies.
 Name and regular job titles of persons or departments to be contacted for further
information or explanation of duties under the plan.
The emergency action plan should address all potential emergencies, which can be expected
in the workplace. It must list in detail the procedures to be taken by those employees who
must remain behind to care for essential plant operations until their evacuation becomes
absolutely necessary. This may include monitoring plant power supplies, water supplies and
other essential services that cannot be shut down for every emergency alarm.
For emergency evacuation, the use of floor plans or workplace maps, which clearly show the
emergency escape routes and safe areas, should be included in the plan. All employees must
be told, what actions they are to take in the emergency situation that may occur in the
workplace. Above all, this plan should be reviewed with employees initially when the plan is
developed, whenever the employees responsibilities under the plan change and whenever the
plan is changed.
COMPONENTS OF ON-SITE EMERGENCY PLAN:
While preparing an On-Site Emergency Plan, the following components should be considered:
 Chain of Command
 Communications
 Counting of Personnel
 Emergency Control Centre
 Training

 Personnel Protection
 Medical Assistance
 Security
 Mutual Aid

Chain of Command:
A chain of command should be established to minimize confusion, so that employees at the workplace
will have no doubt, who has the authority for making decisions. Responsible employees should be
selected to co-ordinate the work of emergency response teams.
Emergency Response Coordinator is also known as Site Controller or Works Main Controller. The duties
and functions of the team leaders can be written and included in the emergency plan document. The size
of the team will vary from organisation to organisation.
Some of the duties and functions of the Emergency Response Coordinator are given below:
 To assess the situation and determining whether an emergency exists which requires
activating the emergency procedures.
 To direct all action in the areas including evacuation personnel and minimizing
property loss.
 To ensure that outside emergency services such as police, medical aid and local fire
brigade are called in when necessary.
 To direct the safe shutdowns of plant operations when necessary.
 To declare the withdrawal of emergency at the site.
 To look after the rehabilitation of affected persons after withdrawal of emergency at the
site.
 To issue authorised statements to news media and ensure that evidence is preserved for enquires to be
conducted by the statutory authorities.
Communications:
During an emergency involving a major fire or explosion, it may be necessary to evacuate offices in
addition to manufacturing areas. During such emergencies, normal services such as electricity, water and
telephones may not exist. Under these circumstances, an alternate area may be necessary, where
employees can report or which can act as a focal point for incoming and outgoing calls. Since time is an
essential element for adequate response, the person designated as being in charge should make this area,
as the alternate headquarters, so that he can be easily reached. A method of communication also is needed
to alert employees for evacuation or to take other actions as required in the emergency plan. An Alarm
should be provided, which should be audible or seen by all people in the plant and should have an
auxiliary power supply in the event of electricity failure. The alarm should be distinctive and recognizable
by all employees.
The employer should explain to each employee the means of reporting emergencies.
Emergency phone numbers of Key Persons and Organisations should be posted on or near telephones and
other conspicuous locations. It may be necessary to notify other key personnel such as Plant Managers,
Shift In-Charges, or Physicians during off duty hours. An updated written list should be kept of Key
Personnel listed in order of priority.
Counting of Personnel:
A responsible person in the Control Centre should be appointed to account for personnel and to inform
police or emergency response team member of those persons believed missing.
The person appointed should make a team and team members are physically capable of performing the
duties assigned to them. The team members should be trained in the
following areas:
 Use of various types of fire extinguishers.
 Use of Self Contained Breathing Apparatus (SCBA)
 First Aid, including cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPS) kits
 Evacuation procedures
 Chemical spill control procedures
 Search and Emergency Rescue procedures
Emergency response teams should be trained, in the types of possible emergencies and the
emergency actions to be performed. They should be informed about special hazards, such as
storage and usage of flammable materials, toxic chemicals, radioactive sources and water
reactive substances to which they may be exposed during fire and other emergencies.
Emergency Control Centre:
The Emergency Control Centre is the place from which the operations to handle the
emergency are directed and coordinated. It will be attended by the Emergency Response
Coordinator or Incident Controller or Site Main Controller, Key Personnel and Senior
Officers of the Fire Brigade, Police, Officials of the Factory Inspectorate, District
Authorities, Emergency Services and Medical Personnel, etc.
The Control Centre should be sited in an area of minimum risk and close to road to allow for
ready access by a radio-equipped vehicle for use, if other system fail or extra
communications facilities are required. For large sites or where toxic releases might be
anticipated, consideration should be given for setting up two Control Centres to ensure, that
at least one centre will be available for use, should the other be disabled. If necessary, the
police will assist to set up an Emergency Control Centre.
The Emergency Control Centre should consist of:
 Adequate number of external telephones,
 Internal telephones, and PA Systems
 Radio equipment, hot lines, walkie-talkie, mobiles, etc.
 Plans of the factory to show:
o Areas of large inventories of hazardous materials, including chemical storage tanks,
reactors, drums and compressed gas cylinders
o Location of radio-active sources.
o Location of sirens.
o Location of safety equipment including fire, explosion, spill and gas control kits.
o Location of firefighting installations.
o The fire water system and additional source of water, site entrances and road system.
o Assembly points, shelters, refuge areas, lunch rooms and canteens.
Training:
Training is important for the effectiveness of an emergency plan. Before implementing an
emergency action plan, a sufficient number of persons must be trained to assist in the safe
and orderly evacuation of employees or occupants. Training for each type of disaster
response is necessary, so that employees or occupants know what actions are required to be taken. In
addition to the specialized training imparted for emergency response team members, all employees or
occupants should also be trained in:
 Evacuation plans
 Shutdown procedures
 Alarm System
 Reporting procedures for personnel
 Types of potential emergencies
These training programmes should be provided:
 Initially when the plan is developed
 For all new employees or occupants
 When new equipment, process, or materials are introduced
 When procedures have been updated or revised
 At least once in a year.
The emergency control procedures should be written in concise terms and be made available
to all employees or occupants. A mock drill should be held for all personnel at random at
least once in a year. The emergency plan should be revised periodically and updated to
maintain adequate response personnel and programme efficiency.
Personal Protection:
Effective personnel protection is essential for any person, who may be exposed to
potentially hazardous substances. In an emergency, employees may be exposed to a wide
variety of hazardous circumstances, including
 Chemical splash or contact with toxic materials
 Unknown atmosphere that may contain inadequate oxygen to sustain life or toxic
gases, vapours or mist
 Falling objects and flying objects
 Fires and electrical hazards
It is extremely important that employees be adequately protected in these situations. Some of
the safety equipment that may be used include:
 Safety glasses, goggles or face shields for eye protection
 Helmets and safety shoes for head and foot protection
 Whole body coverings, gloves, hoods and boots for body protection from chemicals
 Whole body protection for abnormal environmental conditions such as extreme
temperature
 Respirators for breathing protection
Emergency situations may involve entering confined space to rescue employees overcome by
toxic compounds or lack of oxygen. They include tanks, vaults, pits, sewers, pipelines, silos
and vessels. Entry into confined spaces can expose the employees to a variety of hazards,
including toxic gases, explosive atmospheres, oxygen deficiency, electrical hazards and
hazards created by mixers and impellors that have not been deactivated and locked out.
Medical Assistance:
Medical Assistance plays an important role, during an emergency, especially when a
major fire and explosion occurs. Thus a Medical Assistance Team should be formed and the
team should have:
 Persons trained in First-Aid should be available.
 Eye washers or suitable equipment for quick drenching or flushing must be provided
in the work area for immediate emergency use.
 First-Aid supplies should be provided for emergency use.
 Ambulance service should be available to handle any emergency.
Security:
During emergency, it is often necessary to secure the area to prevent unauthorised access and
to protect vital records and equipment
Mutual Aid:
In major emergency situations, resources over and above these available at the works will be
needed. In locations, where there are a number of industrial concerns, it may be beneficial to
set up a mutual aid programme which will assist to secure additional supplies when needed.
CONCLUSION:
Every industry is exposed to threat of disasters, both man-made and natural due to variety of
causes. Experience has shown that such disasters can strike at the most unexpected time. The
impact of such disasters depends on how well the management copes with such a situation. A
major accident/disaster may be defined as one or more emergencies, which can affect several
or all departments and personnel working within a factory or an occupancy and can result in
extensive damage to property, loss of life and disruption both inside and outside the works.
An important element of mitigation is emergency planning, i.e., recognising that accidents
are possible, assessing the consequences of such accidents, and deciding the emergency
procedures both On-Site and Off-Site. Emergency planning is just one aspect of the safety,
other being maintaining good safety standards of operating inside plants.
The effectiveness of what we should do, if a disaster strike, will wholly depend upon how
well we have prepared the On-Site Emergency Plan and train the people, who will have to
implement them. The preparation of an On-Site Emergency Plan is in itself an invaluable
learning exercise and it should involve the manager, workforce, and the emergency services.
The objective of an emergency plan will be to localise the emergency and, if possible,
eliminate it. Minimising the effects may include rescue, first aid, evacuation, rehabilitation,
and giving information properly to people living nearby. In other words, the disaster plan is
in effect, an orderly assimilation of the consideration to the activities necessary for the co-
ordination of rescue, firefighting, medical needs, welfare requirements and the preservation
of life and property.
OFF-SITE EMERGENCY PLANNING:
Purpose

 To ensure that the local authority’1 (LA) adequately discharges its duty to prepare, test on an
ongoing basis and review and revise the off-site emergency plan (OfSEP) for each COMAH
toptier site within its area so as to minimize the consequences of major accidents to people
and the environment.
 To ensure that operators of top tier COMAH sites supply to local authorities the information
necessary for the purpose of enabling the authority to prepare the off-site emergency plan as
required by COMAH Regulation 10, and provide information to the public as required by
Regulation 14.
 Emergency response is a Competent Authority Strategic Management Group (CASMG)
priority topic for 2010-2011. The results from the intervention will be recorded on COIN and
reported to CASMG at the end of the work year. The results will be used to inform future
interventions.

Off-site Emergency Plan:

The main objective of the plan are –
 To save lives and injuries.
 To prevent or reduce property losses and
 To provide for quick resumption of normal situation or operation.
Risk Assessment: Risk assessment is most essential before preparing any off site emergency plan.
Hazardous factories and their hazard identification, other hazard prone areas, specific risks,
transportation risk, storage risks, pollution risks by air and water pollution, catastrophic risks such
as disasters, natural calamities, acts of god, earthquake, landslide, storm, high wind, cyclone,
flood, scarcity, heavy rain, lightening, massive infection, heavy fire, heavy explosion, volcano,
heavy spill, toxic exposure, environmental deterioration etc., risks from social disturbances, risks
from the past accidents must be considered while carrying out risk assessment for a particular
area(district) from which the offsite emergency plan is to be prepared.

Central Control Committee: As the offsite plan is to be prepared by the Government, a Central
Control Committee shall be formed under the Chairmanship of the District Collector. Other
officers from Police, Fire Service, Factory Inspectorate, Medical Department shall be incorporated as
members of the Central Control Committee. Under the Central Control
Committee the following committees shall be constituted under the control of the District Collector.
 Incident and Environment Control Committee.
 Fire Control Committee.
 Traffic control, Law and order, Evacuation and Rehabilititation Committee.
 Medical help, Ambulance and Hospital Committee.
 Welfare, Restoration and Resumption Committee.
 Utility and Engineering Services Committee.
 Press, Publicity and Public Relations Committee.
The Off-site Emergency Plan shall be prepared by the District Collector in consultation
with the factory management and Govt. agencies. The plan contains up to date details of outside
emergency services and resources such as Fire Services, Hospitals, Police etc. with telephone
number. The district authorities are to be included in the plan area.

 Police Department.
 Revenue
Department.
 Fire Brigade.
 Medical
Department.
 Municipality.
 Gram panchayat.
 Railway
Department.
 Telephone
Department.
 Factory
Department.
 Electricity
Department.
 Pollution Control
Department.
 Explosive
Department.
 Press and Media.
Mock exercises on Off-site plan should be carried out at least once in a year to train the
employees, up to date the plan, observe and rectify deficiencies.
HAZOP Study:
Before making the on-site and offsite plan hazop study has to be carried out to identify the
potential hazardous situations and to find out possible control measures. Hazop study is to be
carried out by a team of experts. The team should consist of –

 Mechanical Engineer.
 Chemical Engineer.
 R &amp; D Chemist.
 Works Manager.
 Project Manager.
 Outside experts.
 Safety Officer/ Manager.
Conclusion:
To carry out mock exercises and rehearsal of the off site plan to ensure its efficiency, test
and response, interaction and co-ordination of operators various service organizations evaluate the
effectiveness and adequacy of the equipment’s and to gain experience and confidence to implement
the plan. The finalized disaster plan shall be given to all concerned for implementation and
rehearsal for preparedness.

Objectives:
 The overall objective of the LP-MARG is to generate, develop and sustain a voluntary
movement of Safety, Environment &amp; Health at the Lote parshuram MIDC level.
 To prevent Human Injuries, consistent effective control and reduction of EHS risks-aspects,
incidences &amp; hazards through awareness among employees.
 To provide training to the employees of the MARG Members and concerned authorities etc.,
with sole intention of averting Industrial disasters.
 Essentially a mutual aid scheme, by which the resources held by MARG Members can be
made available to a member company in an emergency at any time.
 To provide a rapid and co-ordinated response to minimize adverse effects to the workers,
public, property and environment.
 Support small-scale industries by large scale industries to know the hazards, risks &amp;
requirement of emergency preparedness &amp; response from the concern processes, Hazardous
chemicals handling, storage &amp; use of Chemicals.
 Sharing the information among employees for safe , environment friendly practices adopted
in an industries.
 To voluntary scheme requires all MARG Members to play their part by promptly making
available their resources in case of a major emergency in any Member company’s unit.
How to sustain MARG:
It is essential that:
 Each MARG Member maintains a list of equipment that can be spared which should be
kept updated.
 Each MARG Member has competent adviser.
 There should be an effective system of informing neighboring communities of any industrial
emergency and what to do in case of the emergency.
 Meet regularly.
 Share Information.
 Discuss major accidents? Emergencies to learn lesson from them.
 Have regular joint drills based on Onsite emergency plans &amp; on Off-site emergency plan.
 Communicate, share, and participate with other MARG Members.
 Communicate with emergency responders like city fire brigade, hospitals, Ambulance
service&amp; police etc.
 Standardize terminology used to identify the key emergency management groups and
personnel, For example-Emergency co –coordinators, Site controller, etc.
 Ensure availability of services of competent advisor.
Responsibilities of MARG Members related to Emergency Management:
 Each MARG Member to ensure that individual emergency response plans and procedures
are developed and tested at frequent intervals.
 During the rehearsals, appoint 2-4 independent observers.
 After each rehearsal, have a review meeting and record the minutes/response time.
 Note down any feedback or suggestion for improvement of the plan.
 Periodically review and revise the on-site emergency plan.
 Update the same and
 Communicate to all stakeholders.

Major accident control system at local state

Many factories in India have been employed and implemented their risk Assessment System, such as
safety management system, control of major accident hazards or other occupational safety and health –
such as safety audit. Safety Management system (SMS) has various elements of safety and
implementation of the Safety management system will ensure improved safety in Industries. This paper
deals with various elements of Safety management systems in Major accident hazard (MAH) factories
and the methodology to enhance safety in MAH industries by implementing proper, adequate and
exhaustive SMS.
CONTROL OF MAJOR ACCIDENT HAZARDS
Control of major accident hazards safety case study is to demonstrate the more ‘in depth’ auditing system
is companies doing what they say they do? The representative of the company shall present what they
want to do to prevent major accident/incident? What is their future improvement on safety, health and
environment in the next three years? The company is requested to commission a registered competent
person to assist the company to prepare a Control of major accident hazards safety report every three
years.
REQUIREMENT OF CONTROL OF MAJOR ACCIDENT HAZARDS SAFETY REPORT
Indian Control of major accident hazards regulations require the main elements of the safety report shall
include:
 Introduction of the hazardous substances, Major Hazards, Accidents which might be created major
accident with in the Industry.
 Information relating to the installations: Location, process description, number of period on site and
other population distribution etc.
 Information relating to the hazardous substances: Identification of the hazards by using risk
assessment, Hazop, Fault tree analysis, event tree analysis etc.
 Information relationsto safety managementsystem: Safety policy, safety training, safety promotion,
safety facility, safety rules and regulations, safety inspections, emergency preparedness etc.
 Information relating to public: action plan during accident, common names and dangerous characteri -
stics etc.
 Information relating to potential major accident: Fire, Explosion, spillage, toxic gas/hazardous
substances release, etc.
SAFETY REPORT
 Safety report must contain
 Major Accident Prevention Policy.
 Safety Management System.
 Identification of Hazards.
 Adequate Prevention/Limitation Measures.
 Internal Emergency Plans.
 Information for External Emergency Plans.

MAH System: National Control System

Millions of chemicals are handled in industry cause harm to human beings, other living
creatures, plants, micro-organisms, property or the environment referred to as hazardous
chemicals. Industrial. Installations handling these chemicals have the potential to give rise
to serious injury or damage beyond the immediate vicinity of the workplace. These are
known as major accident hazards.
The Ministry of Labour, Government of India, responsible for administering the Factories Act,
1948 amended it in the year 1987. Important objectives of the amendment were, to regulate the
location of hazardous process industries in such a manner that they do not cause adverse effects to
the public in the vicinity and provide measures for safe handling of hazardous substances. Also,
the Ministry of labour implemented through DGFASLI and Inspectorates of Factories an ILO
Project: ‘Establishment and Initial Operation of a Major Accident Hazards Control System in
India’ in the manufacturing sector in the later part of 1980s. A great deal of awareness was
created through this project among all concerned about the prevention of major accidents and
mitigation of adverse effects of such an accident.
DIRECTORATE GENERAL FACTORY ADVICE SERVICE &amp; LABOUR INSTITUTES
(DGFASLI) : It is an attached office of the Ministry of Labour, Government of India was set up in
1945.
It serves as a technical arm to assist the Ministry in formulating national policies on occupational
safety and health in factories .
It Implements ILO project on MAH Units.
DGFASLI advise State Governments and factories on matters concerning safety, health,
efficiency and wellbeing of the persons at workplace. It also enforces safety and health statutes in
major ports of the country. Institute dealing with the scientific study of all aspects of industrial
development relating to the human factors
The Directorate General Factory Advice Service &amp; Labour Institutes (DGFASLI) comprises:
 Headquarters situated in Mumbai
 Central Labour Institute in Mumbai
 Regional Labour Institutes in Calcutta, Chennai, Faridabad and Kanpur
 DGFASLI organization in CLI, Mumbai functions as a socio-economic lab. &amp; is a
national.

International Occupational Safety and Health information centre (CIS)

CIS (from the French name, Centre international Information security hygiene travail) i.e. International
Occupational Safety and Health Information Centre, is a part of the International Labour Office, Geneva,
Switzerland. The mission of CIS is to collect world literature that can contribute to the prevention of
occupational hazards and to disseminate this information at an international level. CIS imparts to its users
the most comprehensive and up-to-date information in the field of occupational safety and health. The
work of CIS is supported by a worldwide Safety and Health information exchange network which
includes over 86 affiliated National Centers and 23 CIS collaborating Centers. CLI, Mumbai has been
designated as the CIS National Centre of India. CIS can offer you rapid access to comprehensive
information on occupational safety and health through:
 Microfiches on original documents abstracted in CIS DOC (CISILO)
 ILO CIS Bulletin “Safety and Health at Work”
 Annual and 5-year indexes
 The CIS Thesaurus
 The list of periodicals abstracted by CIS
CIS ACCESSION NUMBER :
ABSTRACT:
Adverse occupational health and safety (OHS) effects associated with the use of Sub-contractors are
identified and control OHS risks are described. Factors to be considered include:
consideration of the costs and benefits of employing sub-contractors; senior management commitment;
tender and contract requirements; OHS management policies; sub-contractor OHS management system;
subcontractor behaviour.
CHAPTER- 6 OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH AND SAFETY AUDITS

IS-14489:
Safety Audit Report:
Safety audit with the help of an expert not associated with such industrial activities is to be
submitted within 30 days after the completion of such audit.
Looking to this need, BIS also published an Indian Standard - IS:14489 in 1998 as standard guideline for
practice on occupational safety and health audit. This IS does not include rating (points) system like
British Standard. Therefore, it gives qualitative analysis and not the quantitative.
1. Need of Safety Audit:
(A) Safety Requirement: It is utmost necessary for the purpose of maintaining safety (accident
free atmosphere) in industry that all systems of work should be thoroughly checked from
safety point of view at regular interval and deficiencies identified should be removed by due
compliance of safety recommendations. –
(B) Legal Requirement: Rule 12-C &amp; 68-0 of the Gujarat Factories Rules 1963 and Rule 10 &amp;
12 of the Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules 1989 need
submission of safety audit reports to the concerned authorities within prescribed time.
2. Audit Procedure:
 Lead auditor along with his team may adopt following procedure:
 Constitution of Audit team (at least two members).
 Constitution of Auditee representatives.
 Recording identification and brief history of the auditee industry.
 Deciding audit goals, objectives and scope.
 Drawing audit plan with time schedule.
 Holding opening meeting with the auditee.
 Study of process and applicability of safely laws and standards.
 Taking plant round and noting observations.
 Examining records and documents.
 Filling checklists of audit points (e.g. filling of Annexure A, B &amp; C of IS-.14489).
 Element wise (Annex. A) files will be useful.
 Holding of closing meeting and discussing findings.
 Preparation and submission of Audit Report (with Executive summary in the beginning).
 Report distribution for compliance.
 Compliance audit if required by the audittee or client.
 Visit for compliance audit and its report.
3. Audit Frequency:
Normally an external or third party safety audit should be conducted once in two years and
an internal audit may be organized once in every year.
4. Audit Goals:
Following goals can be decided while starting the audit:

1. Assessment of Auditee&#39;s OS&amp;H system against existing standards and identification

of areas for improvement.
2. Determination of conformity of the implemented OS&amp;H system with specified
requirements and identification of areas for improvement.
3. Checking of statutory requirements.
5. Audit Objectives:

Following objectives can be decided for the audit:

 To carry out a systematic, critical appraisal of all potential hazards involving personnel, plant, services,
methods etc.
 To ensure that company&#39;s OS&amp;H system and safety policies, objectives etc. satisfy the legal
requirements.

6. Audit Scope:
The scope and depth of the audit should be decided as per auditor’s or client&#39;s requirements.
This should include:
 Which plants or areas to be audited.
 Which OS&amp;H system elements to be audited.
 With what legal and other safety standards, rules or documents, the auditee&#39;s OS&amp;H systems
should be compared. Benchmarking if any, should be considered.
 List of resources and evidences including workers and experts that will be available for
audit.
 Within what time frame audit should be completed and with what other terms and
conditions. A written agreement, if necessary, should be prepared and signed.

7. Audit Plan:
Audit plan should be finalized after consultation with auditee and should be informed to auditors and
auditee in the opening meeting. This plan should include:
 Audit goals, objectives and scope as stated earlier.
 Names of audit team members and management&#39;s representatives.
 List of documents to be checked.
 List of legal and other standards to be followed during audit.
 Auditee&#39;s OS&amp;H policy and its other intentions.
 Time schedule of audit visits of each plant or location.
 Schedule of meetings to be held with auditee for the audit purpose.
 Expected date of issue of the audit report.
 Procedure or methodology of compliance of the report, and
 Whether compliance audit will be required by the auditee and if yes, it&#39;s probable time schedule,
and method of communication.
8. Checking of Records &amp; Registers:
Statutory forms, records and registers under the Factories Act &amp; Rules and other safety laws should
be checked for relevant information and statutory compliance. This may include (for Gujarat):
 Form No. 1 a (GFR) i.e. structural stability certificate.
 Form No. 9, 10, II (GFR) for hoists, lifts, lifting machines and pressure vessels.

 Reports of Competent Persons regarding examination of dangerous machines, safety

devices, dangerous operations etc.
 Form No. 29 (GFR) i.e. Accidents Register.
 Form No. 20, 32 &amp; 33 (GFR) i.e. Health records for workers.
 Form No. 37 (GFR) i.e. work place monitoring record.
 Industrial Hygienist’s report regarding measured values of gas, vapor, noise, WBGT (Heat stress
parameters), ventilation system etc.
 Statutory cautionary notices, safety policy and minutes of safety committee meetings.
 Certificate of safety, testing of pressure vessels and safety valves etc. under SMPV (U)
Rules 1981 and Petroleum Act &amp; Rules, if applicable.
 Forms under Gas Cylinder Rules if applicable.
 Testing certificates of effluents, air pollutants, solid wastes, ambient air quality etc. Under GPCB
norms.
 Licenses under applicable Acts and Rules and their validity.
 Public liability insurance policy, if required.
 Records of storage quantities of hazardous chemicals for verification of threshold quantities and
identification as MAH installation.
 Records and Registers (29) as suggested by Annexure - B of IS:14489.
 Other relevant records and registers as considered necessary by the auditors.
9. Checking Applicability of Safety Laws:
From above records, registers, licenses etc. and physical verification of storage quantities, number of gas
cylinders etc., act-wise applicability and validity of licenses etc. should be checked, discussed and
narrated in audit report.
10. Points of Plant-visits:
All safety points (audit points) seen during plant visits should be recorded plant-wise or
location-wise so that plant-wise implementation will become easy. This should be separately
reported in the audit report.
Such points are to be seen as requirement of law and other standards. Their mention will include reference
of relevant section, rule, standard (attributes) etc.

11. Audit Observations and Recommendations:

Safety audit questionnaire sheet should be prepared in the following form:
Sr.
No.
Items to be observed Observation seen/ found

(Non conformities)
Recommendations i.e.
safety suggestions.
Observations should be clear and specific. Recommendations should also be clear, specific, easy to
understand, brief and with reference of safety standard or reason as per auditor&#39;s opinion.
Annexure - C of IS:14489 is a good guideline for safety audit which can be used for a chemical indstry
also. It should be utilized as a whole or with necessary modification deem fit by the auditors. Points may
be decreased or increased depending on the size, status, contents, materials, processes, procedures and
systems of works and experience of the auditors.

As Annexure - C includes many items of safety •inspection and audit including safety policy,
organization, training, general working conditions, hazard identification and control, technical aspect,
work permit system, PPE, fire protection, emergency preparedness, hazard area classification, static
lectricity, vessels and equipments, storage safety, communication system, transport, pipelines etc., they
are not separately discussed in this article. There is no end to such items. Only experience can specify and
classify them. Therefore, audit by duly qualified and experienced auditors is more useful.
12. Closing Meeting:
After recommendations are ready, prior to preparing the audit report, auditors should hold a closing
meeting with auditee&#39;s senior managers to explain them the result of the audit. Audit observations
and recommendations should be explained to them. Power point presentation is more effective. Querries
of the audience should be replied forthwith. Reasons (legal requirements, standards etc.) of
recommendations should be properly explained. It should also be clarified that the purpose of this effort
(audit) is not to criticize but to try to find out the methods of further improvement.
13. Report Preparation &amp; Submission:
Audit report should be well documented by the auditors, audit certificate should be signed (with date) by
the lead auditor and enclosed with the audit report and it should be sent to the auditee or client as soon as
possible. If it cannot be sent within agreed time limit, reasons of delay should be communicated. The
auditee should send acknowledgement of receipt of audit report to the auditors and client and final report
of compliance when it is over.
14. Report Distribution and Compliance:
Auditee will decide internal distribution (relevant copies) of audit report to the concerned departments or
managers with its instructions of compliance within specified time limits assigned to each of them. The
auditee will collect the reports of compliance, will verify and arrange in chronological order against each
point of recommendation.
15. Report Retention:
Auditee should retain the audit report alongwith its compliance report and should show them to the
authorities on demand. Such retained audit reports will show the history of safety improvement of the
auditee. Minimum time of retention is till full compliance of the audit report. Cost benefit ratio can also
be determined based on this.
If compliance or follow-up audit is required by the same auditors, auditee or client should inform them
accordingly.
Report as BIS 14489:
Safety Report:
Statutory information required in a safety report is given in Sch. 8, Rule 10(1) of the MSIHC Rules, 1989
Before 90 days of any modification (having material effect), an updated Safety Report shall be submitted
to the authority.

Integrated Management System (IMS)

ISO (International Organization for Standardization) has a membership of 164 national standards
bodies from countries large and small, industrialized, developing and in transition, in all regions of
the world. ISO’s portfolio of over 19200 standards provides business, government and society with
practical tools for all three dimensions of sustainable development: economic, environmental and social.
ISO standards make a positive contribution to the world. They facilitate trade, spread knowledge,
disseminate innovative advances in technology, and share good management and conformity assessment
practices. Integrated management system combines all related components of a business into one system
for easier management and operations.
An Integrated Management System (IMS) integrates all of an organization&#39;s systems and process
objectives to achieve its purpose and mission. Organizations often focus on management systems
individually, often in silos and sometimes even in conflict. The integration of all the management systems
into a single system and centrally managed is defined as Integrated Management System. On the part of
the different structure of ISO standards, it is difficult to integrate the management systems into integrated
management system. This is the reason why ISO published Annex SL.
According to this Annex SL, the new published standards will have the common High-level structure
(HLS) with the following 10 clauses.
Class 1 Scope
Class 2 Normative references
Class 3 Term and definitions
Class 4 Context of the organization
Class 5 Leadership
Class 6 Planning
Class 7 Support
Class 8 Operation
Class 9 Performance evaluation
Class 10 Improvement

Integrated Management System comprises of:

 ISO 9001:2015 - Quality Management Systems (QMS);
 ISO 14001:2015 - Environmental Management Systems (EMS);
 OHSAS 45001- Occupational Health &amp; Safety Management Systems (OHSMS);
Integrated
Management System
ISO 9001:2015

ISO 14001:2015

OHSAS 45001
OHSAS 18001:2007 – Health And Safety Management System
Managing health and safety (OH&amp;S) issues in the workplace represents an enormous challenge due
to varying human nature, skills set, process complexity &amp; local culture and have implications for
everyone at the workplace. Effectively managing these issues means taking account not only of legal
requirements, but also the well-being of your personnel in the organization. Purpose of OHSAS 18001
Management of health &amp; safety issues for an organization considering all interested parties concern
is the main challenge of the business while working with significant hazardous process &amp; risk.
Achieving OHS performance with improved well-being is the need to assure the regulatory bodies,
customers and other stack holders due to high premium cost for any incident. Certification to OHSAS
18001 show the commitment to the health and safety of employees, demonstrates your ability to manage
risk &amp; hazards associated with the activities and provide assurance to all concerned including
customers and management that legal compliance is effectively managed.
Implementation of OHSAS 18001 policies gives systematic approach to minimizing health and safety
risks and provide a framework for an organization to manage its legal compliance and improve
occupational health and safety performance, including risk and opportunity identification, analysis, target
setting, and measurement. Organizations are improving the health &amp; safety status by implementing
the universally valid international standard along with best practices beside their own country specific
health &amp; safety legislations. OHSAS 18001 is basic and globally recognized standard for
occupational health and safety management systems and is applicable to any organization in any business
sector.
Benefits of OHSAS 18001
 Implementing an effective occupational health and safety management system reduces the risk of harm
to your employees and other personnel and reduces overall liability. Effective Management of Health nd
Safety risks will help:
 Demonstrate your commitment to the protection of employee, property and plant.
 Minimize the number of accidents and production time loss due to better control over hazards at
the workplace
 Focus on employee safety results in a satisfied, motivated and highly productive work team.
 Increase control and reduction of hazards through the setting of objectives, targets and evolved
responsibility.
 Maximize the well-being and productivity of all people working for the organization.
 Encourage better relationships with contractors and more effective contracted activities.
 Reduction in insurance premiums &amp; workers compensation
 Demonstrates an innovative and forward thinking approach
 Ensuring legal compliance
 Improve safety culture &amp; your reputation in the eyes of customers, competitors, suppliers, other
stakeholders and the wider community.
More about OHSAS 18001A
certificate issued by third party registrar to demonstrates that your business system has been certified
against requirements of OHSAS 18001 requirements. Implementation of OHSAS 18001 by setting up of
internal processes gives confidence to management, employees &amp; society at large about the
protecting the health &amp; safety and managing risk to human being. OHSAS 18001 is an international
standard for environmental management, applicable to companies of all sizes and types; certification to
OHSAS 18001 provides a dynamic mechanism for the development of effective health &amp; safety
management system. “Plan-Do-Check-Act” principle based cycle, OHSAS 18001: 2007 specifies the
most important requirements to identify, control and monitor the risk &amp; hazards of any organization,
and also how to manage and improve the whole system.
The OHSAS 18001 (Occupational Health and Safety Assessment Series) certification system is developed
by an association of national standard bodies, group of certification bodies/registrars, and specialist of
health &amp; safety.
Features of OHSAS 18001
OHSAS series is designed to help organizations formulate occupational health and safety policies and
objectives containing two documents viz. OHSAS 18001 – OHS Requirements &amp; OHSAS 18002
which generally known as guidance document for implementation of OHSAS 18001. It is applicable to
any organization, large or small, and within any business sector. OHSAS 18001 is largely aligned with
the structure of ISO 14001 and is based on the two concepts of continual improvement and regulatory
compliance.
OHSAS 18001 audit covers following:
 Policy statement (commitment of top management to improve OHS conditions)
 Hazard identification, assessment &amp; control (evaluation of risk &amp; its consequence on human
being)
 Legal &amp; other requirements (ensuring stringent compliance to the law of the land)
 Documented objectives &amp; targets (continual improvement)
 Resources, Role, Responsibility &amp; Authority (making responsible every one)
 Competence, awareness &amp; training (ensures availability of right person all the time)
 Communication, participation &amp; consultation (ensuring everyone has to become part of OHS
management)
 Documentation, Control of documents &amp; records (for ensuring compliance)
 Operational controls(established safe working conditions) Emergency preparedness &amp; response
(check your preparation to mitigate any emergency or abnormal situation)
 Performance measurement &amp; monitoring (ensuring health &amp; safety parameters)
 Incident, Nonconformity, corrective &amp; preventive action (provides mechanism for improvement)
 Management review (ensuring organization system is compiled)
OHSAS 18001 Accreditation
Certification Europe is an accredited certification body which provides International Organisation for
Standardization (ISO) management system certification and inspection services to organisations globally.
We hold OHSAS 18001:2007 accreditation with both the Irish National Accreditation Bureau (INAB)
and United Kingdom Accreditation Services (UKAS).
Accreditation is the process by which a certification body is recognised to offer certification services. In
order to become accredited, Certification Europe is required to implement ISO 17021 which is a set of
requirements for certification bodies providing auditing and certification of management systems.
Certification Europe is audited annually by our accreditation bodies to ensure our services meet the exact
requirements of the relevant accreditation standards.
What industries implement OHSAS 18001:2007?
OHSAS 18001 is implemented by a wide variety of industries. The Health and Safety standard can
benefit any organizations that choose to implement it. If you have a workforce of 5 or 500 then OHSAS
18001 will benefit you immediately. The purpose of the management system is to put the focus on the
employees and ensure best practices are being implemented. Effectively implementing the standard
results in a safer working environment for your workforce, plus reduce risk and liability exposure on the
organisation.
OHSAS 18001:2007 Training
Certification Europe can provide in house training for your staff on implementation and auditing your
systems internally to OHSAS 18001. Contact our team today to learn more.

Eliminating risks and hazards:

OHS hazards &amp; its risk to human being are identified by a team of experts considering extent of
application, nature of activity &amp; conditions in which it operates. Identified risk are prioritized by
making objective to reduce its significance level by giving a frame work of management programs
which identify the resources &amp; approach to achieve the desired goal. Timely review of achieved
objective &amp; new process area will direct the organization to set the next goal towards improvement
in health &amp; safety status.
Certification Process for OHSAS 18001
DQS Certification India appoints a competent &amp; suitable auditor or team of auditors to audit the
organization against the standard &amp; scope requested by the clients. Client has to file an application
seeking standard for which to be certified. Gap analysis may be performed first to check readiness for the
auditee organization which help organization to improve upon. Routine surveillance audits are carried out
to evaluate continual improvement in the validity period. A re-certification audit is performed after every
three years to maintain continuity of the certification.
OHSAS 18001 Certification
The most important asset of every organization would be their employees. Every company performs
best when its employees are generating the best results and are optimizing on the quality being delivered.
It should be the aim of every company to achieve the maximum returns for your employees. For this you
would have to implement quality standards in the occupational health and safety management system.
We at IRQS understand the need of such a certification in today’s world. Most employees in the world
today would trust an employer with an OHSAS 18001 quality standard in place. The obvious reason
being this is the high level of safety that is provided to the organization’s work force. When you have
such a standard in place, it means that the company is taking a stronger step towards occupational health –
a prime necessity of every employee.
To have an OHSAS 18001 certification, you would have to implement different approaches toward the
standard. You would have to discover the best ways to put certain processes and practices into place.
Understanding the framework of your organization would not be easy, but you would have to detect weak
links all across and optimize them for best performance.
When you have an occupational health and safety management system in place, your employees would be
more dedicated towards your business and would want to perform better. It would mean an increase in
output for the company and thus result in higher profitability. There would be many factors to audit even
after the certification is complete. This ensures that the level of quality is always maintained and kept at
its peak. Believe it or not, many employees choose companies that are OHSAS 18001 certified only.
Mainly because it signifies a growing and responsible company, a trait that every employee looks for. If
you were to point out your organizations most important asset, it would have to be your employees. They
are the blocks of success for your company. Every company performs best when its employees are
generating the best results and are optimizing on the quality being delivered. But how can this be
ensured? By implementing an OHSAS 18001
Certification. We at IRQS understand the need of such a certification in today’s world. Most employees in
the world today would trust an employer with an OHSAS 18001 quality standard in place.
What is OHSAS 18001 Certification?
An occupational health and safety management system will place the basic requirements for a safe and
secure environment. This will ensure that your business practices the right methods and standards to give
your employees a safe and secure time at work.
To have an OHSAS 18001 certification, you would have to implement different approaches toward the
standards. You would have to discover the best ways to put certain processes and practices into place.
Benefits of OHSAS 18001 Certification
When you have an occupational health and safety management system in place, your employees would be
more dedicated towards your business and would want to perform better. It would mean an increase in
output for the company and thus result in higher profitability.
ISO 45001
The issue of work-related injuries and diseases is significant and growing, both for employers and the
economy. To combat this problem, ISO is developing a new standard named ISO 45001 (Occupational
health and safety management systems - Requirements) that will help organizations reduce this burden
globally by providing a framework to improve employee safety, reduce workplace risks and create better,
safer working conditions. The standard is currently being developed by a committee of occupational
health and safety experts and will follow other standard management system protocols approaches such as
ISO 14001 and ISO 9001. It will take into account other International Standards in this area such as
OHSAS 18001, the International Labour Organization&#39;s ILO-OSH Guidelines, various national
standards and the ILO&#39;s international labor standards and conventions. The standard is targeted to be
published in March of 2018
If you have certification to OHSAS 18001 you need to migrate to ISO 45001 to maintain the validity of
the certification. To correct the foregoing sentence: ISO and BSI are two different organizations, and
certification to each is a separate process. Therefore a new application and certification will be required
for ISO 45001. OHSAS 18001 will be withdrawn three years after the publication of ISO 45001.
Moving forward, the committee established a plan for the development and publication of the standard:
 The new proposed publication date is now March 2018
 The drafting committee published the second draft in March 2017 which passed the Ballot with 88%
support.
 ISO/DIS Published January 2016, with ballot due May 2016. The ballot to approve the Draft failed by
a few votes.
 ISO/CD 45001 a second Committee Draft was published in March 2015.
 ISO/DIS 45001 (first draft international standard) could not be published by February 2015 as planned,
because the first committee draft failed to secure the necessary two-thirds majority vote in the
international Organization for Standardization (ISO) committee developing it on 18 October.
 ISO/CD 45001 (first committee draft) was published in May 2014.
Assuming timescales are accurate, the standard will be called ISO 45001:2018, per the usual naming
convention for standards published by the International Organization for Standardization.
It is hoped that ISO 45001 will attain more international recognition, aiding the response to published
statistics showing poor health and safety management costs around 4% of global GDP.
Similar to existing standards like OHSAS 18001, which will be withdrawn, and ILO-OSH, the new
international standard&#39;s impact has the potential to save lives, reduce work-related ill-health and
accidents and improve employee morale.
Aim of an OH&amp;S management system:
The purpose of an OH&amp;S management system is to provide a framework for managing the
prevention of injury and ill-health. The implementation of an OH&amp;S management system can be a
strategic decision for an organization.
An organization‘s activities can pose a risk of injury or ill-health, consequently it is critically important
for the organization to eliminate or minimize OH&amp;S risks by taking appropriate preventive
measures. When these measures are applied by the organization through its OH&amp;S management
system (supported by the use of appropriate methods and tools, at all levels in the organization) they
proactively improve its OH&amp;S performance.
The intended outcome for an organization&#39;s OH&amp;S management system is to prevent injury
and ill-health, to improve and enhance the safety and health of its workers and the others persons under its
control.
An OH&amp;S management system can enable an organization to improve its OH&amp;S performance
by;
a) Developing and implementing an OH&amp;S policy and OH&amp;S objectives;
b) Establishing systematic processes which consider its &quot;context&quot; and which take into account
its risks and its opportunities, its legal requirements and the other requirements to which it subscribes;
c) Determining the hazards and OH&amp;S risks associated with its activities; seeking to eliminate them,
or putting in controls to minimize their potential effects;
d) Establishing operational controls to manage its OH&amp;S risks, and to comply with its applicable
legal and the other requirements;
e) Increasing awareness of its OH&amp;S risks;
f) Evaluating its OH&amp;S performance and seeking to improve it;
g) Establishing the necessary competencies;
h) Developing a positive health and safety culture in the organization;
i) Ensuring the consultation and participation of the workers.
Success factors
The success of the OH&amp;S management system depends on leadership, commitment and participation
from all levels and functions of the organization.
The implementation and sustainability of an OH&amp;S management system, its effectiveness and its
ability to achieve its objectives are dependent on a number of key factors which can include:
a) Top management leadership and commitment;
b) Promotion of a positive health and safety culture;
c) Participation of workers (and, as applicable, their representatives);
d) Consultation – two way communication;
e) Allocation of the necessary resources for sustainability;
f) Clear OH&amp;S policies, which are in line with the overall strategic objectives of the organization;
g) The integration of the OH&amp;S management system into the organization&#39;s business
processes;
h) The continuous evaluation and monitoring of the OH&amp;S management system to improve
OH&amp;S
performance;
i) OH&amp;S objectives that align with the OH&amp;S policy and reflect the organization&#39;s
OH&amp;S risks;
j) Awareness of its applicable legal and other requirements;
k) Identification of hazards and control of the OH&amp;S risks.
Demonstration of successful implementation of this International Standard can be used by an organization
to give assurance to workers and other interested parties that an effective OH&amp;S management system
is in place. Adoption of this International Standard, however, will not in itself guarantee optimal
outcomes. The level of detail, the complexity, the extent of documented information, and the resources
needed for an organization&#39;s OH&amp;S management system will depend on a number of factors,
such as:
 The organization’s context (e.g. its number of workers, its size, its geography, its culture, its social
conditions, its applicable legal and other requirements);
 The scope of its OH&amp;S management system;
 The nature of its activities, its products, its services, and its OH&amp;S risks. &quot;Plan, Do, Check
and Act&quot; cycle
The basis of the OH&amp;S management system approach applied in this International Standard is
founded on the concept of ―Plan, Do, Check and Act‖ (PDCA), which requires leadership, commitment
and participation from all levels and functions of the organization.
The PDCA model demonstrates an iterative process used by organizations to achieve continual
improvement. It can be applied to a management system and to each of its individual elements. It can be
described as follows:
 Plan: establish objectives, programmers and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance with
the organization‘s policy.
 Do: implement the processes as planned.
 Check: monitor and measure activities and processes with regard to the policy and, objectives, and
report the results.
 Act: take actions to continually improve the OH&amp;S performance to achieve the intended
outcomes. Contents of this International Standard
This International Standard has adopted the ―high-level structure‖ (i.e. clause sequence, common text
and common terminology) developed by ISO to improve alignment among its International Standards for
management systems.
This International Standard does not include requirements specific to other management systems, such as
those for quality, environmental, security, or financial management, though its elements can be aligned or
integrated with those of other management systems. Clauses 4 to 10 contain requirements that can be used
to assess conformity. Annex A provides informative explanations to assist in the interpretation of those
requirements.
Scope
This International Standard specifies requirements for an occupational health and safety (OH&amp;S)
management system, with guidance for its use, to enable an organization to provide safe and
healthy working conditions for the prevention of injury and ill-health and to proactively improve its
OH&amp;S performance.
This International Standard is applicable to any organization that wishes to: establish, implement
and maintain an OH&amp;S management system to improve occupational health and safety, eliminate or
minimize OH&amp;S risks and address OH&amp;S management system nonconformities associated with
its activities.
b) Continually improve its OH&amp;S performance and the fulfilment of its OH&amp;S objectives;
c) Demonstrate conformity with the requirements of this International Standard.
This International Standard is intended to be applicable to any organization regardless of its size,
type and activity and applies to the OH&amp;S risks that the organization determines it can manage,
taking into account factors such as the context in which the organization operates and the needs and
expectations of its workers and other interested parties.
This International Standard does not state specific criteria for OH&amp;S performance, nor is it
prescriptive about the design of an OH&amp;S management system. This International Standard enables
an organization, through its OH&amp;S management system, to integrate other aspects of health and
safety, such as worker wellness/ wellbeing. The organization can also be required by applicable legal
requirements to address such issues. This International Standard does not address issues such as product
safety, property damage or environmental impacts, beyond the risks they provide to workers.
Industrial Safety Management:
The organization and coordination of the activities of a business in order to achieve
defined objectives:
Management is often included as a factor of production along with‚ machines,
materials, and money. According to the management guru Peter Drucker (1909-2005),
the basic task of management includes both marketing and innovation. Practice of
modern management originates from the 16th century study of low-efficiency and
failures of certain enterprises, conducted by the English statesman Sir Thomas More
(1478-1535)
General Principles of management:-
The principles were developed under fundamental assumptions as follows:
• Organization and individuals behave in conformity with rational economic
principles.
• One best way to organize production is through systematic and scientific
investigations.
• Organization is established to fulfill production-related and economic goals.
Principles of management are statements that are based on a fundamental truth.
These principles serve as a guideline for decision-making and management actions.
They are drawn up by means of observations and analyses of events that managers
encounter in practice. Henri Fayol was able to synthesize 14 principles of management
after years of study, namely:
1. Division of Work:-In practice, employees are specialized in different areas and
they have different skills. Different levels of expertise can be distinguished within the
knowledge areas (from generalist to specialist). Personal and professional
developments support this. According to Henri Fayol specialization promotes
efficiency of the workforce and increases productivity. In addition, the specialization
of the workforce increases their accuracy and speed. This management principle of
the 14 principles of management is applicable to both technical and managerial
activities.

2. Authority and Responsibility ;-In order to get things done in an organization,

management has the authority to give orders to the employees. Of course with this
authority comes responsibility. According to Henri Fayol, the accompanying power or
authority gives the management the right to give orders to the subordinates. The
responsibility can be traced back from performance and it is therefore necessary to
make agreements about this. In other words, authority and responsibility go together
and they are two sides of the same coin.
3. Discipline :-This third principle of the 14 principles of management is about
obedience. It is often a part of the core values of a mission and vision in the form of
good conduct and respectful interactions. This management principle is essential and is
seen as the oil to make the engine of an organization run smoothly.
4. Unity of Command :-The management principle ‘Unity of command’ means that
an individual employee should receive orders from one manager and that the employee
is answerable to that manager. If tasks and related responsibilities are given to the
employee by more than one manager, this may lead to confusion which may lead to
possible conflicts for employees. By using this principle, the responsibility for
mistakes can be established more easily.
5. Unity of Direction :-This management principle of the 14 principles of management
is all about focus and unity. All employees deliver the same activities that can be
linked to the same objectives. All activities must be carried out by one group that
forms a team. These activities must be described in a plan of action. The manager is
ultimately responsible for this plan and he monitors the progress of the defined and
planned activities. Focus areas are the efforts made by the employees and coordination.
6. Subordination of Individual Interest :-There are always all kinds of interests in an
organization. In order to have an organization function well, Henri Fayol indicated that
personal interests are subordinate to the interests of the organization (ethics). The
primary focus is on the organizational objectives and not on those of the individual.
This applies to all levels of the entire organization, including the managers.
7. Remuneration :- Motivation and productivity are close to one another as far as the
smooth running of an organization is concerned. This management principle of the 14
principles of management argues that the remuneration should be sufficient to keep
employees motivated and productive. There are two types of remuneration namely
non-monetary (a compliment, more responsibilities, credits) and monetary
(compensation, bonus or other financial compensation). Ultimately, it is about
rewarding the efforts that have been made.
8. The Degree of Centralization: - Management and authority for decision-making
process must be properly balanced in an organization. This depends on the volume and
size of an organization including its hierarchy. Centralization implies the concentration
of decision making authority at the top management (executive board). Sharing of
authorities for the decision-making process with lower levels (middle and lower
management), is referred to as decentralization by Fayol. Henri Fayol indicated that an
organization should strive for a good balance in this.
9. Scalar Chain :- Hierarchy presents itself in any given organization. This varies
from senior management (executive board) to the lowest levels in the organization.
Henri Fayol ’s “hierarchy” management principle states that there should be a clear
line in the area of authority (from top to bottom and all managers at all levels). This
can be seen as a type of management structure. Each employee can contact a manager
or a superior in an emergency situation without challenging the hierarchy. Especially,
when it concerns reports about calamities to the immediate managers/superiors.

10. Order :- According to this principle of the 14 principles of management,

employees in an organization must have the right resources at their disposal so that
they can function properly in an organization. In addition to social order (responsibility
of the managers) the work environment must be safe, clean and tidy.
11. Equity :-The management principle of equity often occurs in the core values of an
organization. According to Henri Fayol, employees must be treated kindly and equally.
Employees must be in the right place in the organization to do things right. Managers
should supervise and monitor this process and they should treat employees fairly and
impartially.
12. Stability of Tenure of Personnel :- This management principle of the 14
principles of management represents deployment and managing of personnel and this
should be in balance with the service that is provided from the organization.
Management strives to minimize employee turnover and to have the right staff in the
right place. Focus areas such as frequent change of position and sufficient development
must be managed well.

13. Initiative :- Henri Fayol argued that with this management principle employees
should be allowed to express new ideas. This encourages interest and involvement and
creates added value for the company. Employee initiatives are a source of strength for
the organization according to Henri Fayol. This encourages the employees to be
involved and interested.
14. Esprit de Corps:- The management principle ‘esprit de corps’ of the 14 principles
of management stands for striving for the involvement and unity of the employees.
Managers are responsible for the development of morale in the workplace; individually
and in the area of communication. Esprit de corps contributes to the development of
the culture and creates an atmosphere of mutual trust and understanding.

MANAGEMENT AND TYPES OF MANAGEMENT Management in businesses

and other organizations, including not-for-profit organizations and government bodies,
refers to the individuals who set the strategy of the organization and coordinate the
efforts of employees (or volunteers, in the case of some voluntary organizations) to
accomplish objectives by using available human, financial and other resources
efficiently and effectively. Management typically includes planning, organizing,
selecting the staff, leading or directing, and controlling an organization to accomplish
various goals. Resourcing encompasses the deployment and manipulation of human
resources, financial resources, technological resources, natural resources and other
resources. Management is also an academic discipline, a social science whose
objective is to study social organization.
Types of Management:
Top-Level Management
Top-level managers include boards of directors, presidents, vice-presidents, CEOs,
general managers, and senior managers, etc.Top-level managers are responsible for
controlling and overseeing the entire organization. Rather than direct the day-to-day
activities of the firm, they develop goals, strategic plans, and company policies, as well
as make decisions about the direction of the business.Top managers need to have more
conceptual skill than technical skill. They understand how competition, world
economies, politics, and social trends affect organizational effectiveness.
Middle management: This management is the intermediate management level
accountable to top management and responsible for leading lower level managers.
1. Recognize the specific responsibilities and job functions often assigned to
middle-level management professionals
2. Middle management isatthecenterofahierarchical organization, subordinate to
the senior management but above the lowest levels of operational staff.
3. Middle managers are accountable to top management for their department's
function. They provide guidance to lower-level managers and inspire them to
perform better.
4. Middle-management functions generally revolve around enabling teams of
workers to perform effectively and efficiently and reporting
these performance indicators to upper management.
 5. Middle management may be reduced in organizations as a result of
reorganization. Such changes can take the form of downsizing, "de-layering,"
"
and outsourcing.
Middle Management :-Most Most organizations have three management levels: first-level,
first
middle-level, and top-level
level managers. These managers are classified according to
a hierarchy of authorityand
and perform different tasks. In many organizations, the number
of managers in each level gives the organization a pyramid structure. Middle
management is the intermediate leadership level of a hierarchical organization, being
subordinate to the senior management but above the lowest levels of operational staff.
For example, operational supervisors may be considered middle management; they
may also be categorized as nonnon-management
ment staff, depending upon the policy of the
particular organization.

Frontline managers oversee primary production activities on a daily basis, so they

need very high interpersonal and technical skills.
Frontline management is the level of management that oversees a company's primary
production activities. Frontline managers assign employees tasks, supervise employees,
ensure quality and quantity production, make recommendations, channel employee
problems to other managers, provide technical expertise, check quality, and deal with
customers and clients.
lients. Frontline managers who are responsible for dealing directly
with the operating personnel need very high interpersonal and technical skills.
Frontline managers are actively involved in operations; examples of frontline
management include a store man ager or manufacturing facility manager.
manager
Frontline managers are managers who are responsible for a work group to a higher
level of management. They are normally in the lower layers of the management
hierarchy, and the employees who report to them do not themselves have any
managerial or supervisory responsibility. Frontline management is the level of
management that oversees a company's primary production activities.
Frontline managers consist of supervisors, section leads, foremen, and so on. They
focus on controlling and directing. They usually perform the following functions:

1. assign employees' tasks

2. guide and supervise employees on day-to-day activities
3. ensure quality and quantity production
4. make recommendations
5. channel or redirect employee problems
6. provide technical expertise
7. monitor work processes
8. deal with customers and clients
9. measure operational performance
10. Frontline managers also serve as role models for employees in providing
basic supervision, motivation, career planning, and performance feedback.
General management:-focuses on the entire business as a whole (a top-down
organizational view).A functional manager is a person who has management authority
over an organizational unit—such as a department—within a business, company, or
other organization. Under functional management, direct reports reside in the same
department.
A general manager is responsible for all areas and oversees all of the firm's functions
and day-to-day business operations. The general manager has to communicate with all
departments to make sure the organization performs well.
General management and functional management have many similarities; the primary
difference is that a functional manager focuses on one facet of an organization, while
the general manager must keep everything in view.
Functional Management:-
Besides the heads of a firm's product and/or geographic units, the company's top
management team typically consists of several functional heads (such as the chief
financial officer, the chief operating officer, and the chief strategy officer). A
functional manager is a person who has management authority over an organizational
unit—such as a department—within a business, company, or other organization.
Functional managers have ongoing responsibilities and are not usually directly
affiliated with project teams, other than ensuring that goals and objectives are aligned
with the organization's overall strategy and vision.
General managers:-include owners and managers who head small-business
establishments with duties that are primarily managerial. Most commonly, the term
general manager refers to any executive who has overall responsibility for managing
both the revenue and cost elements of a company's income statement. This means that
a general manager usually oversees most or all of the firm's marketing and sales
functions, as well as the day-to-day operations of the business. Frequently, the general
manager is responsible for effective planning, delegating, coordinating, staffing,
organizing, and decision making to attain profitable results for an organization.

Line and Staff Function for safety, Health, Environment

Line & Staff Organization :'Line & staff organization' is a combination of line and
functional structures, line of authority flows in a vertical line, but staff specialists are
attached to line positions to advise them on important matters and these specialists do
not have power of command over subordinates in other departments, but they possess
it over subordinates in their own department
E.g. Chief Safety Officer has command over safely officers in his department but he
has no command over accounts officer in other department. He has only advisory
relationship with other departments like production, personnel, HRD etc. A common
model of line & staff organization

Advantages Disadvantages
1. Relief to line managers Line-staff conflicts
2. Expert advice (specialization) 3. Better Confusion in relationships
decisions Staff becomes ineffective or irresponsible
4. Training of personnel Expensive for small units
5. Flexibility – opportunity for
advancement

Line and Staff Function:-

Authority :-
Authority means “legal” or delegated power or right to a person.Government
official have powers vested in them by law and therefore they are called Government
authorities.Authority can be delegated .it is also decentralisation of power downward.
A safety officer can delegated his authority to permit some work to safety
supervisor..Authority gives right to aamanagers and disobedience of his order injuries
his right for which a penality is possible
According to some scientist:-
 Henry fayal:-Authority is the right to give orders and the power to exact
obedience.
 Herbert Simon:- It is the power to make dicisions which guide actions of others.
 Terry:- It is excersied by making decisions and seeing that they are carried out.
Characteristics of Authority:-
a. Legitimacy: -It determines the effectiveness of authority. Hence it is the
hall mark of the concept of authority. According to Robert Dahl “A
commands B and B feels A has perfect right to do so and to which he has
complete obligation to obey. Power of this kind is often said to be
legitimate………. Legitimate power is often called authority.”
b. Dominance:--Authority is capacity of the individual to command others.
An individual or a group which possesses authority exercises dominance
over other individuals. Authority is a command of superior to an inferior.
c. An informal power:--It is not a formal power as it lacks characteristics
which are the main features of power. According to Fredrick “Authority is
not a power but something that accompanies power.” It is the quality in
men and things which adds to their power, something which creates
power but it is not itself power.
d. Rationality:--This is the main characteristic of authority. In the words of
Fredrick, ‘The man who has authority possesses something that I would
describe as the capacity for reasoned elaboration for giving convincing
reasons for what he does or proposes to have others to do.” Evidently the
basis of authority is logic or reason.
e. Accountability:--The individual or a group of individuals who possess
authority are responsible to some higher authority. In a democratic system
accountability is the most significant characteristic of authority.
Scope of Authority;-
 Biological and physical limitation
 Legal and social constrains
 Economics constrains
 Limited span
  Organizational limitation
Responsibility:- Being a good manager is a challenging job. You are not only
responsible for supervising your employees and making sure the work they do is of
high quality and completed on time. You must also be effective at interacting with your
own supervisors in upper management. While the specific duties of a manager differ
by the position and company, there are a few common responsibilities all managers
must deal with.
1. Get the Job Done :-One of the most important functions of a manager is to
ensure that the people in your department do the job that needs to be done on
time and with the highest degree of quality possible.
2. Be a Leader :-As a manager, you set the tone for your department. If you're
upbeat and positive, your employees will be as well. It is your responsibility to
lead by example -- not only in regard to your own attitude but also your personal
work ethic and how you interact with other people. Treat others with respect,
whether they are other managers, subordinates, superiors, customers, suppliers
or other stakeholders
3. Evaluate Performance and Processes :--To be an effective manager, you need
to know that your employees are being as productive as possible and that the
processes in place to facilitate completion of their tasks are working optimally.
For this reason, it's important to not only evaluate your workers' performance,
but also the processes they're using during the course of each workday.
4. Traits of a Good Manager :-No matter what industry you work in, there are
several characteristics that good managers have in common. Don't be afraid to
praise employees for good performance. If you need to reprimand a worker,
don't do it in front of other employees. Instead, talk to the worker one-on-one in
your office to discuss the problem. Communicate with your employees openly
and often. Keep them informed of what's happening in the company at weekly
staff meetings
Power of management :-means ability to do or capacity to do something to act. To
control, to exercise force or enforcement etc. Power also comes with authority because
authority gives right and that right gives power. Powerless person cannot manage or do
anything. Subordinate do not follow his orders and goals of management can never be
achieved .Therefore power should be vested by giving authority to managers

Span of control:- It is a very important concept of organizing function of

management. It refers to the number of subordinates that can be handled effectively by
a superior in an organization. Span of control or span of management is a dimension of
 organizational design measured by the number of subordinates that report directly to a
given manager. It represents a numerical limit of subordinates to be supervised &
controlled by a manager.
ACCOUNTABILITYANDRESPONSIBILITY:
The main difference between responsibility and accountability is that
responsibility can be shared while accountability cannot. Being accountable
not only means being responsible for something but also ultimately being
answerable for your actions. Also, accountability is something you hold a
person to only after a task is done or not done. Responsibility can be before
and/or after a task.
ACCOUNTABILITY:
In ethics and governance, accountability is answerability, blameworthiness,
liability, and the expectation of account-giving.
RESPONSIBILITY:
Responsibility may refer to: being in charge, being the owner of a task or
event.
Ex. It is Tom's responsibility to make sure there are supplies in the office room. So Tom will
be aware of this task and keep bringing in more supplies before they run out. At this point,
you cannot say Tom has been held accountable (answerable) for performing this task. Tom
is responsible for the office supplies, but he is only held accountable — owes an explanation
for his actions — if the supplies ever run out.

SPAN OF MANAGEMENT
Definition: The Span of Management refers to the number of subordinates who can be
managed efficiently by a superior. Simply, the manager having the group of
subordinates who report him directly is called as the span of management.

The Span of Management has two implications:

1. Influences the complexities of the individual manager’s job

2. Determine the shape or configuration of the Organization

The span of management is related to the horizontal levels of the organization

structure. There is a wide and a narrow span of management. With the wider span,
there will be less hierarchical levels, and thus, the organizational structure would be
flatter. Whereas, with the narrow span, the hierarchical levels increases, hence the
organizational structure would be tall.

Both these organizational structures have their advantages and the disadvantages.
But however the tall organizational structure imposes more
more challenges:

 Since the span is narrow, which means less number of subordinates under one
superior, requires more managers to be employed in the organization. Thus, it
would be very expensive in terms of the salaries to be paid to each senior.
 With more levels in the hierarchy, the communication suffers drastically. It takes a
lot of time to reach the appropriate points, and hence the actions get delayed.
 Lack of coordination and control because the operating staff is far away from the
top management.

DELEGATION AND DECENTRALIZATION OF AUTHORITY:

Delegation of Authority :-
:
All activities are not performed by one person. Authority should be provided to the
subordinates too. Process of transferring authority and creation of responsibility
between superior and subordinates to accomplish a certain task is called delegation of
authority.
Some of the main principle of delegation are mentioned below:
  Principle of absoluteness of responsibility– according to it, responsibility can’t
be delegated. Only authority can be delegated. The person who delegates
authority is himself responsible for his seniors.
 Principle of unity of command– according to it, subordinates must be
commanded by one superior, they should take their task from one superior and
should be accountable fro their responsibility toward the superior level of
operation
 Principle of functional definition of authority and responsibility– as per this
principle. Duties and task assigned by the superior and the authority given to
fulfill the task should be clearly explained and decided. Bt this subordinates can
know about the limit of one’s right, duties and responsibility.
 The scalar chain– according to it, authority flows from top to bottom. So that
scalar chain is the basis of relationship between the superior and subordinates. It
emphasizes the relation between superior and subordinates by which delegation
will be easier.
 Principle of parity of authority and responsibility– parity of authority and
responsibility is one of the important principles of delegation of authority. There
is equality in assigned task and power to do the work. Authority to the
subordinates is given by the superior on the basis of assigned task. So Authority
to the subordinates is given nether more or less than the task otherwise their can
be improper utilization of authority and mismanagement of task.

Decentralization:-Decentralization is the process of redistributing or dispersing

functions, powers, people or things away from a central location or authority
A few definitions are given below:
1. “Decentralisation refers to tire systematic effort to delegate to the
lowest levels all authority except that which can only be exercised
at central points.” —Louis A. Allen
2. “Decentralisation means the division of a group of functions and
activities into relatively autonomous units with overall authority
and responsibility for their operation delegate to timd of cacti
unit.’—Earl. P. Strong
3. “Decentralisation is simply a matter of dividing up the managerial
work and assigning specific duties to the various executive skills.”
Degree of Decentralisation:-The degree of decentralisation is determined by:
 Nature of the authority delegated,
 How far down in the organisation it is delegated,
  How consistently it is delegated.
Factor determining decentralizing:-
 Size of Organization: - Decentralization depends upon size of organization.
Larger the size of organization more the number of decision making areas will
be there. So it will not be possible for single head to make all the decisions
alone. Also the decision making process will be slow as communication process
will be very long. Therefore need of decentralization would be more important.
 History of organization:- Decentralization depends upon how the organization
developed over the period of time. Normally those organizations which expand
under the direction of owner-founder show resistance to decentralization.
 Management philosophy: The character of top leader of organization influence
the extent of authority is centralized or decentralized.
 Availability of mangers: - The shortage of quality manager also influences the
extent of authority to be decentralized. If good managers are available then there
is more possibility of decentralization of work.
 Costliness of decision: - The costliness of decisions in most important factor
that effect the decentralization process. Decisions involving heavy costs or
investment will be with top management like decision making for purchasing
capital goods, land or machinery will be with top management and purchase of
normal routine goods like daily stationary furniture will be made by department.
 Rate of change in organization: - The rate of change in organization also
affects the decentralization decision. If the organization is fast developing and it
is facing problems of expansion there is more chances of decentralization of
authority for reducing burden from top management.
 Nature of activities: - The nature of operation s also determine the extent of
decentralization i.e. whether the operation of organization are concentrated at
one place or region or dispersed over different areas. If activities are dispersed in
different territories then decentralization is must.
Major Differences betweenDelegation and Decentralization
 Responsibility:-In delegation, a superior delegates or transfers some rights and
duties to a subordinate but his responsibility in respect of that work does not
end. On the other hand, decentralization relieves him from responsibility and the
subordinate becomes liable for that work.
 Process:-Delegation is process while decentralization is the end result of a
deliberate policy of making delegation of authority to the lowest levels in
managerial hierarchy.
  Need.:-Delegation is almost essential for the management to get things done in
the organization i.e., delegating requisite authority for performance of work
assigned. Decentralization may or may not be practiced as a systematic policy in
the organization.
 Control:-In delegation the final control over the activities of organization lies
with the top executive while in decentralization the power of control is exercised
by the unit head to which the authority has been delegated.
 Authority:-Delegation represents selecting dispersal of authority whereas
decentralization signifies the creation of autonomous and self-sufficient units or
divisions.
 Scope:-Delegation hardly poses any problem of co- ordination to the delegator
of authority. While decentralization poses a great problem in this regard since
extreme freedom of action is given to the people by creating self-sufficient or
autonomous units.
 Good Results:-Decentralization is effective only in big organizations whereas
delegation is required and gives good results in all types of organizations
irrespective of their size.
 Nature:-Delegation is the result of human limitation to the span of management.
Decentralization is the other hand, is the result of the big size and multi-furious
functions of the enterprise.
1.4Role of management in industrial safety:-

Planning

Definition: Planning is the function of management that involves setting

objectives and determining a course of action for achieving those objectives. Planning
requires that managers be aware of environmental conditions facing their organization
and forecast future conditions. It also requires that managers be good decision makers.
 Planning is a process consisting of several steps. The process begins with
environmental scanning which simply means that planners must be aware of the
critical contingencies facing their organization in terms of economic conditions, their
competitors, and their customers. Planners must then attempt to forecast future
conditions. These forecasts form the basis for planning.
Planners must establish objectives, which are statements of what needs to be
achieved and when. Planners must then identify alternative courses of action for
achieving objectives. After evaluating the various alternatives, planners must make
decisions about the best courses of action for achieving objectives. They must then
formulate necessary steps and ensure effective implementation of plans. Finally,
planners must constantly evaluate the success of their plans and take corrective action
when necessary.
There are many different types of plans and planning.
Strategic planning :-involves analyzing competitive opportunities and threats, as well
as the strengths and weaknesses of the organization, and then determining how to
position the organization to compete effectively in their environment. Strategic
planning has a long time frame, often three years or more. Strategic planning generally
includes the entire organization and includes formulation of objectives. Strategic
planning is often based on the organization’s mission, which is its fundamental reason
for existence. An organization’s top management most often conducts strategic
planning.
Tactical planning :-is intermediate-range (one to three years) planning that is
designed to develop relatively concrete and specific means to implement the strategic
plan. Middle-level managers often engage in tactical planning.
Operational planning :-generally assumes the existence of organization-wide or
subunit goals and objectives and specifies ways to achieve them. Operational planning
is short-range (less than a year) planning that is designed to develop specific action
steps that support the strategic and tactical plans.
Definition of Planning by
 Planning refers to a preview of future activities.by Henry fayal
 It is fundamentally a mental predispositions to do thing in an orderly way, to
think before acting and to act in the light of react rather than guesses. by Urwick
Nature of planning
 It is a primary and important function of management.
  It goal oriented. And an intellectual or rational process.
 It is a pervasive, flexible,continuous process and conscious process.
 Accuracy is essential to planning and is a choice of alternatives.
Scope of planning
In accuracy,rigidity,cost,incertainty,Timeconsumption,attitude of
management,lack of orientation,Training for managers,false sense of security,Faults in
planning system,Ressistance to change,Environmentlon strains.
Procedure of planning:--Basic steps in planning are as under:-
 Identify problems
 Establish objectives or goals
 Develop planning premises e.g. land ,labor,capital,kmarket,money,time,
procedure,publicrelation,reputation,morals,policy
 Determine alternatives course of action
 Evaluate the alternate
 Select a course of action
 Formulate derivatives plan ans sub-plan as per need.
Range of planning Based on time schedule three types of plans can be prepared as
under
Short term:-For a period up to one years.they are specific and detaile and cover forms
and contents of long term plan.they are prepared on the basis of stretigic and tactical
plan
e.g.:-daily operation,repairs,maintainance
 Medium term:-for a more than one year or less than 5 years they are
coordinative and tactical in nature.they less detiled than short term,
e.g. proposed product and its safety aspects, emergency planning, ,inspection,
individual training.
 Long Term:-For a period of 5,10,15 or more years.it consider future changes in
environment and provide overall target towards which all activitiy of all
organisationae to be directed
Variety of planning
 Bases on objective:-production plan ,sale plan, financial investment, expansion,
r&d,training existing business, reform oriented plans
 Based on Time:-short,medium,long term plans are explained earlier
 Single use plan:- programs ,projects, budgets etc.
  Repeated use plan:- they consider objective ,policies, procedure rules and
strategies.

Strategic planning:- Is a type of plan to meet challenges ,comptitions,emergencies and

other environmental forces. On-site and off-sites emergencies plan are a best example.
Management by Objectives (MBO) This concept was given by Alfred Slown in 1950
but popularized in 1954. MBOis a personnel management technique where managers
and employees work together to set, record and monitor goals for a specific period of
time. Organizational goals and planning flow top-down through the organization and
are translated into personal goals for organizational members. The technique was first
championed by management expert Peter Drucker and became commonly used in the
1960s.

The core concept of MBO is planning, which means that an organization and its
members are not merely reacting to events and problems but are instead being
proactive. MBO requires that employees set measurable personal goals based upon the
organizational goals. For example, a goal for a civil engineer may be to complete the
infrastructure of a housing division within the next twelve months. The personal goal
aligns with the organizational goal of completing the subdivision.

MBO is a supervised and managed activity so that all of the individual goals can
be coordinated to work towards the overall organizational goal. You can think of an
individual, personal goal as one piece of a puzzle that must fit together with all of the
other pieces to form the complete puzzle: the organizational goal. Goals are set down
in writing annually and are continually monitored by managers to check progress.
Rewards are based upon goal achievement.

Process (steps) of MBO :

Steps in sequence are:

1. Set objectives of the organisation.
2. Set objectives of the departments.
3. Set objectives of the individuals.
4. Develop action plans.
5. Implement plans.
 6. Take periodic reviews.
7. Appraise results.
8. Take corrective action for improvement.
Advantages of MBO :
They are :
1. Better management.
2. Clarifies organisation.
3. Harmony of objectives.
4. Motivation.
5. Evaluation of results.
6. Development of managers.
7. Improvement in superior - subordinate relations.

Scope (limitations) of MBO:

1. Difficulty of introducing for reaching changes.
2. Difficulty in setting goals.
3. Too much emphasis on results.
4. Pressure on employees.
5. Too high expectations.
6. Neglect of some important goals.
7. Not useful for all.
8. Rigidity.
Requisites (preconditions) of MBO :
1. Setting real objectives.
2. Ends - means distinction.
3. Clarity of objectives.
4. Active support from all participants
5. Active support of top management.
6. Three elements that objectives should be - helpful in evaluating performance,
measurable and
1. Convertible into targets.
7. Multiple objectives and sub-optimization.
8. Displacement of objectives.
9. Quantitative cum qualitative objectives.
10. Receptivity.
11. Training for fulfillment of objectives.
12. The 'why' spirit (why cannot be obtained?)
13. Individual growth.
14. Study of environment and flexibility.
15. Provision of performance.
Role of MBO in Safety: The concept of MBO is much more useful in setting and
achieving safety goals because it is a participative approach and safety being
everybody's duty and everybody's target (goal) this approach is best fitting for safety
management. First safety goals for the whole organization should be decided by the
safety department. They may be:
1. Safety policy.
2. Some million man-hours work without accident.
3. Clean environment at all workplaces.
4. Productivity with safety.
5. Hazards detection and removal.
6. Maintenance of guards and safety devices.
7. Use of safety equipment.
8. Accident reporting, detailed investigation and record for cost and lesson.
9. Safety inspections and control techniques.
10. Safety committee, its objectives and functions.
11. Ergonomic improvements.
12. Occupational health & hygiene.
13. Compliance of statutory provisions.
14. Formation of other safety rules for specific works, SOPs and safety permit
systems.
15. Induction, on-going and periodical safety programmes.
Definitions of Policy:

 Koontz and O'Donnell - Policies are general statements of understandings

which guide or channel thinking in decision making of subordinates.
 Dalton McFarland- Policies are planned expressions of the company's official
attitudes towards the range of behaviour within which it will permit or desire its
employees to act.

Policy may be express or implied, verbal or written. Mostly it is in a short

document form in writing. Objectives indicate destination and policy provides its route.
Policy is the basic guidelines of attitudes, intentions, commitments or
determination of the top management telling employees and the public its broad
objectives and means to achieve them.

Types of Policies: They are classified as basic, general or departmental policies,

production policy, sales policy, purchasing policy, accounting policy, marketing
policy, finance policy, personnel policy, safety/health or environment policy, imposed
policy, appealed policy, originated policy, opportunism policy (in politics and
military), restrictive or permissive policy '(nature), written or implied policy etc.

Safety Policy is statutorily required u/s 7A(3) and 41B(2) of the Factories Act, 1948
and its details arc prescribed u/r 12-C and 68-0 of the Gujarat Factories Rules, 1963.

Steps in Policy Formulation :

1. Define policy area.
2. Identify policy alternatives.
3. Evaluate policy alternatives.
4. Select the best alternative.
5. Make policy document (if more details are required then policy manual).

Follow statutory guidelines.

a. Communicate for implementation.
b. See its application into operational plans and all activities.
c. Review and revise to keep it up-to-date.
ORGANISING FOR SAFETY:

Definition:-
It refers an activity, process or function of management i.e. organizing.
It is used in a dynamic way referring to process by which the structure is
created, maintained and used.
 Chester Barnard-It is a system of co-operative activities
 McFarland-It is an identifiable group of people contributing their efforts
towards the attainment of goals. of two or more persons.
  Joseph L. Massie- Organization is defined as the structure and process by
which co-operative group of human beings allocates its tasks among its
members, identifies relationship and integrates its activities towards common
objectives.
 John Pfeiffer- It is essentially a matter of relationship of man to man, job to job
and departmentto department.

Need of Organization:Organization is the foundation or framework of the whole

structure of management and contributes greatly to success and continuity of an
enterprise in the following ways
1. Facilitates administration and other functions of management process.
2. Facilitates growth and diversification.
3. Permits optimum use of technological improvements.
4. Encourages use of human beings.
5. Stimulates creativity.
6. Attains maximum efficiency with minimum costs.

Planning is the brain of a business unit while organization is its physical structure.
All managerial
Functions like planning, directing, co-ordinating, controlling, budgeting, staffing
etc. are performed· through the medium of organisation.

Nature and Principle: Briefly they can be stated as under

1. It is a set up to realise the objectives (common purpose).
2. It is a co-operative activity.
3. It is a process (function) and structure both.
4. Division into Departments or groups. Division of labour.
5. Delegation of authority and responsibility. The chain of superior -
subordinate relationship isknown as 'chain of command'. (Authority
structure).
6. Importance of human element (people).
7. Vertical and horizontal relationship between man to man, job to job .and
department to department.
8. It is closely linked with planning. Other functions of management are not
possible withoutorganisation.
9. It is flexible and accommodates environmental changes.
10. It is stable and resists challenges.
11. Provides supervision, control and review.
12. Provides mechanism of co-ordination.
 13. Provides channels of communication.
14. Provides policies, procedures, rules and regulations for systematic
functioning.
15. Backbone of management and regenerates everything from beginning.

Principles of Organisation (Features of a good Organisation Structure) :

They aresummarised as under

a. Unity of objective - all are geared to common objectives.
b. Span of control - each superior has limited subordinates to report
him.
c. Unity of command - each subordinate has only one superior to
get command.
d. Scalar principle - clear chain of command from top to bottom.
e. Co-ordination - should exist among all individuals and groups.
f. Communication - should be open and clear.
g. Facilitates leadership.
2. Parity of authority and responsibility - exist by way of delegation.
3. Exception principle - only matters beyond control may be referred to
higher levels.
4. Functional definition - Functions (duties), authority and responsibility
of every position should beclearly defined so as to avoid duplication or
overlapping.
5. Efficiency - optimum use of resources at minimum possible costs.
6. Flexibility - should accommodate changes.
7. Stability - should resist challenges.
8. Continuity - by training and development of executives and
employees.
9. Balance - between centralisation and decentralisation.
10. Division of work - one member one function.
11. Unity of direction - clear-cut direction at all levels. Directions should
be simple, easy to understand and unambiguous.
12. Simplicity and clarity - they add to efficacy of organisation.
Organizing for safety, Health, Environment.
 Planning:It includes setting safety objectives, formulating safety policy, safety
programming,budgeting and determining safe or standard procedures. Good
planting at the design stage always helps.
 Planning for site, effluent disposal, facilities for storing and handling raw
materials, intermediates andproducts, types of floor, roof, construction, lighting,
 ventilation, layout of machinery, pressure vessels,lifting machines, hazardous
processes, boilers, storage tanks, repair services, auxiliaries, utilities,
fireprotection, training, welfare and sanitary facilities etc., must consider safety
points at this initial stage sothat the planning and design defects can be
eliminated or minimised from the beginning. Previous plansapproval and
correction after operation are also necessary.

2. Organising:It includes establishment of the formal structure of authority

through which worksubdivisions are defined, arranged, and co-ordinated for the
planned safety objectives.An organisational set-up describes four classes of
management - Top or Executive, Intermediate,Middle and Supervisory
management. The set-up may vary according to the size and nature
ofestablishment. A model safety organization.

The Company Board decides the safety policy and objectives and
monitors its implementation. Managing Director is reportable to the Board for
implementation of safety policy. Safety executive or safety department reports to
MD. Managers are answerable to the Safety Department or Executive for
application of the safety arrangements. Supervisors are reportable to the
Managers for shop floor extension and application of safety policy, rules and
procedures. Workers are responsible to their supervisors for effectively carrying
out the safety rules and precautions. Safety Representatives selected from
workers and supervisors advise and assist to Safety Committee for promoting
health and safety.
 Safety Committee advises on all matters of safety and health to the Managers and
the Managing Director.

 Staffing : It includes personnel function of recruitment and training the staff and
maintainingsafe and favourable conditions of work through personnel.
 Directing : It is a continuous task of taking decisions, ordering, instructing,
guiding and advisingon all maters of safety.
 Controlling : It includes performing, evaluating and correcting the performance
according to
objectives, procedures and plans. It is concerned with quality, times, uses and cost
in safety matters.
  Co-ordinating : It includes interrelating and synchronising the different
activities for achievingsafety goals

Organization structure, Function and responsibility

The main points that follow from above definitions of organization are :
1. A business unit is divided into different sections or departments.
2. Each section or department is assigned a definite function or duty.
3. The authority and responsibility of each section or department or a group of
people are clearlydefined.
4. The interrelationship among various departments and among the groups of
people working inthem is clearly specified.

See Fig.for a general organization structure.

Safety Organization defined:Inferring from above general definitions. Safety

organisation canbe defined as the structure and process by which groups of people
(employees) are divided into sectionsor departments, each section or department is
assigned specific safety function or duty. Authority andresponsibility of everybody is
clearly defined and interrelationship between them is specified for theaccomplishment
of organisational safely goals.
A large unit may have safely department which may have groups of people for
division of suchsafety function and responsibilities. But in a small unit (majority) if
such division is not possible and onlya few persons are available for safety work, they
will be assigned specific duty and other departmentalheads (production, purchase,
personnel etc.) will be explained their role and responsibility towards safetygoals. All
supervisors shall be integrated with safety as part of their duty. 'Safety is everybody's
duty' willbe explained to all with their safety duty given in writing or by displaying at
their workplaces.
Directing for Safety
Directing : It is a continuous task of taking decisions, ordering, instructing, guiding
and advising on all maters of safety.

Definition:-
 Urwick and Brech - Directing is the guidance, the inspiration, the leadership of
those men andwomen that constitute the real core of the responsibility of
management.
 J. L. Massie - Directing concerns the total manner in which a manager
influences the actions ofsubordinates. It is the final action of a manager in
getting others to act after all preparations havebeen completed.

Process : The process of directing consists of , the following steps :

 Issue orders and instructions. They should be clear, complete and within
capabilities of thefollowers.
 Provide and continue guidance and supervision to ensure that the assigned tasks
are carried outeffectively and efficiently.
 Maintain discipline and reward for good work.
 Inspire and motivate to work hard to achieve the goals.
Principle and technique
Principles of Direction :
They are :
1. Harmony of objectives -Management should take care of personal goals of
employees with the organizational goals.
2. Unity of command. -One subordinate should get orders/instructions from one
superior only.
3. Direct supervision -There should be personal or direct supervision.
4. Good communication - Helps to improve understanding and speed of work.
5. Maximum contribution - Managers should try to get maximum possible
contribution from eachsubordinate.
6. Appropriate techniques - The techniques should be suitable to superior,
subordinates and situationto get efficiency.
7. Strategic use of informal organization- Some informal groups should be
contacted to decidedirection.
8. Comprehension - Orders should be clear, complete and understandable.
9. Good Leadership - Managers should guide and counsel subordinates to win
their confidence andtrust.
 10. Follow-up - Managers should follow-up their orders and modify if necessary.
Techniques of Direction: Generally four techniques are available for directing. They
are

Delegation of authority, supervision, orders and instructions.

By delegation of authority a superior entrusts his subordinates with certain rights or
powers. Heassigns a part of his work and authorises him to do work.
Supervision means expert overseeing of subordinates at work to ensure compliance of
plans andProcedures. At operating level it is most useful and effective.
The terms order, instruction, directive and command are used interchangeably in
managementliterature. They mean to initiate , modify or stop an activity. It is a primary
tool by which activities arestarted, altered, guided and terminated.

Leadership:-
It is an indivisible part of the process of directing as explained in earlier part. It is a
tool or meanswhich makes direction effective. Dr. Terry says that managers have to
manage business which means thatthey have to provide leadership. They have to instil
in them desire to achieve the goals, a desire toimprove their performance and a sense
of co-operation. If the managers fail to provide such 'leadershipthe employees will
search the leadership outside which may lead to conflict or distraction.
 Koontz and. O'Donnell - Leadership is influencing people to follow in the
achievement ofcommon goal.
 Terry - It is the ability of influencing people to strive willingly for natural
objectives.
 R. T. Livingston - It is the ability to awaken in others the desire to follow a
common objective.

Role and Functions of a Leader :

1. He should be clear about common objectives (goals) and should communicate
them clearly.
2. He has to influence, guide, instruct, inspire and supervise his subordinates to
work efficiently andeffectively.
3. He has to generate (awaken) desire in followers to achieve the common goal.
4. He works along with his followers, shows them how to work and gets their co-
operation in return.
 5. He should convince the followers that in protection of organisational (group)
goals, lies theprotection of their personal goals.
6. He has to provide continuous guidance till the achievement of goals.
7. Depending on situation he should alter, modify or stop order and should not be
rigid in hisdecision.
8. He has to set an example by his own behaviour. Urwick has rightly said that It is
not what a leadersays, still less what he writes, that influences subordinates. It is
what he is. And they judge whathe is by what he does and how he behaves'.

An Attribute of leader:-
1. Attributes of a Leader : Certain qualities are necessary for leadership but they
must be applied atthe correct place and time. Dr. Terry mentioned following
qualities of a leader -
2. Energy - Physical and mental fitness to work by self and to guide for a longer
time.
3. Teaching ability - He should be a good teacher.
4. Emotional stability- should be free from bias and anger and not emotional.
5. Empathy - It means the ability to understand other's viewpoint. He should
have respect for othersand their beliefs.
6. Objectivity -He should be objective to others and should find out reasons for
requests or refusal byhis subordinates.
7. Enthusiasm - is required in leader. He should be self motivated and capable
of motivating others.
8. Knowledge of HR - Leader has to deal with human beings and therefore he
should possesknowledge of human resources.
9. Communicative skill - He should be effective in his speech, talk and forceful
impression.
10. Social skill - He should mix with his followers freely and socially. He should
appreciate others'opinion and work with close co-operation.
11. Technical competence - Doubtlessly he must be technically more competent
so that he cansuccessfully teach technical aspects.

Leadership Styles (Techniques) : They are of three types -

o Autocratic or Dictatorial leadership.
o Democratic or Consultative or Participative leadership.
o Free .Rein or Laissez Faire leadership.
 Autocratic leadership is useful when subordinates are illiterate, unskilled,
untrained and secrecyin decision making is required. It can be applied when
 there is a clear chain of command or clear-cutdivision of authority. Its features
are retention of power, relying on orders only and close supervision.
 In democratic or consultative leadership method, the manager consults his
subordinates andinvites their suggestions before making decision. Formal or
informal meetings are also held. Heresubordinates work heartily because their
views and opinions are respected. Close personal contacts andclear
understanding of problems are ensured. It develops trust, co-operation and
leadership amongemployees. This stage is useful when subordinates are literate,
have sense of responsibility and organised. bIt requires much time in decision
making.
 In free - rein leadership technique, the manager delegate authority to his
subordinates and theyare encouraged to develop and contribute independent
thought and action. This method is preferredmostly by highly educated and
independent (free minded) persons. Here details are prepared by
thesubordinates. There is a free communication between superior and his
subordinates. They don't feeldifficulty in consulting each other. It is more
creative and develops latent abilities of subordinates.Selection of leadership
style depends on (1) force in Manager (2) force in Subordinates and (3)force in
Situation.

Communication :- It is a process involving the transmissionand-reception of message,

eliciting meaning in the mind of the receiver and resulting in appropriateaction which
is desired. Motivation cannot succeed without communication

 Haimann - Communication means the process of passing information and

understanding fromone person to another. It is the process of imparting ideas
and making oneself understand byothers. It is fundamental and vital to all
managerial functions.

 Newman and Summer -It is an exchange of facts, ideas, opinions or emotions

by two or morepersons.

 Koontz and O'Donnell -It is an intercourse by words, letters, symbols or

messages, and is a waythat one organisation member shares meaning and
understanding with another.
 Chester Bernard has stated "'The first executive function is to develop and
maintain a system ofcommunication".
Purpose of communication:-
 It is utmost necessary for planning, decision making, organising, directing
and controlling.
 Plans cannot be implemented without effective communication.
 Its basic purpose is to create mutual understanding and to secure desired
response.
 Motivation and morale can be boost up.
 Human relations can be improved.
 Training and development is not possible without communication.
 Co-ordination can be bridged by communication.
 Public relations can be maintained and strengthened.
 It increases productivity and performance.
 It assists other functions.
 It gives job satisfaction.
 It is a basis of leadership.
 It gives success to enterprise.

Process of communication:- According to Shannon and Weaver, it consists of

followingcomponents or elements:
 Sender - One who sends a message.

 Message - What is conveyed by the sender.

 Encoding - Words, symbols, gestures etc. by which the message is transmitted.

 Channel -Medium or route through which, the message is passed" i.e. face to
face, talk, phone,pager, radio, TV, letter etc.

 Receiver- Who receives the message. He may be a listener, reader or observer.

 Decoding - The process of understanding or interpreting by the receiver.

 Feedback - Means reply, response or acknowledgement of the receiver that he

has understoodthe message. It may be by words, actions or expressions. When
the sender receives such feedback,the process of communication becomes
complete. See Fig.
Types and Channel
Types of Channels and Media of Communication:
Communication

Channels Media

Formal Informal

(Grapevine, inall directions) OralWritten

Electronic
Gesture

Downward
Upward
Horizontal
Diagonal
A communication channel is a route through which messages flow from the
sender to the receiver.

It is either formal or informal. Formal (planned or systematic) communication

may flow in downward, upward, horizontal or diagonal direction and creates
communication networks. Informal i.e. unofficial or inter-personal (unplanned and
need base) communication flows in all directions and therefore it is called structure
less or grapevine.

Essential tools in communication

Tools of Communication:They are the means through which information is
communicated. They canbe classified as under:
  Oral (Verbal) : Personal contact, talk, phone, meetings, audio, video etc.
 Written:Letters, circulars, memos, reports, notices, handbooks, manuals,
booklets, magazines,Bulletins. Email etc.
 Visual: Newsreel, film, video, play, posters, pictures, boards etc.
 Informal : Casual or incidental talk, meetings etc.

Barriers to Communication:

Despite of growth in communication system and modern electronic media, it

may fail due tofollowing barriers or obstacles.
 Incomplete, ambiguous or badly expressed message.
 Absence of clarity of thought.
 Absence of brevity and exactness, unwanted length, words, repetitions, over-
elaboration etc.
 Timeliness i.e. the message does not reach in time.
 Lack of attention by the receivers.
 Organisational barrier - Scalar chain of command, filtering of message,
discouragement to
informal communication, excessive control etc.
 Status barrier - Subordinate has fear to report everything to superior and may
hide unpleasantfacts.
 Perceptual barrier - Receiver may pay attention only on that part where he has
interest or likingand may underrate or filter the message.
 Information overload - Due to overload work, managers may ignore some
message, may forget toinform some people or may send incomplete message
 Premature evaluation - The receiver evaluates the message before getting
complete information i.e.he derives premature conclusion.
 Channel distortion - Physical, Mechanical or electronic disturbance or
mistransmission due to channel distortion.
 Improper order of information.
 Improper selection of medium.
 Emotional or sentimental messages.
 Change of meaning during transmission.
 Unwanted assumptions either by sender or receiver of both.
Essentials of Effective Communication :
Rules, principles or guidelines of effective communication or the measures to
overcome its
barriers are as under:
 Message should be clear, complete, and unambiguous and expressed properly.
 Information should be in proper order/sequence.
 Medium should be proper and effective.
 Channel should be sound and undistorted.
 Clarity - There should be clarity of thought.
 Brevity - Message should be brief, precise and perfect. Meaningless words,
repetitions, and Excessive details should be avoided.
 Timeliness - Message should reach in time.
 Integrity - Message must be consistent with objectives, policies and
programmes. Action and behaviour of the sender should support his message.
 Feedback - There should be follow up action (if necessary) to get feedback.
 Careful listening by the receiver is necessary.
 Strategic use of grapevine - The sender should try to fill up gaps in formal
communication by strategic use of informal channel.
 Create a climate of faith, trust and good human relations to make the
communication effective and respectful.
 Communication should be purposeful, at propel speed, sound and with
synchronising.
 Line of communication (reporting) should be clear.
 Evaluation of communication system is useful for improvement.
Two way communication
Information
Feedback
Sender Receiver

Adjusted Information
Understanding
Communication and group dynamics.
Keith Davisdefines "Group Dynamics" as the social process by which people interact
face toface in small groups.
Group dynamics is the study of forces operating within a group. It is the study of field
that dealswith
(1) Interactions and forces between group members in a social situation
(2) The nature and development of small groups
(3) Interactions among members and inter group behavior
(4) How a group should be organized and operated and (5) Nature, Structure and
processes of a group, and their influence on the behavior and performance of group
members.

The assumptions underlying the study of group dynamics are as under:

1. Groups are inevitable and ubiquitous.
2. Groups can produce both good and bad consequences.
3. Desirable consequences from groups can be obtained through correct understanding
of groups andtheir functioning.
4. Groups mobilise powerful sources that produce effects of utmost importance to
individuals.

Team building
The groups perform four functions of
(1) Socialising the new employees
(2) Getting the work Done
(3) Decision making and
(4) Control measures.

Group dynamics states following characteristics of a group :

1. Structure - Each member occupies a position in the group depending on his
status, power,experience, aggressiveness etc. Leadership is a special status.

2. Roles - Depending on position, the members perform three types of roles : expected
role,perceived role and enacted role.
3. Norms - mean prescriptions for acceptable behaviour determined by the group.
4. Informal managerial roles - Managers can perform three types of roles
(1) Interpersonal 'roles as a figurehead, leader and liaison officer.
(2) Informational roles as disseminator, monitorand spokesperson.
(3) Decisional roles as entrepreneur, disturbance handler, resource allocator and
negotiator (Henry Mintzberg).
5. Informal communication system - or grapevine communications in all directions
should beutilised to attain objectives.
Supervisors' good behaviour with their workers, informal relations and taking interest
in theirpersonal matters and paying constant attention for their individual growth, give
desired results. Such behaviour is much more useful to make the workers safety
Oriented. Sympathetic and fatherly behavior is the best form of communication. Group
dynamics should not disintegrate the organisation, rather it should strengthen
integration. Art of communication should be developed for this purpose by giving
special training to the superiors.

NATIONAL POLICY ON SAFETY, HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENT AT

WORK PLACE

The Constitution of India provide detailed provisions for the rights of the citizens and
also lays down the Directive Principles of State Policy which set an aim to which the
activities of the state are to be guided.

OBJECTIVES:
The policy seeks to bring the national objectives into focus as a step towards
improvement in safety, health and environment at workplace. The objectives are to
achieve:-
a) Continuous reduction in the incidence of work related injuries, fatalities, diseases,
disasters and loss of national assets.
b) Improved coverage of work related injuries, fatalities and diseases and provide for a
more comprehensive data base for facilitating better performance and monitoring.
c) Continuous enhancement of community awareness regarding safety, health and
environment at workplace related areas.
d) Continually increasing community expectation of workplace health and safety
standards.
e) Improving safety, health and environment at workplace by creation of “green jobs”
contributing to sustainable enterprise development.

ACTION PROGRAMME:

Enforcement:
1 by providing an effective enforcement machinery as well as suitable provisions for
compensation and rehabilitation of affected persons;
2 by effectively enforcing all applicable laws and regulations concerning safety, health
and environment at workplaces in all economic activities through an adequate and
effective labour inspection system;
3 By establishing suitable schemes for subsidy and provision of loans to enable
effective implementation of the policy;
4 by ensuring that employers, employees and others have separate but complementary
responsibilities and rights with respect to achieving safe and healthy working
conditions.

National Standards:
1 by developing appropriate standards, codes of practices and manuals on safety,
health and environment for uniformity at the national level in all economic activities
consistent with international standards and implementation by the stake holders in true
spirit
2 by ensuring stakeholders awareness of and accessibility to applicable policy,
documents, codes, regulations and standards

Compliance:

1. by encouraging the appropriate Government to assume the fullest responsibility for

the administration and enforcement of occupational safety, health and environment at
workplace, provide assistance in identifying their needs and responsibilities in the area
of safety, health and environment at workplace, to develop plans and programmer in
accordance with the provisions of the applicable Acts and to conduct experimental and
demonstration projects in connection therewith;
2. by calling upon the co-operation of social partners in the supervision of application
of legislations and regulations relating to safety, health and environment at work
place.
3 by continuous improvement of Occupational Safety and Health by systems approach
to the management of Occupational Safety and Health including developing guidance
on Occupational Safety and Health management systems, strengthening voluntary
actions, including mechanisms for self-regulatory concept and establishing auditing
mechanisms which can test and authenticate occupational safety and health
management systems;
4 by providing specific measures to prevent catastrophes, and to co-ordinate and
specify the actions to be taken at different levels, particularly in the industrial zones
with high potential risks.
5 by recognizing the best safety and health practices and providing facilitation for their
adoption.

Awareness:

1. by increasing awareness on safety, health and environment at workplace through

appropriate means.
 2. by providing forums for consultations with employers’ representatives,
employees representatives and community on matters of national concern
relating to safety, health and environment at work place with the overall
objective of creating awareness and enhancing national productivity
3. by encouraging joint labor-management efforts to preserve, protect and promote
national assets and to eliminate injuries and diseases arising out of employment
4. by raising community awareness through structured, audience specific approach
5. by continuously evaluating the impact of such awareness and information
initiatives

Research and Development:

1. by providing for research in the field of safety, health and environment at
workplace, including the social and psychological factors involved, and by
developing innovative methods, techniques including computer aided Risk
Assessment Tools, and approaches for dealing with safety, health and
environment at workplace problems which will help in establishing standards;
2. by exploring ways to discover latent diseases, establishing causal connections
between diseases and work environmental conditions, updating list of
occupational diseases and conducting other research relating to safety, health
and environmental problems at workplace
3. by establishing research priorities as per national requirements; exploring
partnerships and improving communications with various national and
international research bodies
4. by ensuring a coordinated research approach and an optimal allocation of
resources in Occupational Safety and Health sector for such purposes.

CHAPTER 2.SAFETY- EDUCATION AND TRAINING:

Elements of Training Cycle :

As per OSHA (Occupational Safety & Health Act)’s training guidelines, seven
chronological steps are suggested to complete a training cycle. These are the basic
elements of any safety training programmed. Fig. shows them in a cyclic order.

( 1) Determine whether training is needed or start up

of improved programmed from step (7)

7) Improve the programmed (2) Identify training needs

 (3) Identify goals and objectives

(6) Evaluate Programmed

effectiveness
(4) Design and Develop
Training Programme
(activities)

(5) Conduct the training (methods &types3333)

Fig 6.14 Training cycle

These steps are explained as under:
1. Determine if training is needed - The first step is to determine whether a problem
can be solved by training. All skill deficiencies are not solvable through training and
some other tool may be required. This step includes need of any improved (revised)
training programme.
2. Identify training needs - Analyse the worker's duties and what he or she needs to
perform the job more skillfully and safely.
3.Identify goals and objectives -A list of specific job knowledge and skill deficiency
derived from Step-2, will fell employers what workers should do, do better or stop
doing.
4. Design & Develop training programme- After listing precise objectives and goals,
learning (training) activities must be identified and described. Type of training will be
decided based on the training resources available to the employer, the kind of
knowledge or skills to be learned and whether the learning should be oriented towards
physical skill or mental attitudes.
5. Conduct the training - Now the training programme should be conducted by (a)
providing overviews of the material to be learned and (b) relating each specific item of
knowledge or skill to the worker's goals, interests or experience to be learned.
6. Evaluate programme effectiveness - By knowing trainee's opinion, supervisor's
observation, work place improvement, hazard reduction, performance improvement
etc., it should be checked whether the training has accomplished its goals.
7. Improve the programme- Based on feedback from the workers, supervisors etc.,
and from evaluation and observing the gap, the training programme should be
improved (revised) as per need.

Assessment of Training Needs :

The first step of any training process (cycle) is to be sure about the needs.
Following four questions (approaches) should be considered:
1. Does an actual or potential performance discrepancy exist ? (viz. unsafe conditions,
actions, efficiency).
2. Is it important to the organisation ? (viz. in reduction of cost of accident, hazards,
losses etc.).
3. Is it important to the employees ? (viz. basic training to new employees, refresher
course for old employees, more mistakes by workers, more accidents to them).
4. Is it correctable through training? (If yes, then only the training becomes useful and
cost effective.
General training needs are assessed from following grounds:
1. New employees are not very clear about job description. Therefore training is
essentially required for them.
2. Old employees require knowledge of new topics, new technology, process revision,
new methods and forgotten old items. Training for emergency preparedness, safety
audit, fire fighting, hazard detection etc. are also necessary for them.
3. Change of position due to promotion or transfer. New position may require training.
4. Technological changes in the organisation. Addition of new material, machine,
method, process, equipment etc. create need of training.
5. To make a person more versatile to do more than one job (safety supervision,
accident analysis and computer data feeding).
6. When performance, productivity and efficiency fall down at any level, training may
improve them.
7. Supervisors/foremen feel need of training for workers working under them.
8. Records of production, turnover, accidents, absenteeism, rejects, errors, wastes point
out areas of training.
The safety training programme is generally needed for all the times as an
induction or introductory course or a refresher or ongoing course but is specifically
needed when

 New employees are recruited

 New plant, material, process or equipment are introduced
 When safety procedures are evolved or updated
 New information of hazard is received
 Safety performance needs to be improved
 The accident rates are increased
 Labour turnover is increased and
 Excessive waste, rejects and scrap are noticed.
Objectives of Training:
Training cannot and should not be started without any pre-decided objective.
Training without objective (purpose) or for the sake of training is of no use and
becomes wasteful activity. Training need must be assessed first and from that the
objective(s) should be specified as under :
1. Transmitting information about policy, product, services, accident causes and
remedial measures,new process, methods and technology or the company itself.
2. Developing skill for safe behaviour and to work efficiently.
3. Modifying attitudes more favourable to safety, production, co-operation, discipline
etc.
4. To give a worker a new, necessary and broader view point of his safety
responsibility
5. To explain him potential hazards of unsafe working conditions, actions, environment
and safe views to prevent them and
6. To increase his safety consciousness, perception of danger, knowledge, experience,
confidence, responsibility and ability in safe performance.

Techniques (Procedure) of Training:

Competence Building Technique (CBT)
The concept or basic object of any training is to generate or build competence in
participants (workers). Only knowledge is not sufficient. Knowledge alone cannot give
competence or confidence of safe or successful working. Knowledge should be put into
practice by necessary training. Training shows the practical part of knowledge and
generates competence of work gradually. Competence in safe working is necessary.
Due to advancement in technology, new processes, new equipment, modification or
changes, training is always required to become familiar with tins. Therefore, safety is
an online function. It should not end with any slogan, suggestion, award or safety day
Celebration. It should be considered as' a part of continuous or ongoing activities. For
this purpose, induction training and refresher training are organized. Effective
communication system should be utilized. Role of multimedia and computers should
be utilized. Safety films, pictures, hazard points, accident case studies etc should be
shown and explained during training.

A good safety training programme contains following steps:

1. Determine safety training needs and priorities .
2. Design training to meet the needs. The steps are: (a) Assess training requirements
(b) Determine training contents (c) Decide training methods and aids (d) Organise
training content (e) Formulate training plan and (f) Decide evaluations measures.
3. Implement training process. The steps are: (a) Discuss with company officials (b)
Decide administrative aspects and time schedule of training (c) Execute (give) training
to the decided trainees (d) Monitor the programme (e) Conduct review of safety
training and (f) Have follow up of trainees.

(A) Off-the-job training techniques :

No. Category Techniques (methods)

1 1. Information presentation Reading list, Correspondence course,

techniques Films, Lecture, Panel discussion,
(less involvement of trainee). Programmed or Computer based
instruction.

2 2. Information processing Conference or discussion group, T

techniques (training) group.
(trainees are involved).

3 3. Simulation techniques Incident / case, role playing, In-basket,

(experiment or Vestibule, Mock-up, Business game.
practice).

(B) On-the job training techniques :

No Category Techniques(methods)
1 Actual job assignment Coaching, Job instruction training
(JIT).

2 Temporary job assignment Special assignment on job, committee,

project etc. job rotation through
 predetermined set of jobs to provide
exposure to different part .

Design and development of training program.

Any training programme should be designed for its specific purpose. Design and
development of safety training programme need systematic job safety or risk analysis.
For steps (detail) of such analysis Following general points are useful in designing and
developing any training programme.
1. Motivation should be the first condition of any type of training.
2. Number of lessons and content to teach should be well designed beforehand. Steps
or sequence of topics should be decided.
3. The amount to be taught in an unit (period) should not be too large or too small.
4. An objective of the training should be decided and the training process should move
toward it. The training procedure should be developed.' A list of training aids should be
prepared.
5. The task to be performed should not be described only but it should be demonstrated
in actual or simulated conditions. "Doing" is important than mere "Hearing" or
"Seeing". Practice makes man perfect.
6. The demonstration (by teacher) should be followed by the learner (trainee) as soon
as possible before' he forgets it. The teacher should be given feedback or knowledge of
results.
7. Questions of learners should be properly replied and discussed at all stages (steps).
8. Ample practice opportunity should be provided and practice encouraged.
9. Frequent and accurate knowledge with examples, pictures, practical etc., speeds up
learning rate and motivation.
10. The training should be taken to the point of goal and not be left unfinished.
11. Effectiveness of the training should be evaluated and conclusion be drawn to revise
(improve) the training programme and it should be followed in the next cycle.

The basic design of any training should consist:

1. Identifying the component tasks of a final performance.
2. Ensuring (in training) that each of these tasks is fully achieved or mastered by the
learner.
3. Arranging the training of the task components in such a way that there will be
positive transfer from learning of one to another. The design work may be done by
specially designated training professionals, especially for programs to be offered
several times or left to individual instructors.
Main design steps include
(1) Setting instructional objectives
(2) Determining programme content.. and
(3) Selecting instructional techniques for off-the-job and on-the-job training.

Training Methods and Strategies :

Aspects and Goals : The training methods have two aspects:
1. Theoretical or formal in the classroom and
2. Practical or informal in the job place.
There are two basic goals :
1. To explain the worker to know the job and to do it correctly and
2. To be certain that he knows how to do it ' correctly.
Steps: Any training method should have following steps:
1. Lay down the objective of the training programme.
2. Prepare the training programme.
3. Brief the trainee.
4. Use audio visual aids where appropriate.
5. Review the contents and
6. Follow up with trainees when the programme is completed.
Effects of Methods : Effectiveness of different training methods is given by Bird as
follows:
A trainee tends to remember 1-10% of what he reads, 20% of what he hears, 30% of
what he sees,50% of what he sees and hears, 70% of what he sees as he talks and 90%
of what he says as he does a thing. This percentage is variable depending upon one's
memory power, intelligence, grasping,understanding, susceptibility and interest in the
subject. It also depends upon the explanation power.These factors can be developed by
education and training. Speaking, writing, involving and doing are the most effective
exercises to digest any subject.
Types of Methods : Some usual methods are: Lecture method, discussion method,
case study, role play, project work, programmed instruction, on-the-job instruction,
training aids, fault analysis, algorithm as an aid to fault analysis, fault tree analysis,
drill, demonstration, panel or group discussion, meeting, simulation, pictures and
posters, films and closed circuit television, filmstrips and slides, projectors and
microphones, charts, boards, and working models, checklists, exercise, rehearsal and
use of press and other mass media.
Thus methods are many from old to the ultramodern. Which method is the best?
No one method can be named. Appropriate method should be selected depending upon
the size, age and experience of the group, the amount of material, type of presentation
necessary and time and money available. Selection of method requires skill and
experience. Result of effectiveness depends upon it. Therefore make the best choice of
the method and apply it successfully. Display of relevant safety posters at workplaces
contribute much without saying. Some common methods in use are mentioned below:

1. Lecture Method : Oldest and most basic method. Well planned lectures can cover a
large amount of information in a short time. More useful when participants are more,
or their involvement is less required.
2. Discussion Method : Useful with small number of people in a group. The trainer
acts in a limited way as a scene setter or referee encouraging participants to speak out.
The two way communication moves toward objectives. Participants are more attentive,
active and don't feel boredom.
3. Case-study Method : Accident case study is presented explaining how an actual
accident happened or an imaginary accident can happen. Causation analysis and
remedial measures can be discussed by questions and answers. Good pictures are more
useful to explain the situation effectively.
4.Role playing method : It is a form of learning by doing but in a simulated situation.
Trainees are given 'a situation like in case-study method but instead of just discussing
it they resolve the problem by acting out the roles of the people involved. Here
extrovert trainees show their skill but introvert or shy trainees unused to such situation
get embarrassed.
5. Business Games Method: More useful for business people and skill required for
safety attitude or inspection in buying/selling items which are more safe or with the
details of safety.
6. Sending at training Centres : Institutes, seminars, workshops, special courses etc.
utilizes external resources for required training.
7. Job instruction training: Useful to train supervisors who in turn train the
employees. Job instruction training (JTT) involves four steps.

(1) Preparing the trainee.

(2) Demonstrating the job.
(3) Having the trainee performed the job.
(4) Checking frequently the trainee's performance.All new job assignments should be
preceded by on-the-job training. Each step of job safety analysis (JSA) is explained
with hazard, safe procedure and use of safety equipment. Use of guards and controls
are also explained.

8. Programmed instructions : Programmed instructions are given in a book form. A

trainee learns it, answers the question or solves the problem. The system has
mechanism of learning-checking and relearning.
9. Project work : Project writing is given to trainees. They apply their knowledge to
practical situations.
10. Other methods : Job rotation, committed assignments, HRD training, sensitivity
training, creativity training, in-basket training etc. are other specific methods.

Types of Safety Training:

Types of safety training are formal and informal. Formal training may be general or
specific.
General Training includes -
1. Induction courses for new employees.
2. On-going safety training.
3. Safety representative training.
4. Supervisory training.
5. Senior/ middle management training and
6. Directors training.
Specific Training includes -
1. Safety system of work for particular operations where the potential hazard is high
and guarding is not feasible.
2. First aid training.
3. Specific items of plant or equipment.
4. Use of protective equipment.
5. Fire precautions.
6. Safety inspections.
7. Change of job for which a worker is not trained.
8. Role of workers in emergency planning.
9. Techniques of safety audit, Hazop, Hazan, FTA, ETA etc.
10. Safety permits system.

Some details are given below:

1. Orientation or Induction Training : It is obvious that new employees may not be
knowing much about the factory they joined, its safety policy, specific raw-materials,
their characteristics, processes, methods, pollution control, health check-ups, role in
emergency planning, first-aid, fire fighting, use of personal protective equipment,
accident record, hazards of their work, remedial measures and workplace monitoring
etc. Therefore it is always useful to design training on such subjects for the new
employees. This basic knowledge builds their confidence, skill and interest towards the
work and the company both.
2. Apprenticeship Training : A learner who has just completed his school or college
education or is still undergoing it and agrees to work as a trainee or apprentice or
employed under the Apprenticeship Act as an statutory requirement, is given this type
of training. It is a combination of on the job and off-the-job training taking the
strengths of both. Intention is to show him the practical or applied part fitting to his
type of education.
3. On-the-job trainingis practical in nature and generally takes place on the job. Such
job contact sessions may involve individual on one to one basis with the supervisor
training an operator for the work he has to carry out.
First the supervisors are trained for this purpose showing them the job safety or
risk analysis. Then in turn they train the employees mostly new. It imparts necessary
skill for the job involving worker to do the job systematically and safely. Injury to the
trainee or the job is possible due to normal mistake of the trainee. Therefore its usage is
limited to situations where mistakes can be tolerated. Airline pilots and Surgeons are
allowed on the job practice only after their skills have been sharply honed using off the
job simulation techniques. Some methods used in this type of training are coaching
(personal attention), job instruction training (JIT), special assignment and job rotation.
It is supervisor's or training instructor's responsibility to train the employees
under him for safe methods, machine guarding, identification of hazards in each step
and its remedial measure, need and use of safety equipment, avoidance of shortcuts,
hasty actions, overconfidence etc.
4. Off-the-job training: All types except on-the-job are called off-the-job training. It
includes classroom or lecture method, audio-visual, film, reading list, books,
correspondence course, panel discussion, conference or discussion group, T-(training)
group, computer based instruction, case study, role playing, in-basket, vestibule, mock-
up, business game etc. and explained as "training methods" earlier.
5. Vestibule Training: It is an approach between on-the-job and off-the-job training
and used when the job is dangerous and can harm the trainee if taught on the job. The
training takes place away from the actual work place but the equipment and procedure
to be followed are similar to be used on-the-job.
6. Individual and Team Simulations: Equipment and procedures that duplicate actual
equipment and work conditions as closely as possible are known as "simulators" e.g.
set up for training pilotsand astronauts. When economic or human costs of error are
very high, this type of training is safeand cost effective.
7.Team Training: It is required to increase coordination and co-operation amongst
team members and make them realise that their behaviour may help or hinder co-
workers from performing effectively.
8. Individualised or Programmed Instructions:This is a technique to supply
instruction through printed material or machines. Safety instructions by placard, slides,
banners, notices, boards, film, transparencies, check list etc. are useful. It eliminates
need for an instructor and trainees can learn when and where they choose. They do not
have to be assembled at one place and one time. This type is useful where a number of
trainees cannot be spared from their duties simultaneously.
9. Modern methods of Training: It is a derivative of programmed instruction and
utilises computer as medium of instructions. A computer is fed with the entire
programme of presenting material asking questions and evaluating responses.
The computer adjusts instructions according to the learner's abilities, prior'knowledge
and his replies to computer's questions. It is like a private tuition by a computer as
teacher who has full command of the subject and who never gets tired of repeating
replies. It gives immediate feedback without sarcasm, anger or error. The disadvantage
is the cost of computers and programs if they are need in bulk to supply individually.
10.Other types: Types are also classified as technical training, HRD training, safety
training, productivity or creativity training, voice training, ISO training, computer
training, customer training, supervisor's training, training for training etc. Now-a-days
importance of training is widely accepted at all levels. Type should be selected best
fitting to our need and budget.

Training of Workers and Supervisors :

Safety training should begin with every new worker and continue till he is in the
service. Successive steps may be increased. Japanese system of weekly training (one
day .in each week for training) is the best example of such training. The type of
training, frequency, content and trainer may vary according to the need and type of
industry.
Training to New Workers :
Safety training should be given to all new workers, irrespective of previous
experience. He should be taught:
1. Safety Policy, rules and practices of the company. Provisions for safety committee.
2. Worker's duties and rights under the Factories Act and other safety statutes.
3. Emergency signals and their meanings.
4. Observance of warning signs and symbols.
5. Location of means of access, phones, fire alarm and extinguishers, emergency exits
and procedure, first-aid and ambulance room, safety office, assembly points etc.
6. Types of protective equipment, their need and practice to wear them.
7. Types of hazards of his job and safeguards provided and to be maintained.
8. Safe practice and full job instruction for his job.
9. Codes and standards to be followed.
10. Records to be filled in.
11. Means of reporting hazards, absence of guard or defective equipment.
12. Need for good housekeeping.
13. Types of frequent accidents in his plant and means to avoid them.
14. Not performing any new job or machine without first learning from the supervisor.
15. Seeking medical assistance in case of any type of injury and reporting it to the
supervisor. Even older and experienced workers need periodical job safety training and
new knowledge to them. Safety meetings and .various types of safety refresher courses
should be arranged to increase their job-training and safety performance.

Training to Supervisors:
Training to supervisors is most important because safety and production control
are associated with supervisory functions and it is their main duty to prevent accidents.
Objectives of safety training to supervisors include
1. To explain them their principal responsibilities of establishing work methods, giving
job instruction, assigning people to job, supervising people at work and maintaining
good housekeeping, plant and equipment.
2. To acquaint them with the company's safety policy, rules and practices.
3. To emphasise that accident investigation work is solely for prevention purpose and
not for fixing blame.
4. To establish their status of a key-man for safety and production.
5. Ways and means to maintain safe conditions and actions.
6. Special information on accident causes and methods of prevention, particularly in
their areas "of work. Case studies of actual accidents.
7. Job instructions for safely, supervising for safety, accident reporting, investigation
and. Record writing, job safety and risk analysis and group meetings for safety etc.
8. Ways and means of job training to workers and training aids.
9. How to participate in planning of safety programme and safety committee.
10. Solving of supervisory problems. The steps are :
(a) Identify the problems.
(b) Find and verify the reason for the existence of the problem.
(c) Select the appropriate remedy and apply the remedy.

Kinds of Supervisory Problems:

1. Work Problems:
(1) Error of commission or omission
(2) Insufficient work
(3) Poor work quality
(4) Breakage, wastage, spoilage etc.
(5) Improper methods, tools, equipment etc.

2. Procedure, Rules etc.:

(6) Violation of rules
(7) Failure to report facts
 (8) Abuse of privileges
(9) Failure to maintain premises, tools etc.
(10) Play, gossip, loafing etc.

3. Additional Problems:
1. Direct refusal or insubordination
2. Assumption of unwanted authority
3. Loose talk
4. Ridicule of criticism of the company
5. Creating disturbance, noise etc.
4. Personal Problems:
1. Dissatisfaction, wages, treatment, unhappiness
2. Chronic tardiness –or absence
3. Outside, home, social situations
4. Demands for premature promotion
5. Trivial tale bearing.

Reasons and Remedies of Supervisory Problems:

Reasons for existence of problems:
(1) Lack of skill
(2) Insufficiently informed, misunderstands
(3) Not convinced-indecision
(4) Finds standard procedure difficult, awkward etc.
(5) Spare, light, tools etc. inadequate, unsafe etc.
(6) physically unsuited
(7) Personal characteristics unsuited.

Remedies:
(1) Engineering or process revision
(2) Persuasion and appeal
(3) Personnel adjustment (Placing and medical treatment
(4) Psychological treatment and (5) Discipline.

Evaluation & Reviewing of Training Programme :

An evaluation i.e. measurement of effectiveness or result of the training
programme conducted, is useful in reviewing .the programme content, method, aid and
redesigning the programme as per feedback for improvement. An effective training
programme should show;
1. Increase in quantity and quality of production.
2. Increase in production rate.
3. Increase in knowledge, skill and ability about job performance.
4. Increase in job satisfaction and motivation.
5. Decrease in accident rate.
6. Decrease in production time, breakage or use of consumable items.
7. Decrease in absenteeism.
8. Decrease in labour turnover.
9. Decrease in job turnover.
10. Decrease in operational cost.
11. Refinement of human behaviour towards intended objective or goal viz. safety
outlook, interest and safety mindedness, production and quality orientation etc.

The benefits of value measurement of safety training programme are:

1. The top management understands usefulness and cost effectiveness (in relation to
accident costs) of the training programme.
2. Confidence, morale, skill, status, prestige etc. of the employees and the company
itself are seen improved.
3.Most effective loss prevention measures can be segregated for repetition.
4. Strengths and weakness are highlighted and suggest the steps for next programme.
5. Safety professional can find out and promote most effective programmes.
6. It can be determined whether objectives/goals are met and reason of gap if any. This
is useful in reviewing the programme.

For evaluation participant and/or supervisors reaction should be assessed

through interviews or questionnaires. Following questions are useful in such
assessment.

1. How much change occurred ?

The criteria include knowledge, attitudes, skills, behavioural change on the job and/or
improvements or decrements in organisational results. These criteria can be measured
by paper and pencil tests, questionnaires, work sample tests, timings of performance
etc.
2.Can the change attributed to the training programme ?
3. Was the training worth the effort ? Here cost of training is justified against gain to
the organisation.
Whether employee development needs are fulfilled ?

TYPES OF TRAINING AIDS

Following aids are useful in training :
1. Black boards, magnetic boards and flannel boards.
2. Charts, drawings and posters.
3. Slides, filmstrips, transparencies and overhead projector.
4. Printed material like books, manuals, handouts etc.
5. TV and Movies.
6. Scale, models, mock-ups, training devices and simulators.
7. Computers, Software (e.g. power point, page maker, graphic design and display
etc.), CDs, LCD projector etc. Training or teaching aid should be selected judiciously
to make learning interesting, meaningful and without boredom or monotony. Just after
lunch interval in the afternoon, film may be more effective than mere lecture. Where
machines and equipment are used as aid, they should be safe and clean and their safety
and ergonomic aspect should also be explained.

CHAPTER: 3

EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION IN SAFETY

Employees are the major work force working under hazards. Some know the
hazards and some do not It is of great importance that they must realise that they would
be the first victim of any accident, their safety awareness and all accident prevention
work is in their interest and therefore their active participation in showing hazards and
helping in removing them by the joint efforts of management and all employees is
most desirable.
 Section 41G of the Factories Act speaks worker's participation in safety
management. A method of safety committee is suggested. Right of workers to warn
about imminent danger is also created by sections 41 H 111A of the Act. Display of the
Extract of the Act and Rules (Section 108(1), Rule 106 and Form No. 23) is for the
same purpose of making workers aware and to call for their participation. Some areas
and methods of participation are discussed below:

Areas of Participation :
General areas of participation are as under :
1. To set safety goals and training programmes.
2. To design and improve standard operating procedures (SOPs) and methods of
operation.
3. Appraisal of progress towards goals.
4. To give, collect and discuss safety suggestions and to implement which are
necessary. Rewards for good suggestions boost up motivation for participation. '
McGregor's theory states that participation management has a basic belief in the
competence and abilities of individual employees regardless their status in
organisation.
Employees' and supervisory participation is essential for success of any safety
programme. When workers are taken into confidence in designing any .safety
programme or goal they feel themselves responsible for its success. This element of
involvement and joint responsibility is most fundamental to employee participation.

Workers' and Trade Union's Participation:

Equal number of safety representatives from workers (or their union) and
management should constitute their joint safety committee. This may be a central one
or different in different plants. All must be sincere in their desire to co-operate in the
matters of safety. Scope of the activities and agreement should be limited to Safety.
Union representatives should be selected from the basis of their safety knowledge,
interest and experience and should be cooperative and sincere. They should not bring
other union demands like bargaining, grievance setting etc. in the meeting of safety
committee. Union must recognize management's right of leadership in a joint safety
programmed. Accident prevention is an area of mutual interest and not of dispute or
quarrel. Therefore the workers or union must participate to show their abilities in this
area and thus strengthening their relationship with the management and saving their
own lives from accidents.

Supervisor's Safety Contact: role of the supervisors is explained at length. By their

key position between workers and management and by their constant contact with
workers they can easily and effectively promote workers' participation in safety. The
supervisor should always try to get such participation. A critical incident technique
explained in Part 1.11 and -1.12 of Chapter-19 is based on such safety contacts of plant
people. Safety contact by safety manager, safety engineer/officer is also useful.

MAIN SAFETY COMMITTEE OR CENTRAL SAFETY COMMITTEE

As per factories act 1948, section 41G it's mandatory to form safety committee
and the details as follows:

41G. Workers' participation in safety management.

(1) The occupier shall, in every factory where a hazardous process takes place, or
where hazardous substances are used or handled, set up a Safety Committee
consisting of equal number of preventatives of workers and management to
promote cooperation between the workers and the management in maintaining
proper safety and health at work and to review periodically the measures taken in
that behalf:

Provided that the State Government may, by order in writing and for reasons to be
recorded, exempt the occupier of any factory or class of factories from setting up
such Committee.

(2) The composition of the Safety Committee, the tenure of office of its members
and their rights and duties shall be such as may be prescribed.

Rule prescribed under sections 41 and 41G ;

As per Maharastra Factories Rules 1963 it's as follows:

73-J. Safety Committee - (1) In every factory-

(a) wherein 250 or more workers are ordinarily employed; or

(b) which carries on any process or operation declared to be dangerous under
section .

87 of the Act; and employs more than 50 workers; or

(c) which carries on 'hazardous process' as defined under section 2(cb) of the Act
and employs more than 50 workers, there shall be a Safety Committee.

(2) The representatives of the Management on Safety Committee shall include-

(a) A senior official, who by his position in the organization can contribute
effectively to the functioning of the Committee, shall be the Chairman;

(b) A Safety Officer and Factory Medical Officer, wherever available and the
Safety Officer in such a case shall be the Secretary of the Committee;

(c) A representative each from the production, maintenance and purchase

departments.

(3) The workers' representatives on this Committee shall be elected by the workers.

(4) The tenure of the Committee shall be two years.

(5) Safety Committee shall meet as often as necessary but at least once in every
quarter. The minutes of the meeting shall be recorded and produced to the Inspector
on demand.

(6) Safety Committee shall have the right to-

(a) ask for necessary information concerning health and safety of the workers;
(b) seek any relevant information concerning health and safety of the workers.

(7) Functions and duties of the Safety Committee shall include-

(a) assisting and co-operating with the management in achieving the aims and
objectives outlined in the 'Health and Safety Policy' of the occupier;
(b) dealing with all matters concerning health, safety and environment and to arrive
at practicable solutions to problems encountered;
(c) creating safety awareness amongst all workers;
(d) undertaking educational, training and promotional activities;
 (e) deliberating on reports of safety, environmental and occupational health surveys,
emergency plans safety audits, risk assessment and implementation of the
recommendations made in the reports;
(f) carrying out health and safety surveys and identify causes of accidents;
(g) looking into any complaint made on the likelihood of an imminent danger to the
safety and health of the workers and suggest corrective measures; and
(h) reviewing the implementation of the recommendations made by it.

8. Where owing to the size of the factory, or any other reason, the functions referred
to in sub-rule (7) cannot be effectively carried out by the Safety Committee, it may
establish sub-committee as may be required, to assist it.

Plant safety committee:- Plant safety committee is constituted to discuss safety

related activities and take immediate measure on the suggestion made by the members
to keep the plant safe .It encourage and ensures the use of ppe’s and also get the safety
suggestion from workers . Plant safety inspection is being carried out with the help of
plant safety committee members. Plant managers chairs it and plant in-charge or
safety officer acts as a secretary.Concerned officer employees from mechanical
,electrical,instrument,are nominated as member.

Technical safety committee:- is useful for specialized knowledge on

guards,process,safety, and revision to improve safety and risk analysis, accidents
investigation etc.

Safety committee: structure and function

Statutory Provisions:
A new provision was added since 23.09.87, u/s 41 G of the Factories Act to set
up a safety committee consisting of equal number of representatives of workers and
management to promote cooperation between the workers and the management in
maintaining proper safety and health at work and to review periodically the measures
taken in that behalf.

Thereafter by addition of rules 73 J in the Maharastra Factories Rules, following

Revisions are added regarding safety committee:

Applicability:
1. Factories employing workers more than 250.
2. Factories carrying dangerous operations u/s 87.
 3. Factories listed in the First Schedule.

Formation, Tenure & Rights:

1. A senior official shall be the Chairman.
2. A Safety Officer or Factory Medical Officer shall be the Secretary.
3. A representative each from the production, maintenance and purchase
departments shall be members.
4. Workers representatives, of equal number, shall be elected by the workers.
5. The tenure of the committee shall be 2 years.
6. At least one meeting in 3 months. Minutes shall be recorded and produced
before the Factory Inspector on demand.
7. The committee has right to be informed of potential hazards of work places and
data on accidents and working environment. The committee shall keep the data
confidential and use it solely to guide on safety measures.

Functions & duties:

1. Co-operation to implement health and safety policy.
2. All matters of health, safety and environment and solutions to problems in that
regard.
3. Creation of safety awareness amongst workers.
4. To conduct educational, training and promotional activities.
5. To discuss reports on safety, health and environmental surveys, safety audits,
risk assessment,
1. emergency plans and implementation of the recommendations of the reports.
6. To carry out health and safety surveys and identify causes of accidents.
7. To look into complaints of imminent danger and suggest corrective measures.
8. To review the implementation of its own recommendations.
9. To form sub-committees, if necessary.
The main object of the committee is to advise to Managing Director and the Safety
Board or the top executive of the company on all matters of safety and health of the
workers. It is not a substitute for the management. Like other committees it is an organ
or part of the management function and helps the management in specific area of
safety. It is a body of safety representatives for group suggestions and decisions, co-
operative safety efforts and a two-way channel of communication through which
suggestions can flow from employees to management and vice versa. It does not
bypass the overall management control of general supervision and communication, but
it aids to it.

Its advantages are:

(1) brings together varying view points, yield sounder .decisions than the
individual members.
(2) widens interest by allowing participants of work-people in their own .work and.
(3) allows checks and cross-checks by different opinions which are essential for
safety.

Toolbox Talks:

Toolbox talks are a way to ensure all workers are participating in safety activities, and
have an opportunity to discuss hazards/controls, incidents and accidents.
As part of the Health and Safety at Work Act, employers must provide employees the
opportunity to regularly engage in health and safety discussions.
If you are a Site Safe Member, you can access Site Safe Toolbox Talks to help guide
you through relevant and beneficial health and safety discussions. Sign in to the
members area (/Portal/login)to gain access to your members only Toolbox Talks.
There's a wide range of topics to choose from so you can tailor these discussions
specifically to your project.

How to run a toolbox talk

 Inform workers of changes to company procedures
 Identify new hazards and review existing hazards
 Develop/review hazard controls
 Discuss/review accident and incident data
 Discuss the work programmed for the day/week ahead
 Have company leaders talk about the business direction or a particular topic
 Discuss any new equipment on site
 Provide a short training session (Site Safe provides exclusive toolbox talk topics to
its members for upskilling and informing workers).
1. Schedule the meeting
Let the team know where and when the meeting is. At the start of the day works best
with most workplaces.
2. Set the scene for the meeting — keep it real and be positive
Encourage everyone to join in and provide their own feedback, knowledge and
experiences. Use simple language for everyone to understand to convey the key health
and safety messages.
Toolbox meetings are an opportunity to provide positive feedback for safe actions,
hard work and initiatives. It’s also important to avoid criticism and acknowledge
everyone for their contributions. The meeting shouldn’t be a lecture, but a chance for
engagement with the team.
Ensure that running and attending toolbox safety meetings is recognized as an
important part of a person’s role. If the worker regards health and safety as an add-on,
it will often be neglected.
3. Follow an agenda
Follow an agenda to make sure you cover everything off:
4. Close the meeting
Thank the team for their time and let them get to work.
5. Record meeting notes

Topics to discuss:

 What items would workers like to discuss?

 Introduction of new plant or processes
 Development of task analysis or methodologies
 Changes in season e.g. sun smart, dehydration
 Use of plant
 Handling of materials
 Identifying training requirements.
Free toolbox meeting minute template

SAFETY KAIZEN:

Kaizen literally means improvement - improvement in your personal life and

your working life. When a company adopts the kaizen model, it strives to improve its
processes in small but meaningful ways. And not just a one-time improvement, but a
commitment to excellence by constantly testing and improving the workflow, day in
and day out.

Kaizen was first introduced in the Toyota manufacturing plant in Japan in the early
1950s and it has since become one of the main reasons for the country’s success. In
Japan, kaizen is a way of life in the workplace, from the office of the CEO all the way
down to shop apprentice. The Japanese take it very seriously, and for good reason.
Kaizen Concepts Management

In kaizen, management has two functions: maintenance and improvement. Setting

standards and keeping them is an important part of kaizen. One of management’s
primary roles is to maintain the technological and operating standards that have been
put into place. They make sure that everyone performs their assigned tasks according
to explicitly outlined standards and performs them on a daily basis. Man
Management’s
other role is improvement. They must be constantly looking for ways to raise the
current operating standards. This is an ongoing effort and must be a daily part of the
manager’s job.

PDCA Cycle The PDCA cycle is a system used to ensure the continuation contin of the
kaizen principles. It is a vital part of the process. Plan refers to establishing a target and
a strategy for improvement. This is a must. Without a target, how do you know if you
have achieved success? Do refers to the implementation of your plan. Check is when
you determine if your plan actually improved the process. Act is the process of
standardizing the improved procedure so that it can be continued and so that the
problem will not return. By following the PDCA cycle, you will ensure that your
process improves and does not degrade.

Quality First Quality is always the highest priority in a kaizen system. But quality does
not only refer to the finished product, it also refers to the processes and standards that
create the product. It runs through all phases of company activity: design, production,
management, sales, and service. It is both the goal and the method of the production
cycle.

5S

The heart and soul of visual management is 5S. It is systematic approach to workplace
organization and cleaning that will transform a disorganized workplace into an
efficiently running machine. 5S creates a strong foundation that allows businesses to
employ additional lean manufacturing tools such as kaizen. When the work
environment is orderly, people can more easily identify opportunities for improvement.

1. Sort (Seiri) - The first step in 5S is to eliminate all the things in the workspace that
are not being used and store them away. If a tool or material is not used on a daily
basis, eliminate it from the workstation.

2. Set in Order (Seiton) -The second step is to arrange the items used on a daily basis
so that they can be easily accessed and quickly stored. Your goal is to eliminate any
unnecessary movements and actions by the worker to make the process as efficient as
possible.

3. Shine (Seiso) - Next is to get everything cleaned and functioning properly. The goal
is to remove all the dirt and grime and to keep it that way on daily basis. You want to
get it clean and keep it clean.

4. Standardize (Seiketsu) -The fourth step is to develop a routine for sorting, setting,
and shining. Standardize creates a system of tasks and procedures that will ensure that
the principles of 5S are performed on a daily basis.

5. Sustain (Shitsuke) - In the last step, you want to create a culture that will follow the
steps on a daily basis. The chief objective of sustain is to give your staff the
commitment and motivation to follow each step, day in and day out.

ONE POINT LESSON: (OPL)

 A tool to convey information.

  Designed to enhance knowledge and skills in a short time, at the right time,
whenever needed.
 To upgrade levels of expertise by having individuals study, learn and then train
others in the knowledge or skill.
 One point Lesson is a learning tool. It normally consists of 80% diagram and
20% words all produced by hand.

How to fill the OPL:

Key point to remember when fill up the OPL form:

 Only one point of illustrated on single sheet of paper
 As many senses as possible as should be addressed.
 It must be write as simple as possible
Safety Suggestion Scheme :

This is an old practice to invite safety suggestion for improvement in process,

method, equipment, safety meetings, contests, inspection procedure etc. Criticisms
should be replied in the plant magazine or on the notice board to provoke further
suggestions and ideas. For suggestion scheme to be successful it is advisable that the
employees' effort must be acknowledged, even if the suggestion is not adopted. It must
be given careful consideration. Good suggestions should be rewarded among others to
encourage them to participate. Written suggestions are the best, but, the oral or
telephonic should also be allowed. Sometimes a contest of submitting good
suggestions provides useful information and stimulates such effort. This system is
effectively accepted by Japanese management. Boxes and forms can also be used to
collect suggestions.

Safety campaigns:-
The Healthy Workplaces Campaigns are our flagship awareness-raising activity.
They are the main way of getting our message to workplaces .in this employees are
involved in safety campaign arranged for a week, or year month on different activities
such as PPE use, good housekeeping etc. such cam[aligns keep the employees attentive
and also create awareness that helps to promote safety in the organization

Safety Competitions:
This is another method of workers' participation in safety. Competitions
(contests) are of two types:
(1) Individual comparison - where individual worker takes part in competition
and award is given by comparing individual performance. Examples are safety speech
or quiz, essay, poem or slogan writing, posters or cartoons etc.
(2) Group comparison - where groups take part in competition and award is
given by comparing group versus group. Examples are department wise housekeeping
competition.

Safety Incentive Schemes :

(i) Financial Incentive:
Financial reward to the most useful suggestion or activity in safety is the commonest
method. Other financial incentives should also be given for suggestion to solve
particular safety problem of plant or process, machine or equipment etc. Suggestion of
good design for a guard or safety device should always be rewarded by handsome
amount.

(ii) Non-Financial Incentives:

Award for safety performance, trophy, memento, certificate of merit, public
honour, praise or pride, awarding special safety hat or kit or symbol of recognition,
awarding special status and duties of safety work, giving special position such as
honorary member of safety committee, raising the cadre or post, giving extra
designation for any remarkable safety contribution are all examples of non-financial
incentives.
These non-financial incentives are self preservation, personal and material gain,
loyalty, responsibility, pride, conformity, rivalry, leadership, logic and humanity. If
these incentives are properly utilised they help much in accident prevention work.
Safety performance (frequency and severity rates) of different groups can be compared
for the same period. Here groups are motivated for competition. Similarly factories can
be invited for contest if district, state or nation-wide competition is arranged. State and
National Safety Councils do this. Every year safety competitions are held among
similar class of factories to boost up safety activities and group motivation.
In any type of safety contest the rules of contest and comparison must be well
defined, declared beforehand and fair and reasonable to all participants. Scoring system
should be simple or easy to understand. Winners may get shield, certificate or good
prize but non-winning participants should also be compensated for encouragement.
The competition movement as a whole should be encouraged as this effort itself is
most important. Care should be taken to avoid any discredit. Cheating or malpractice
like compelling an injured worker to continue work to show less man-days lost, shall
be disregarded. Similarly false reporting of safety figures should also be avoided.
Competition should be fair and fine and fitting to its noble cause.

Safety Quiz:-is one type of safety competition or contest. It can be conducted by

asking questions to participants or by giving them an objective question paper
containing quiz questions to be answered in a stipulated time. It touches wide area of
safety in short time and participation looks live.

Audio-Visual Publicity :
As we saw in foregoing Part 10.7 of this Chapter, a trainee tends to remember
50% of what he sees and hears and 70% of what he sees and talks. This is possible by
audio visual aid only. Television and video effectively reproduce actual happening.
Therefore safety education and training by safety films on TV is the most powerful
method. Only difficulty is in getting safely films or safety video cassette easily and
frequently. This should be made possible if we wish to utilise its full role in increasing
safety. used to die extent possible to hold the picture to discuss and understand it in
details which is not possible with a moving film.
Modern media is a closed circuit television. Travelling units are complete
television studios in themselves and have up-to-date equipment with the control room
housed in a single vehicle. There are fixed and moving cameras, telecine equipment, a
video tap recorder and monitor screens which can be installed up to 500 meter away
from the studio. Using both inside and outside cameras, extensive safety programmes
can be broadcast through the closed network. Such unit can be hired also.

Other Promotional Methods :

Other promotional teaching methods for employees' participation are safety
posters, cartoons, signs and education and training, demonstration, safety meetings,
safety campaigns and stunts, first-aid training, fire brigades, safety- inventory or
questionnaire, accident investigation, inspection, job safety analysis etc. slogans,
publications, booklets, bulletin boards, safety contests and rewards, counselling of
education and training, demonstration, safety meetings, safety campaigns and stunts,
first-aid training,fire brigades, safety- inventory or questionnaire, accident
investigation, inspection, job safety analysis etc.

CHAPTER: 4BEHAVIOUR BASED SAFETY

What is behavior based safety?

Behavior Based Safety (BBS): “focuses on what people do, analyses why they do it,
and then applies a research- supported intervention strategy to improve what people do.
Observation of unsafe act and conditions, their reporting and taking action is
key while maintaining safety standards within the working environment.
Safe Behaviour Observation Program-BBS

Understanding what influences the culture of your organisation can make a

significant contribution to changing employee attitudes and behaviours in
relation to workplace health and safety. For a safety culture to be successful it
 needs to be led from the top—that
t that is, safety culture needs to be embraced and
practiced by the CEO and senior managers.
As a safety leader you should ask yourself or people?
 Individuals hold safety as a ‘value’ and not just a priority.
 Individuals take responsibility for the safety workers in addition to
safet of their co-workers
themselves and all level of employee are willing and able to act on their sense
of responsibility –they
they can go ‘beyond the call of duty'.

BBS capability development program for

 Leadership
 Middle Managers/Supervisors
 Workers

After BBS program, teams start

 Knowing the risks;
 Knowing the precautions to minimize or control the risks;
 Regularly taking those precautions by change in behaviours and they develop safety
thinking that truly can help them improve their own safety performance and the
performance of their fellow workers.

Cycle of BBS:
Benefits of BBS for the company:
 Enhanced reporting
 Increased hazard recognition
 Share recognized hazards
 Data gathered is used to develop trends
 Trended data can be used to improve overall safety for employees
 Employees have greater sense of ownership of the HSE program
 Incentives may be tied to best quality observations
 Increased employee retention

Common stated causes of dissatisfaction

• Narrow scope, focused on behavior change rather than concurrently addressing
causes for at-risk behavior
• One-size-fits-all approach rather than a BBS system tailored to organizational
characteristics and culture
• Poorly integrated with existing safety management systems
• No management commitment
• Lack of belief in its efficacy by the workforce emanating from a lack of
awareness/understanding
• Debate between ‘quality’ and ‘quantity’ of observations and how to effectively
analyze these

Common causes in India

• Inadequate understanding of BBS and its effect on the safety culture of an
organization
• Failure to translate BBS principles into effective action plans
• Lack of perceived ownership for safety programs that are ‘off the shelf’ and ‘not
bespoke enough to make employees own them’ as their own
• Insufficient worker Involvement
• Invisible top down support
• Too few champions
• Poor measures of success
• Not recognizing the small milestones of success and celebrating them – not
adequate positive reinforcement
Biggest causes of BBS
problems worldwide

Common causes in India:

India

 Inadequate understanding of BBS and its effect on the safety culture

of an organization

 Failure to translate BBS principles into effective action plans

  Lack of perceived ownership for safety programs that are ‘off the shelf’
and ‘not bespoke enough to make employees own them’ as their own

 Insufficient worker Involvement

 Invisible top down support

 Too few champions

 Poor measures of success

 Not recognizing the small milestones of success and celebrating them

– not adequate positive reinforcement

The six pillars of behavior based safety:

1. Leadership
2. Engagement
3. Coaching
4. Communication
5. Recognition
6. Measurement

PERCEPTION OF DANGER AND ACCEPTANCE OF RISK:

What is risk perception?

▷ Risk is not a physical thing: is it really possibly to perceive it?

▷ Objective risk as used in engineering approaches:

• estimated from historical observation of frequencies and consequences

• assuming that history + risk modelling allows us to predict the future

▷ Subjective risk as analyzed by social scientists:

• risk concerns thoughts, beliefs and constructs

• level of perceived risk is a subjective risk judgment

Impact of risk perception

Why is it important to understand the mechanisms underlying risk perception?

▷ Strong impact on societal acceptance/tolerance of various hazardous activities

▷ Big influence on individuals’ “safety behavior’s” when exposed to a hazard
▷ Phenomenon called risk homeostasis: people tend to act so that the level of risk
to which they feel exposed is roughly constant
• Example: car drivers tend to keep the perceived level of risk at a constant level
• Impact of technological safety measures (abs, better lighting, smoother roads) is
limited because drivers compensate by increasing their speed

Poor perception of probabilities

▷ If you tell investors that, on average, they will lose all their money only every 30
years, they are more likely to invest than if you tell them they have a 3.3% chance
of losing a certain amount each year
▷ Most people rate themselves as being a better driver than the average driver
▷ The vast majority rate the probability for themselves to experience negative
events to be lower than that for the average citizen [McKenna 1993]
▷ Phenomena of unrealistic optimism and illusion of control:
• rare, striking events tend to be overestimated
• frequency of common events tend to be underestimated

Main factors affecting risk perception

These factors combine several characteristics of a risk that tend to be perceived in

the same manner by lay people into one “label”:
▷ “Dread risk”: perceived lack of control, catastrophic potential, inequitable
distribution of risks and benefits, involuntary
▷ “Unknown risk”: not observable, effects are delayed, little scientific knowledge
on the risk, unknown by those people exposed, new risk
▷ “People affected risk”: personally affected, general public affected and future
generations affected.

Impact of control
 ▷ People tolerate substantially more risk when they engage in voluntary behavior
▷ Related to a sense of controllability: less risk is perceived in situations that are
under personal control
▷ Phenomenon of illusion of control
• the risk of winning the lottery is perceived to be higher if we pick the numbers
ourselves [Langer 1975]
• a person who sees themselves as being in control (driving the car vs being a
passenger) perceives the risk to be smaller [McKenna 1993]

Why different people have different perception on danger/risk

Unaware the fact about risk -

Ignorance about hazard.
Overconfidence
Previous experience.
Shortcut
Priority v/s Value
Showoff
Training
Education

Theory X – Theory Y
Management Theory

Dr. Douglas McGregor (1906-64):

• Social psychologist Douglas McGregor of MIT expounded two contrasting

theories in the 1960s
• Theories are about human motivation and management
• McGregor personally promoted Theory Y more than Theory X
 Theory X

• Assumes employees are naturally unmotivated and dislike working

• Encourages an authoritarian style of management.
• Usually the minority
• In mass organizations, such as large scale production environment, theory X is
unavoidable.

Theory Y

• A participative style of management that is de-centralized

• Assumes employees are happy to work, self-motivated, etc.
• More widely applicable
• People at lower levels of the organization are involved in decision making and
have more responsibility.

Roles of Supervisor & Safety Department in motivation:

Supervisors
You are directly responsible for the safety and health of employees and other workers
that you direct or supervise. Here are your roles and responsibilities:

 Ensure the health and safety of all workers under your direct supervision
 Know the WorkSafe safety requirements that apply to the work being supervised
and ensure they are followed
 Ensure workers under your supervision are aware of all known or reasonably
foreseeable health and safety hazards where they work
 Provide orientation and training to new and existing workers at your workplace
 Consult and cooperate with the Joint Occupational Health and Safety
Committee members or worker representatives, and cooperate with others
carrying out occupational health and safety duties, including WorkSafeofficers
 Ensure that the appropriate personal protective equipment and clothing are
available, worn when required, and inspected and maintained
 Investigate unsafe conditions reported to you, and ensure that corrective action is
taken without delay
 Learn more about accident prevention and investigation.

General Safety Roles & Responsibilities

All workers have safety roles and responsibilities. Follow safe work procedures, report
unsafe conditions or incidents and be prepared to respond in the event of a workplace
injury or emergency. Whether you are a supervisor or front-line staff, be sure to

 Understand your workplace health and safety requirements

 Inspect equipment and the workplace regularly
 Be alert for hazards
 Immediately report unsafe work practices and conditions to your supervisor
 Report accidents, near misses, injuries and illnesses immediately to your
supervisor
 Follow safe work practices and procedures
 Cooperate with others on matters relating to occupational safety and health

CONFLICT AND FRUSTRATION

Conflict is…
• a normal, inescapable part of life
 • a periodic occurrence in any relationship
• an opportunity to understand opposing preferences and values
• Disagreement about ideas and approaches
• Issue focused, not personal
• Characteristic of high performing groups
• Personal blame fueled by differences of opinion
• Destructive to group performance and goal

How can we keep conflict Thinkable?

1. Make the approach

2. Share perspectives
3. Build understanding
4. Agree on solutions
5. Plan next steps

Step 1. Make the approach

 Discuss before you begin
 Invite the other party to a conversation
 Be clear about your intentions
 State your goal - a positive resolution

Step 2. Share perspectives

 Ask for the other person’s perspective
 Interpretation, summary what you hear
 Acknowledge your contribution
 Describe your perspective

Step 3. Build understanding

 Discuss one issue at a time
 Clarify assumptions
 Explore interests and feelings

Step 4. Agree on solutions

 Reality test – Is this doable?
 Durability test – Is this durable?
 Interest test – Does this meet all parties’ interests?

Step 5. Plan next steps

 Jointly create action plan
  What needs to happen?
 Who needs to do what? By when?
 How will interaction take place if problems occur?

CHAPTER 5.MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM

(MIS) is a computerized database of financial information organized and programmed

in such a way that it produces regular reports on operations for every level of
management in a company. It is usually also possible to obtain special reports from
the system easily.
Management Information System (MIS) has become a powerful tool for
industry, trade and business in the modern world. It should be user friendly and easy to
understand. With the Age of Computers, the speed, capacity, accuracy and a variety of
uses of Information has been tremendously increasing in almost all walks of life.
Computers are useful not only for storing information but also for generating data,
designing, programming, processing, controlling, running robots and microprocessors,
communication, developing science, technology and management systems, analysing
and using information, forecasting and personal use. We have entered the age of
internet, web-site and information highways. The information (data-processing) must
be accurate, pertaining to the point, concise, updated, meaningful, trust worthy and as
per the need of the user.

There should be effective MIS between Safety Department and the top
management of the company to appraise the work being done by the Department.
Similarly it should also be developed/extended for bottom line management and the
outside authorities to provide quick and tabulated information in wide areas of safety,
health & environment.
Application of MIS from book:-

Computer Application and Use:

 Use of computers for safety and health information systems became critical from
1.970s with the inception of Occupational Safety and Health Act in USA as much
documentation, reporting and analysis were required by that Act. In our country, still it
is in process.
Manifold use of computers for safety, health and environment is as under :
1. As its general use in science and engineering, computers are used for mathematical
and statistical calculations, graphics, documentation, typing, printing, indexing,
searching for literature, data reduction, recording and maintenance of data, control of
automated production lines (CAD, Computer Aided Design, CAM, Computer Aided
Manufacturing and DCS process control) etc.
2. Automation of information paths and use of Safety Internet System.
3. Process control in plants and laboratories.
4. Accident and medical records.
5. Costing of accidents and losses.
6. Causation analysis of accidents or hazardous events.
7. Signal analysis and medical decision making, e.g. ECG analysis and diagnosis of
heart problems, sonography, scanning, surgery etc.
8. Preventive Medicine and Epidemiology, screening, examinations of ill population
and comparison of their data with the healthy population for early diagnosis of
diseases.
9. Maintaining a long-time qualitative and quantitative record of chemical exposures to
workers.
10. Maintaining environmental sampling and measurement data. Using for gas
dispersion models and mathematical models for reliability engineering.
11. Preparing and maintaining periodical statements of accidents, injuries, causation
wise breakups, compensation and other costing, first aid cases, near miss cases, safety
training, status of compliance etc.
12. Safety reports, manuals, procedures, audit points, mutual aid systems and
emergency plan items can be quickly stored, updated and reproduced.
13. Maintaining information of workplace conditions, engineering controls, fire and
gas leak controls, administrative controls, medical controls, personal protective
equipment and their selection, training programmes etc.
14. Maintaining employee demographics and job histories.
15. Scheduling of inspections, surveys, meetings, workplace monitoring, biological
monitoring, condition monitoring, corrosion monitoring, maintenance programmes etc.
16. Reporting at any time to internal management or external statutory authorities or
private agencies.
17. Keeping records of Material Safety Data. Sheets, Indian Standards, Statutory
Provisions and Forms, Reports for Pollution Control Boards etc.
18. Statistical analysis by using ready-made or self-designed software.
19. Using robots, auto-controls and safety-devices to avoid accidents to persons and
property.
20. Simulations to determine where hazards reductions would be more effective and
the change in failure probability that would result useful to carry out hazards analysis,
fault tree analysis etc.

The special use of computers in addition to general benefits of software (Expertise,

Up-to-date information and Improved management) is for Accident recording and
analysis. Information on chemical hazards. Audit recording and analysis etc. Data on
such points are as under:

1. Automatic printing of statutory and other safety forms.

2. Automatic generation of periodical reports.
3. Analysis of near misses in the same details as injury accidents.
4. Multiple records of injury, property and vehicle damage from the same incident
Linked incident costing so that reports can automatically include details of the costs
involved.
6. Automatic summaries and their graphical displays.
7. On-line computing using own computer to contact the library or publisher's
computer to obtain and read off the information required.
8. CD-ROM (Compact Disc - Read Only Memory) and player for the computer and
special software on chemical hazards and control technology. The information from
the disc is displayed on the computer screen. Conversely, information in the computer
can be copied on CD by using CD writer.
9. Use of floppy-discs, CDs and Pendrive to read off the information.
10. Database from CAMEO, COSHH, APELL etc. and onsite and offsite emergency
plans (see
11. Safety audit and environmental audit details by using a set of audit questions (also
known as audit protocol). Such audit software packages include:
a) The ability to edit the audit questions and add audit questions as new risks are
identified.
b) The ability to add guidance for the auditors to specific questions, including
details of any relevant standards.
c) Displaying two or more sets of audit results on the screen at a time and to
compare them.
d) Graphical display of audit summaries.
e) Automatic generation of audit reports, including action plans.
f) Diary facilities to assist in managing an audit schedule and keeping track of
Recommendations for remedial action.
Advantages of computerized information systems are -
1. Ready availability of data and ready reproduction (printed copy) of the stored data.
2. Elimination of monotonous or exhaustive manual labour.
3. No need to keep duplicate records (copies). Reducing files and their storing space. A
shared information can be seen at many places (i.e. in different department, conference
hall etc.).
4. Improved communication with neat, clean and correct copies. Electronic mail
systems can facilitate communication within and between facilities and within short
time.
5. Data standardisation and accuracy.
6. Improved analytical capabilities. Analyses not manually practical, can be easily
done by a computer. Graphs and Chartes also available.
7. Cost savings by increasing employee productivity, decreasing manpower etc.

Disadvantages (limitations) of computerized nation systems are

1. According to circumstances, need of computers is not always justified. Sometimes it
may be premature or totally unjustified on economic grounds.
2. Computers' limitations should be understood. They are not designed for automatic
information generation or processing. An operator is required to make data-entry or
supply basic information (programme) to computers and his error can give wrong or
incomplete information or sometimes rase it and manual search becomes necessary.
Mistakes can become repetitive if not corrected in time.
3. Computers can suggest references to documents. They cannot eliminate the need to
go through these documents to locate the required information.
A typical virus can wash out all information stored in the computer. Then
retrieval or restoration of data becomes necessary.
5. Manpower reduction for unemployment.

Status and Future Goals of Computer Utilization in SHE Services:

Status of computer utilization is being increased and spreading very fast. Today
we are rapidly entering in the age of information technology, information highways,
internet systems, super-computers to design, scan, develop, store, exchange and
transmit data for many complex systems and for many purposes. Paper files and record
rooms are all shortened and it seems that in every walk of life computer has to" play
some role. Safety, health and environment being the vital subject, cannot remain
without the use of computers. Process technology, instrument and control devices,
hazard control technology, emergency planning including training, education and
information to workers, public, management and Government ... everywhere use of
computers is being increased. One earlier software for SHE services is CAMEO i.e.
Computer Aided Management of Emergency Operations. It is a Computer Software
Package developed by the Environment Protection Agency (EPA) of USA. The
CAMEO software is made operational and available from the National
Safety Council, Mumbai. It was explained with the APELL/ CEP workshops at
Manali, Mumbai, Kanpur, Cochin, Haldia and Vadodara during 1992 to 1995.
CAMEO gives emergency planner, first responder (fire brigade, police etc.) or safety
professional vital information to help handle chemical accidents safely.

Storing and Retrieval of Information:

Introduction of a computer is not much required for the modern generation, as it is
taught to them from their early school-days. Therefore only a brief outline is given
here. Main three visible parts of a computer are its monitor (or vision screen, also
known as VDU i.e. Visual Display Unit), printer and keyboard. Central Processing
Unit (CPU) is its internal part or brain that governs or controls all the work the
computer does. Hardware consists of all physical components including monitor,
printer, keyboard, CPU and everything else that can be touched, but not the floppy
disks. Software are the instructions (programs) a computer needs to run the hardware
i.e. to function as a word processor, data base manager, spreadsheet etc.
A floppy disk. Zip, CD and pen drive store computer programs and data and can
be read through a floppy or CD drive. Hard disk stores permanent memory until erased
.or replaced. Graphics is a display of information in picture form. File is a collection of
information stored on a disk. Programming means the process of providing a series of
instructions to the CPU to get the desired actions. The main computer functions are
input, output, storage and processing. CD writers are used to write a CD.
Information Technology (IT) and microchip have changed the world and
accelerated the use of MIS. Silicon is the main element to manufacture microchip.
PCB, microchip and microprocessor are working like brain and heart for information.
They have reduced the size of document, equipment, stationary and files and are
capable of doing many functions automatically.
Computer can store, process, change and print tremendous information. Capacity
of storing is dayby day increasing. Floppy, Zip, CD, VCD, Pendrive, Server etc. are the
examples of progress. Hard disk capacity is also increasing. E-mail and V-mail
transforms this stored information very fast.
They connect all departments of a factory, all offices of a State or Nation and all
countries in the world. Storing and presenting of MIS has become very fast and very
easy. Laptop and palmtop are very handy. Handwriting is being replaced by keyboard
writing. Correspondence and examination through keyboard have become a part of
modern culture. Volumes of books and libraries have been reduced to small CDs. Here
'retrieval' means taking back, finding or extracting information stored in a computer.
Any information can be directly fed to the CPU or it can be copied by inserting floppy,
CD or pendrive or through an internet. Such information stored in CPU can be
recovered by a floppy or CD drive. Such information can also be modified, corrected,
altered or added. Thus computer is useful in retrieving many information as per
requirement. It saves too much time, labour and volume of work.

Compilation, Collation & Analysis of Information:

At a factory or workplace level, information of hazards and past and current
accidents should be collected first with facts and details. This is compilation. Then it
should be put together subject or major head wise. Then in each head (viz. major
hazards, minor hazards, accidents to persons, property losses, costs of accidents etc.),
the information should be combined or arranged in a proper order for the purpose of
easy understanding or comparing in detail. This is collation of information. Then it
should be analysed or classified into subdivisions or subgroups to sharpen the
information towards different subjects leading to some conclusion. This is analysis. As
an example, accidents of one particular year are first collected. This is compilation,
(viz.Accidents for the year 1996, accidents costs, 1995 etc.). Then they are grouped
(combined) together as mechanical accidents, chemical accidents, reportable and non-
reportable accidents, fatal and non-fatal accidents, cost calculations etc.
This is collation of information. Here comparison is possible. Mechanical
accidents of factory A can be compared with those of factory B. If they are arranged in
some order, say, date wise or code wise, it is also collation of information. But when
the information is classified as male and female wise, day and night wise, different
hazard or causation wise, equal cost wise, severity wise, frequency wise, body part
wise etc., it is called analysis. This gives sharp or pointed information on a particular
point subject to draw some conclusion.This system of analysing data is useful to find
out target areas of work and priority of remedial measures to concentrate on them.
Manual exercise is reduced to a great extent if a computer is used for such work.
To foresee future possible hazards or risk estimation, by using various
identification, measurement and evaluation techniques (Chapter 19) like HAZOP,
HAZAN, fault-tree, event tree, risk and consequence assessment etc., detailed
information can be compiled, analysed and used for accident prevention work.
Use of computer makes it easy to compile, collate, analyse and store vast
information on identification of major hazard installations, risk analysis, safety audit,
preparing on-site and off-site emergency plans, control pleasures, etc. and makes
further easy to incorporate any additions and
alterations at appropriate places to update the documents.
CHAPTER 6.ACCIDENT PREVENTION

Principles of accidents prevention

 An accident is an unplanned and uncontrolled event in which the action or

reaction of an object,substance, person, or radiation results in personal injury or
the probability thereof.
 It is also defined as an unexpected, unintended or unforeseen event that causes
injury, loss ordamage.
 An accident is any unplanned, sudden event, which causes or is liable to cause or
is liable to causean injury to man materials (including plant) or environment.
 An accident is any occurrence that interrupts or interferes with the orderly
progress of the activitywhich causes or likely to cause injury with or without
damage to property or environment.

Accident Prevention:
 Accident prevention is both science and art. It represents, above all other things,
control i.e. thecontrol of human performance, machine or equipment
performance and physical environment.
 The word ‘control’ connotes prevention as well as correction of unsafe
conditions and actions.Prevention is the first step of control.
 To control unsafe human actions, knowledge of psychology, philosophy and
management arenecessary. To control unsafe conditions, knowledge of
engineering, health effects, industrial hygiene,ergonomics etc. are necessary.
 Accident prevention requires five steps organisation, fact-finding analysis if the
facts found,selection of remedy and application of the remedy. Sixth step of
monitoring should be considered. Itincludes measurement of result, assessment
i.e. comparing with legal criteria or standard, feedback andfurther improvement.

Incident:
 An incident is any observable human activity sufficiently complete in itself to
permit referencesand predictions to be made about the persons performing the
act viz. cleaning an unguarded machine,failing to wear PPE, using compressed
air on body, raising pressure or temperature unnecessarily.It may result in
accident or a near miss.
  Incident for accident is defined as, 'an unplanned event or series of events that
has or could have,caused injury to people and / or damage to assets and / or
damage to the environment and / or loss ofreputation.

Injury:
Injury (occupational) means an injury that result in death, loss of consciousness
andadministration of medical treatment, temporary assignment to other duties and
transfer to another job, orinability to perform all duties on any day after the injury.

Injury is considered to include occupational disease and work-connected disability.

Work injury: -is defined as an injury suffered by a person, which arises out of and in
the course of his employment. It isan external damage to human body; disturbance or
dysfunction resulted from an accident. By because itmay be mechanical, thermal,
chemical, radiated or combined.

Injuryis physical harm or damage to the body resulting from an exchange of (usually
acute,mechanical, chemical, thermal or other environmental) energy that exceeds the
body's tolerance.

Disabling injuryis an injury causing death, permanent disability, or any degree of

temporarytotal disability beyond the day of the injury

Source of injuryis the principal object such as tool, machine, chemical vessel or
equipmentinvolved in the accident and is usually the object inflicting injury or property
damage. Also called agencyor agent.

Dangerous Occurrences:
Dangerous occurrences are mentioned u/s 88-A, of the Factories Act 1948 and
u/r 103 of theMaharashtra Factories Rules 1963. They' include:
1. Bursting of a steam plant under pressure.
2. Collapse or failure of lifting appliances or overturning of a crane.
3. Fire, explosion, escape of molten metal, hot liquor, gas etc.
4. Explosion of a pressure vessel.
5. Collapse or subsidence of a structure. For Dangerous Chemical Reaction

Emergency Plan:
Emergency plan is a formal written plan, which on the basis of identified
potential hazards at theinstallation together with their consequences, describes how
such hazards and their consequences shouldbe handled either on-site or off-site
Error:
 Errors are of different types, viz. human error, design error; planning,
production, operation andmaintenance error etc.
 Human error can be defined as a human's action, which differs from or is
inconsistent withprescribed or established behaviours or procedures. It may be
of two types: predictable or random.
 Predictable error occurs under similar conditions and can be foreseen because it
has occurredmore than once.
 Random error is non-predictable and unique in nature. For example, all of a
sudden a fly or insectenters in eye due to which a worker may throw away a tool
or lose his balance and cause error. But ifflies become common phenomena i.e.
predictable, the error becomes predictable one and remedialmeasures are
required.

Hazardmeans existing unsafe condition or action or situation or event or their

combinationwhich has potential to cause accident. Thus hazard can become a cause of
accident or risk and it can existwithout accident or risk. When due to hazard, accident
happens, it is converted into accident. If hazardstill exists, accident may happen again,
viz. flammable atmosphere.
The causes of accidents generally remain latent for some time before anaccident
occurs. Theselatent or potential causes are hazards. Hazards are sometimes referred to
synonymously with accidentcauses, but there is a clear distinction that a. hazard can
exist without an accident whereas an accidentcause without an accident is an absurdity.
Hazard recognition, diagnosis and elimination are essential toany successful safety
programme.
Hazard is an inherent property of a substance, agent, a source of energy or
situation having thepotential of causing undesirable consequences.
Hazard means an intrinsic capacity associated with an agent or process capable of
causing harm.

Hazards Analysis:
In simple term, hazard analysis means classification of hazards, eg. chemical
hazards, mechanicalhazards, electrical hazards, fall hazards, day and night wise
hazards etc. in this way it is qualitativeanalysis.
Hazard Analysis is
(i) Analysis of mechanism of hazard occurrence and
(ii) Analysis of terminalconsequences of hazards which may include number of injury,
fatality, property damage and other loses.

In this way it is quantitative analysis. Its study is known as HAZAN (Hazard

analysis). It meansidentification of undesired events, which lead to the materialization
of a hazard, analysis of themechanism by which such .undesired events could occur,
and estimation of the extent, magnitude andlikelihood of any harmful effects or
consequences.

Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA)is a procedure for identifying hazards early in

the designphase of project before the final design has been established. Its purpose is to
identify opportunities fordesign modifications, which would reduce or eliminate
hazards, mitigate the consequences of accidentsor both.
HAZAN (Hazard analysis)is generally undertaken at the preliminary stage of
determining thelocation, basic design principles and operational parameters to establish
the adequacy of basic safety ofdesign, operation and environmental control. It may be
followed by an updated analysis to establish finalrisk levels. HAZAN exercise has to
be undertaken by a professional team with expertise in failure mode
and effect analysis, fault tree analysis, simulation and modelling, event tree and
consequence analyses.

HAZOP:
Hazop (Hazard & operability) study is carried out by application of guidewords to
identify allpossible deviations from design intent having undesirable effects on safety
or operability, with the aim ofidentifying potential hazards.
Hazop study is normally undertaken at an advanced stage of project implementation
when thedesign criteria are well established. The study can be used for both new and
working plants. They have tobe carried out by multidisciplinary teams of experienced
technical personnel having detailed knowledgeof both the design ,and operation of a
plant.
A preliminary Hazop study is intended to review the general parameters of
materials processed,unit operations and layout of individual units and plant sub-units.
A detailed Hazop study is required afterthe finalization of the designs to identify the
potentially hazardous situations and to arrive at agreeableoptions to rectify design
deviations and anomalies.

Mistake:
Mistake, in the sense of safety, can be defined as an act of wrong opinion,
judgement about athing or situation which results in hazard or harm to a person,
property or environment. It means to havewrong, perception about danger or to
understand it wrongly so that it may cause hazard.

Near miss:
It means any unplanned, sudden event that could have caused injury to man,
materials (plant) orenvironment or could have involved a loss of containment possibly
giving rise to adverse effect but notresulted in such accident.
If near miss is detected and prevented, possible accident due to that near miss can be
avoided orprevented. If causes of near miss are not removed, they can result in
accident. Therefore importance toidentify and control near miss is more than that of
controlling accident.

Near miss and important of reporting

A Near miss is “an unplanned event that did not result in injury, illness, or
damage—but had the potential to do so.”

Since they essentially mean an accident didn’t happen, why is it so important to report
near misses? They motivate us to be more proactive in our safety measures. By
knowing something could happen, we can then put policies and procedures in place to
prevent them from happening.NSC and OSHA offer these best practices when creating
a near miss reporting system:

 Leadership must establish a reporting culture reinforcing that every opportunity to

identify and control hazards, reduce risk and prevent harmful incidents must be
acted on.
 The reporting system needs to be non-punitive and, if desired by the person
reporting, anonymous.
 Investigate near miss incidents to identify the root cause and the weaknesses in the
system that resulted in the circumstances that led to the near miss.
 Use investigation results to improve safety systems, hazard control, risk reduction,
and lessons learned. All of these represent opportunity for training, feedback on
performance and a commitment to continuous improvement.
 Near miss reporting is vitally important to preventing serious, fatal and
catastrophic incidents that are less frequent but far more harmful than other
incidents.

Oversight:
 Oversight means overlooking of something, error or supervision. When there are
more switchesside by side and looking identical, an operator may operate a wrong
switch by oversight. While countingmany things, by oversight, someone may make
mistake. Thus oversight denotes a state of mind by whicherror or mistake is possible
due to lack of concentration or attention. Result of oversight is mistake orerror.
Oversight leads to unsafe action and that may result in accident.The words -
error, mistake and oversight - have thin difference, all leading to the causation ofhazard
or accident and concern with the state of mind or human behaviour.

Immediately dangerous to life or health (IDLH) is defined by the US National

Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) as exposure to airborne
contaminants that is "likely to cause death or immediate or delayed permanent adverse
health effects or prevent escape from such an environment." Examples include smoke
or other poisonous gases at sufficiently high concentrations. It is calculated using
the LD50 or LC50.
IDLH values are often used to guide the selection of breathing apparatus that are
made available to workers or firefighters in specific situations.

Probability:
It means the likelihood, chance or frequency that a considered (predetermined)
occurrence maytake place.
Probability includes possible frequency of hazard occurrence or possible frequency of
effects dueto any particular hazard.
Probability and severity (effect or consequence) are two ingredients of a risk. R = P x S

Costs of Accidents:-Many employers believe that the insurer will pick up the costs of
an accident, and that's why they pay their insurance. However the costs of an accident
can be broken down into the direct costs and indirect (uninsured) costs.
Direct costs are those costs that are accrued directly from the accident. They are
quite easy to calculate, and include the medical costs incurred and the compensation
payments made to the injured workers. Direct costs are usually insurable by
businesses.Accidents are more expensive than most people realize because of the
hidden costs. Some costs are obvious — for example, Workers' Compensation claims
which cover medical costs and indemnity payments for an injured or ill worker. These
are the direct costs of accidents.

Indirect costs of an accident:-

Indirect costs are the less obvious consequences of an accident that can be
costed. While the indirect costs created by accidents are hidden, they too must be paid
from profits from the sale of products. They are more difficult to calculate and tend not
to be insured. Indirect costs include:
 Time away from the job not covered by workers' compensation insurance;
 Payment of other workers who are not injured, for example those who stopped
work to look after or help the injured worker and those who require output from
the injured in order to complete their tasks;
 The cost of damage to materials or equipment involved in the accident;
 The cost of overtime imposed by the accident (lost production, additional
supervision, and additional heat, light, etc.);
 The cost of wages paid to the supervisor for time spent on activities related to
the accident. This includes caring for the injured, investigating the accident,and
supervising the activities necessary to resume the operation of business. All of
these activities will disrupt the supervisor's productivity;
 Costs associated with instructing, training, and repositioning employees in order
to resume production. In some cases, it might even be necessary to hire a
replacement with all the associated hiring costs;
 Medical costs paid by the employer that are not covered by the insurance. This
may include treatment facilities, personnel, equipment and supplies;
 Cost of managers and clerical personnel investigating and processing claim
forms and related paperwork, telephone calls, interviews, etc.
 Wage costs due to decreased productivity once the injured employee returns to
work. This is due to restricted movement or nervousness/cautiousness on the
part of the injured employee and time spent discussing the accident with other
employees etc.

 Studies show that the ratio of indirect costs to direct costs varies widely, from a
high of 20:1 to a low of 1:1. OSHA's approach is shown here and says that the
lower the direct costs of an accident, the higher the ratio of indirect to direct
costs.

6.2.theory and models

Heinrich's Theory:
H.W. Heinrich, a pioneer in safety philosophy, first published his work. Industrial
Accident
Prevention, in 1931. Many of his principles and basic philosophy of accident causation
and preventionare confirmed by time and application, but, some are also questioned
and criticised. His philosophy isbased on his 10 axioms (self evident-truths) as follows.
Ten Axioms of Industrial Safety:
1. The occurrence of an injury invariably results from a completed sequence of factors
- the last oneof these being the accident itself. The accident in turn is invariably caused
or permitted directly bythe unsafe act of a person and/or a mechanical or physical
hazard.
2. The unsafe acts of persons are responsible for a majority of accidents.
3. The person who suffers a disabling injury caused by an unsafe act, in the average
case has hadover 300 narrow escapes from serious injury as a result of committing the
very same unsafe actLikewise, persons are exposed to mechanical hazards hundreds of
times before theysuffer injury.
4. The severity of an injury is largely fortuitous the occurrence of the accident that
results in injury islargely preventable.
5. The four basic motives or reasons for the occurrence of unsafe acts provide a guide
to theselection of appropriate corrective measures. These are: Improper attitude. Lack
of knowledge orskill, Physical unsuitability and Improper mechanical or physical
environment.
6. Four basic methods are available for preventing accidents. These are Engineering
revision,Persuasion and appeal. Personnel adjustment and Discipline.
Methods of most value in accident prevention are analogous with the methods required
for thecontrol of the 'quality, cost and quantity of production.
8. Management has the best opportunity and ability to initiate the work of prevention,
therefore itshould assume the responsibility.
9. The supervisor or foreman is the key man in individual accident prevention. His
application of theart of supervision for the control of work performance is the factor of
greatest influence insuccessful accident prevention. It can be expressed and taught as a
simple four step formula -Identify the problem, find and verify the reason for the
existence of the problem, select theappropriate remedy and apply the remedy. The
humanitarian incentive for preventing accidentalinjury is supplemented by two
powerful economic factors:

(1) The safe establishment isefficiently productive and the unsafe establishment is
inefficient
(2) The direct employer's cost ofindustrial injuries for compensation claims and for
medical treatment is about one-fifth of the total(direct plus indirect) cost which the
employer must pay.
These axioms were the first set of principles or guidelines ever set before in
industrial safety andit has guided all safety activity till today. During the passage of 75
years, some of his axioms arequestioned and disbelieved as truths, but, most of them
are still true and deal with the important areas of safety, viz. accident causation and
prevention, reasons of unsafe acts and conditions, management control functions,
responsibility of organisation, costs of accident, safety and productivity etc.

Accident Sequence: The five factors .in accident occurrence series in chronological
order are:
1. Ancestry and social environment.
2. Fault of person.
3. Unsafe act and/or mechanical or physical hazard.
4. Accident and
5. Injury
One factor is dependent on another and one follows because of another, thus
constituting asequence that may be compared with a row of dominoes placed on end
and in such alignment in relation to one another that the fall of the first domino
precipitates the fall of the entire row. An accident is merely one factor in the sequence.
If this series is interrupted by the elimination or withdrawal of even one of the five
factors that comprise it, the injury can possibly be prevented. See Fig
In above dominos, social environment includes family and surrounding atmosphere in
which aperson is born and brought up. This is the origin or root cause of behavioural
development as per H. W.Heinrich.
 Undesirable traits include unsafe behaviour, negligence, lack of knowledge,
violent temper,
 nervousness, recklessness etc.
 Unsafe act or conditions are the results of undesirable traits.
 Accident is caused because of unsafe act or condition 6r both.
 Injury is the result of accident.
 This suggests the steps of management controls as under:
 suggests the steps of management controls as under:

Management Through Supervision

Controls
Human Failure
Knowledge – Attitude – Fitness – Ability

Which causes or permits

 Unsafe Acts of Persons (88%) Unsafe Mechanical, Chemical,
Physical Conditions (10%)

1. Operating without authority or 1. Unguarded, absence of

clearance,failure to secure or required guards.
warn. 2. Inadequate support or guards,
2. Operating or working at unsafe guards of improper height,
speed. strength, mesh etc.
3. Making Safety devices 3. Defective, rough, sharp,
inoperative. slippery, decayed, cracked
4. Using unsafe or defective surfaces etc.
equipment, or 4. Unsafe design of machines,
5. equipment unsafely or tools, plant, equipment or
improperly. supplies.
6. Unsafe loading, placing, 5. Unsafely arranged, poor
mixing ,combining, etc. housekeeping, congestion,
7. Taking unsafe position or blocked exists, etc.
posture. 6. Inadequately lighted, sources
8. Working on moving or of glare etc.
dangerous equipment. 7. Inadequately ventilated,
9. Distracting, teasing, abusing, impure air source etc.
startling horseplay etc. 8. Unsafely clothed, no goggles,
10. Failure to use safe affair or gloves or masks, wearing high
personal protective equipment heels etc.
or devices. 9. Unsafe processes,
Failure to warn co-workers or to mechanical, chemical,
secure equipment. electrical, nuclear hazards etc.
11. Improper lifting. 10. Inadequate warning systems.
12. Servicing equipment in motion. 11. Fire & Explosion hazards.
13. Use of drugs or alcohol. 12. High noise or vibration.
13. Hazardous dusts, gases,fumes
vapours etc

Which causes or permits

Accidents
98% Preventable type
2% Unpreventable
50% Practicably preventable

Frank Bird's Domino Theory

Heinrich’s theory of domino sequence is updated by Frank Bird Jr. to explain the
circumstances
that lead to losses (injury) in the chronological order of five dominoes.
These are shown in Fig. 4.4 and explained below :

1. Lack of control - Management.

2. Basic causes - Origins.
3. Immediate causes - Symptoms.
4. Accident - Contact, and
5. Injury/damage - Loss.
Fig. 4.4 : Frank Bird's Domino Sequence
Lack of control is the first domino and refers the fourth function of the management
(planning,organising, directing, controlling and coordinating). It involves accident
investigation, facility inspection, job analysis, personal communication, selection and
training, 'standards' in each work activity identified, measuring performance by
standards and correcting performance by improving the existing programmes.
This first domino may fall due to inadequate standards, programmes and follow up.
Basic Causes (origins) are (1) Personal factors lack of knowledge or skill, improper
motivationand physical or mental problems and (2) Job factors inadequate work
standards, design, maintenance,purchasing standards, abnormal usage etc. These basic
causes are origin of substandard acts andconditions and failure to identify them permits
the second domino to fall, which initiates the possibility of further chain reaction.
Immediate causes are only symptoms of the underlying problem. They are
substandard' practicesor conditions (known I as unsafe acts and unsafe conditions) that
could cause the fourth domino to fall. These causes should be identified, classified and
removed by appropriate measures.
Accident or incident is the result of unsafe acts or/and unsafe conditions. This point is
the contactstage. Some counter measures employed are deflection, dilution,
reinforcement, surface modification,segregation, barricading, protection, absorption,
shielding etc.
Injury includes traumatic injury, diseases and adverse mental neurological or systemic
effectsresulting from workplace exposures. 'Damage' includes all types of property
damage including fire. The severity of losses involving physical harm and property
damage can be minimised by prompt reparative action, salvage in the case of property
damage and fire control devices and trained personnel.
Frank E Bird, in 1969, analysed 1753498 accidents reported by 297 companies of
America. Hisconclusion is shown in Fie. 4.5.

Inference of this 1-10-30-600 ratio is that 630 no injury accidents, with 10 minor and I
major(serious) injury accidents, provide a much larger basis for many opportunities to
prevent any injuryaccident. Out of total 641 events, only 10 may result in minor
injuries and only 1 in major injury. But this can happen at any time not necessarily at
the end.
7.3 Hepburn's Theory

H.A. Hepburn amplified the above Heinrich's theory and arrived at the principle that an
injuryaccident is the result of the convergence at the same point of time of 4 factors
 Unsafe actionable
 Unsafe conditional
 Proximate casual and
 Personal.

Unsafe Actionable

Personal Accident Unsafe conditional

Proximate casual

Here unsafe actionable and conditional factors are as usual Personal factor means
person injuredor likely to be injured by an accident and die person causing the
accident. The proximate factor is that immediate causative factor such as failure of a
brake, sudden exposure to gas etc., which by its reaction causes a sudden closing
together or convenience of all the four factors to cause an injury accident He
emphasises that lie four factors are complementary to one another m causation of any
injury-accident such that, if any one or more can be withdrawn by any means during or
just before convergence, an injury accident can be prevented. The event of an accident
will not be prevented by efforts to control any one of the factors to the exclusion of the
others. Remedial measures must be adopted for each of the factors. Like Heinrich he
also suggested planning and organizing to prevent unsafe actions and remove unsafe
mechanical or physical conditions.

V.L. Grose's Multiple Causation Theory:

As per this theory many contributing factors combine together UK random fashion,
causingaccidents. S interact with each other to generate causes for accident and
management has to identify them and provide necessary safety measures.uch factors
should be identified. As shown in figure 4.6, mostly man, machine and media
In this theory
1. Man includes- workers, public etc.
2. Machine includes- equipment, vehicle etc.
3. Media includes- environment, weather, roadways etc.
4. Management means within which above three parameters operate i.e. to be
controlled by themanagement.

Characteristics of –
1. Man includes- age, sex, height, skill level, training, motivation etc.
2. Machine includes- size, weight, speed, shape, material of constriction, energy etc.
3. Media includes- pressure, temperature, content, contaminants, obstruction on road
etc.
4. Management includes- structure, style, policy,procedure, communication etc.

Simple example of this theory is a man slipping due to walking on a banana skin lying
on .theroad. Here main contributing factors are as under:
Man - A man walking on the road. Machine or object or vehicle - Slipprery banana
skin.
Media - Hard road.
All above causes are interacting with each other to lead to the accident. Absence of any
one causecan avoid the accident This indicates that slippery banana skin should be
removed from the road or manshould be more attentive for not walking on it or the
road should not be so hard to cause slipping.
Let us take another example of a worker falling from a ladder. As per the
domino theory aninvestigation is as under :
The unsafe Act Climbing the defective ladder
The unsafe condition The defective ladder
The remedial measure Remove or repair the defective ladder and train that worker

As per the multiple causation theory some of the contributing factors surrounding
this accidentcan be found out by asking :
Why was the defect in ladder not found in normal (past) inspections?
2. Why did the supervisor allow its use? Why did he not get it repaired urgently?
3. Didn't the injured worker know he shouldn't use it?
4. Was he properly trained or not?
5. Was he reminded or cautioned?
6. Did and do the supervisor examine the job first?

The answers to these and similar questions would suggest the following measures:
1. An improved inspection procedure.
2. Repairing the ladder (machine-tool, job etc.) immediately i.e. not waiting for an
accident.
3. Improved training and supervision.
4. Better fixation of responsibilities.
5. Pre job planning and checking by supervisors.

Systems Model Theory :

Similar to V.L. Grose's multiple causation theory, Bob Firenze developed a
system model theory
as under:
Here interaction between man, machine and environment (basic pre-elements for
any accident)leads to an accident if the information available to the important element
of the system is inadequate. If the risk is high and the decisions based on information
are illogical and unsound, an accident occurs resulting into incompletion of the task.
Bob Firenze's system model is shown below:

Man Unsuccessful
task
feedback

Machine Stressors
Decisions
Risks
Accident

Environment Task
 This necessitates the introduction of feedback system (as shown in diagram) to
find out the faults/causes in man, machinery and environment. The information that the
man possesses can be strengthened through training. The stressors can be precedent in
the following form –
Psychological stressors . Anxiety, aggressiveness, fatigue.

. Environmental stressors Glare, temperature extremes and

low levels of illumination, also
includes 'Machine stressors' like
unguarded machines at the point
of operation, transmission of
power and other dangerous parts.

Physiological stressors Narcotics & Alcohol.

Ferrell’s Human Factors Theory:

Dr. Russell Ferrell, Professor of Human Factors al the University of Arizona,
gave this theory ofaccident causation as shown in diagram below:

Overload Human
Error

(load, capacity, state)

Incompatibility
Improper activities Initiating
Incidents

Accidents

Outcomes

Casual Chain

This theory states that accidents are the result of a casual chain (as in multiple
causation theory),one or more of the causes being human error, which is in turn caused
by three situations - overload,incompatibility and improper activities. Factors affecting
these three situations are as follows

1. Overload (A mismatch of capacity, load and a state) due to-

A Load Task (Physical, information processing)
Environment (Light, noise, distraction, stressors,
that requires active coping)
Internal (worry, emotional stress)
Situational (Ambiguity of goals or criteria, danger)

B Capacity Natural endowment, physical condition, safe of

mind, training,
drugs, pollutants, pressure, fatigue, stressors that
impair ability to
respond.

C State Motivational level and arousal level.

2. Incompatibility (incorrect response or mismatch) due to –

Stimulus Response Due to control – display

Stimulus Stimulus Due to inconsistent display

types

Response Response Due to inconsistent control

types or locations.
Work station Size, force, reach, feel

Improper Activities due to

(a) The worker did not know how to do it.
(b) He deliberately took risk due to
— low perceived probability of accident
— low perceived cost of accident
Since this is basically human factor model, greater emphasis is placed on the first two
causes of human error, overload and incompatibility.

Petersen's Accident – Incident Causation Theory :

This theory adapts Ferrell’s human factors of overload and (also Heinrich's domino
theory and states that causes of accident/incident are human error and/or system
failure. Human error is due to overload, traps and decision to err. Human error may
directly cause accident or may cause system failure which may cause accident resulting
in injury or loss as shown below:

Overload Human error

Traps
Decision to err Accident or
Incident

System failure Injury or loss

Factors causing overload are much the same in Ferrell's model. Traps are due to
defective workstation, design and incompatible displays or control. Decision to err are
caused by illogical decision under situation, unconscious desire to err and perceived
low probability.System failure is due to error in policy, responsibility, authority,
accountability, measurement, inspection, correction, investigation, orientation, training,
selection, safe operating procedure, standards.

Epidemiological Theory:
Suchman stated epidemiological definition of accident as "An unexpected;
unavoidable,unintentional act resulting from the interaction of host (accident victim),
agent (injury deliverer) and environmental factors within situations which involve risk
taking and perception of danger". His model is shown below:

Predisposition characteristics Situational

Characteristics
-- Susceptible Risk taking
host
-- Hazardous Appraisal of
environment margin
 error
-- Injury
producing
agent

Accident effects Accident conditions

Injury Unexpected

Damage -- Unavoidable

--
Unintentional

This originated from the study of epidemics. Casual association between

diseases or other biological processes (accidents) and specific environment are studied.
A classic example of epidemiological method was given by Snow who discovered that
persons using a particular water supply had a higher death rate from cholera than
others. Gordon and McFarland supported that accidental injuries could be studied with
the same techniques.

Surry’s Decision Theory:

Jean Surry developed this theory stemming from .the epidemiological model of
Suchman. It assumes that by a person's action or inaction, danger occurs to the person.
If any negative responses to the question are shown during the danger build-up cycle,
the danger becomes imminent. If all replies' are positive, the danger diminishes. A
negative response to one of the questions will lead to inevitable injury. An accident can
be the result of many different routes through the model (20 routes). There are fewer
routes leading to no-injury situations.

TECHNIQUES FOR ACCIDENT PREVENTION

Three basic steps

All employers, employees and self employed persons have a duty of care
towards their own, and others' health and safety at their workplace.
Compliance with legislative requirements may assist by providing either performance
based or prescriptive criteria to achieve required results. Various legislative
requirements may impact on activities within workplaces to ensure that workers are
able to work in a safe environment.
Under general duty of care legislation, employers have a duty to ensure, as far as
practicable, that employees are not exposed to hazards at the workplace. Under
regulations and in accordance with codes of practice, employers also have an
obligation to identify workplace hazards, to assess the associated risks and to make the
necessary changes to minimise the risks. These three basic steps should be taken to
ensure a safe and healthy workplace and prevent accidents. They are based on the
concept that the workplace should be modified to suit people, not vice versa. The three
steps are:

Identifying the Hazard - involves recognizing things which may cause injury or harm
to the health of a person, for instance, flammable material, ignition sources or
unguarded machinery.

Assessing the Risk - involves looking at the possibility of injury or harm occurring to
a person if exposed to a hazard.

Controlling the Risk - by introducing measures to eliminate or reduce the risk of a

person being exposed to a hazard.

It is important to regularly review the steps, especially if there are changes in the
work environment, new techn ology is introduced, or standards are changed

OHS legislation promotes cooperation and consultation between the employer

and employees within the workplace to achieve a healthy and safe work environment.
Employers should consult with OHS representatives, if any, and employees during
these steps. Involvement of elected OHS representatives can provide an opportunity for
problems to be resolved using knowledge within the immediate work area..

Hazard identification
A hazard in relation to a person is "anything that may result in injury to a person
or harm to the health of a person".
 There are a number of ways of identifying potential sources of injury or disease.
Selection of the appropriate procedure will depend on the type of work processes and
hazards involved. Procedures may range from a simple checklist for a specific piece of
equipment or substance, to a more open-ended appraisal of a group of related work
processes. Systematic inspections and audits can be used to detect changes away from
the designed or designated conditions. Such programmes can be scheduled on time,
fault or random regimes. Importantly the results should be utilised and form part of an
on-going base of data for the workplace. A combination of methods may provide the
most effective results. Methods of identifying workplace hazards include:

 developing a hazard checklist;

 conducting walk-through surveys and inspections;

 reviewing information from designers or manufacturers;

 analysing unsafe incident, accident and injury data;

 analysing work processes;

 consulting with employees;

 examining and considering material safety data sheets and product labels; and

 seeking advice from specialist practitioners and representatives.

 Some hazards are inherent in the work process, such as mechanical hazards,
noise, or the toxic properties of substances. Other hazards result from equipment
or machine failures and misuse, control or power system failures, chemical
spills, and structural failures.
 Hazards may be grouped into three categories - physical, mental and biological.
Within each category, there are further hazard groups or types. It is useful to
consider these hazard types (see below) when identifying work related hazards
to ensure that a wide range of potential hazards is considered. The most common
hazards in terms of bodily injury or disease are those which result in:

 strain or overuse injuries and disease to back, shoulder, wrist etc;

 cut and abrasion injuries to the eyes, hands, fingers, feet and head;
 impact and crush injuries to the head, feet and fingers;
  burns (by heat, light or chemicals) to the eyes, feet, and skin;
 noise induced hearing loss; and toxic effects (short or long term) to respiratory
system or skin, resulting in poisoning, cancers or dermatitis.
Types of hazard include: Specific examples:
Gravity falling objects, falls of
people
Kinetic energy projectiles, penetrating
objects
Mechanical energy caught between, struck by,
struck against
Hazardous substances skin contact, inhalation
Thermal energy spills and splashes of hot

Types of hazard include: Specific examples:

Extremes of temperature effects of heat or cold
Radiation ultraviolet, arc flashes,
microwaves, lasers
Noise hearing damage
Electrical shock, burns
Vibration to hands
Biological micro-organisms
Stress unrealistic workload and
expectations

Assessing the risks

  Risk, in relation to any injury and harm, is defined as "the probability of that
injury or harm occurring."
 Risk assessment should result in a list of any potential injury or harm and the
likelihood of these occurring, arising from the hazards identified in the first step.
In general, these should be stated from the most to the least serious, for example,
from death by crushing to abrasion. The potential for fatal injury should be
considered for each hazard type identified.

In assessing risks, consideration should be given to the state of knowledge

about the frequency of injury or disease, the duration of exposure to injury or
disease sources and the likely severity of the outcomes. Knowledge gained from
similar workplaces or similar processes may be relevant to this risk assessment.
Items to be considered include:

 Frequency of injury - how often is the hazard likely to result in an injury or

disease?

 Duration of exposure - how long is the employee exposed to the hazard?

 Outcome - what are the consequences or potential severity of injury?

Assessing these three factors will indicate the probability or likelihood of injury or
harm to workers involved in a particular work process. It also indicates the likely
severity of this harm. Incomplete data or incomplete information regarding hazards of
a work process may complicate the task. Risk assessment requires good judgment and
awareness of the potential risks of a work process. Any person undertaking the risk
assessment must have knowledge and experience of the work process.
An assessment of the risk will help determine the consequences (potential injury or
disease) and assist to identify methods to reduce the risk. Risk assessment should
include:

1. assessing the adequacy of training or knowledge required to work safely;

2. looking at the way the jobs are performed;

3. looking at the way work is organised;

 4. determining the size and layout of the workplace;

5. assessing the number and movement of all people on the site;

6. determining the type of operation to be performed;

7. determining the type of machinery and plant to be used;

8. examining procedures for an emergency (eg: accident, fire and rescue); and

9. looking at the storage and handling of all materials and substances.

In some cases it may be necessary to break down the activity or process into a series of
parts and assess each part separately.

Reducing the risk, and preferred order or hierarchy of controls

The final step is to determine the control measures that need to be taken. In some
instances, a combination of control measures may be appropriate. Control measures
should be designed to:
 eliminate or reduce the risks of a hazardous work process and to minimise the
effects of injury or disease; and reduce the risk of exposure to a hazardous substance.

Controls involve implementing measures that reduce the hazard and risk in the
workplace. The control of occupational injury and disease risks should preferably be
dealt with in a preferred order or hierarchy. The control measures range from the most
effective to the least effective. The Hierarchy or Preferred Order of Control is:
 Elimination - removing the hazard or hazardous work practice from the
workplace. This is the most effective control measure.
 Substitution - substituting or replacing a hazard or hazardous work practice
with a less hazardous one.
 Isolation - isolating or separating the hazard or hazardous work practice from
people not involved in the work or the general work areas, for example, by
marking off hazardous areas, installing screens or barriers.
 Engineering Control - if the hazard cannot be eliminated, substituted or
isolated, an engineering control is the next preferred measure. This may include
modifications to tools or equipment, providing guarding to machinery or
equipment.
  Administrative Control - includes introducing work practices that reduce the
risk. This could include limiting the amount of time a person is exposed to a
particular hazard.
 Personal Protective Equipment - should be considered only when other control
measures are not practicable or to increase protection.Control measures are not
mutually exclusive. That is, there may be circumstances where more than one
control measure should be used to reduce exposure to hazards. The higher level
controls generally eliminate, reduce or minimise risk in a more reliable manner
than personal protective equipment which is at the bottom of the priority
schedule.

Review of control measures

 Constantly reviewing control measures is important to ensure they continue to

prevent or control exposure to hazards or hazardous work practices.
 Engineering controls should be regularly tested to ensure their effectiveness.
Performance testing and evaluation standards should be established.
 Repair and maintenance programs should specify:

 where servicing is required;

 the extent of servicing required;
 the nature of the servicing required;
 the frequency of servicing;
 who is responsible for amending repair and maintenance programs to reflect
current usage of equipment; and
 how defects will be corrected.

In order to keep accurate records, a recording or reporting system should be

developed, implemented and maintained.

Fundamentals of Accident Prevention:

Five basic or fundamental steps for accident prevention (safe and efficient production),
suggested
by H.W. Heinrich, are:
1. Organisation.
2. Fact finding.
3. Analysis of the facts found
4. Selection of remedy and
5. Application of the remedy.
Sixth step of 'Monitoring' (i.e. measurement o: result, assessment i.e. comparison with
legal criteria or standard, feedback and further improvement) is also suggested. Such
review is necessary after all safety progrmmes.

2. Organisation:-
The safety organisation, management or at least the planned procedure, which it
represents, is the
vehicle, the mechanism by means of which interest is kept alive and the safety
programme is designed, directed and controlled . Safety is not only a staff
function but it is a line function also The actual work of prevention is done by
safety director or manager, safety officer and the line and staff supervisors with
the active support of top management.

3. Factfinding:-The knowledge of probable or potential hazards (facts) is derived

from surveys, inspections,safety audits, observations, review or records, inquiry,
investigation and judgement.

4. Analysing
Twelve steps (safety officer's procedure) to analyse the causes of accidents are
as follows :
 Obtain the supervisor's report of the accident containing the details
given above.
 Obtain statutory accident report form.
 Obtain the injured person's report.
 Obtain the reports of witnesses if any.
 Obtain the doctor's report on injury. .
 Investigate the accident.
 Record all evidences and facts.
 Tabulate the essential facts of the accident together with the similar
past accidents.
 Study all the facts.
 Analyse accident causes in details. Such analysis will classify causes
as defective or no guard,
 poor lighting, poor ventilation, no safety devices, no use of PPE,
accidents - fatal or nonfatal,
 male or female wise, day or night wise, age wise etc.
 Arrange the causes in order of importance or priority of compliance.
 Find and record reasons of existence of those causes.
  Selection of Remedy:
When it is analysed to indicate, which is the proximate or main cause that needs
to be corrected then it suggests the fourth step of selection of remedy for the
named (analysed) hazards. Four basic remedies 'are as under:
 Four Basic Remedies:
a. Engineering Controls : Guarding of machine and tools, isolation of
hazards, revision of procedures and processes, good illumination,
ventilation, colour and colour contrast, substitution of safer materials and
tools, replacement, reduction, repair and a variety of mechanical, physical
and chemical remedial measures for which the most of the chapters of this
book are developed.
b. Instruction, Training, Persuasion and Appeal: Regular training as well
as instruction, reinstruction, persuasion, appeal, notice, posters,
supervision and motivation.
c. Personnel adjustment: Selection and placement with regard to the
requirement of the job and thephysical and mental suitability of the
worker, medical examination, treatment, advice and PPE.
d. Discipline: Mild admonition, expression of disappointment, fair
insistence, statement of past record, transfer to other work and penalties.

Application of the Remedy:

The final step in accident prevention is application of the selected remedy.

Application of remedy is the dynamic part of accident prevention. Unless the remedy is
successfully applied, all prior steps are of no use and wasted

Role of safety Officers:

1)To advice the concerned dept for effective control.

2)To advice on safety aspect in all job studies & also carry out job safety studies.
3)To check and evaluate the effectiveness action taken
4)advice purchase dept for high quality of ppe.
5)To advice on plant safety inspection.
6)To carry out plant safety inspection.
7)To investigate accident analysis.
8)Investigate the dangerous occurrence.
9)To advice & maintenance of record of accident/dangerous occurrence.
10)To promote safety committee &acts as catalyst.
11)To organize campaign, competition, contest.
12)Design and conduct safety programmed & educational programmed.
Role of management

1)As far as reasonably practicable the health safety &welfare of all workers while they
are at work.
2)Maintain the plant & system of work in the factory safe and risk-free.
3)The arrangement in the factory in a such way that it is safe and risk free for
chemicals handling, storage & import.
4)To provide information, instruction, training & supervision to employees.
5)The maintenance of all work place that is safe and risk free.
6)To monitor the plant and worksites.
7)To disclose the information to the authorities, employees, workers and surrounding.
8)Make sure employees have and use safe tools and equipment’s& properly maintain
equipment
9)Use color codes,poster’s,labels or signs to warn employees.
10)Establish SOP & communicate workers that they understand.
11)Provide medical examinations and training when required by OSHA std.
12)Examine workplace condition to make sure they confirm osha standard.
13)Provide workplace free from hazard.
14)Keep record of work related injuries and illness.
15)Provide medical record & exposure record to employees
16) To give imminent danger information to the workers.

Role Of workmen’s

1) Before start work check they should check guards,fencing,safety devices.

2) Represent to the inspector directly or through his representative in the matter of
inadequate provision for HS Of the factory.
3) Safe Use and return of tools and ppe’ s .
4) If safety guard and ppe are not provide they can demand.
5) Surrounding place should be kept clean.
6) Wrong habits at work should be left.
7) Actively participate in safety training, programmed.
8) Also they shall not willfully interfere with misuse of any appliances things to
provide of securing H & S.
9) They shall not willfully do the activity which is harmful to himself and others.
10) They shall not neglect the to make use of any appliances.
11) To know hazard to the management
Role of trade union.

• checking and demanding safe workplace, tools machines, equipment’s,working

conditions, and environment.
• Training & insisting their member to use and maintain guard, safety devices,
PPE.
• Always help in maintaining safety in running the plant ,onsite, offsite ,they can
also lead in to disaster plant.
• checking for physical workload, working hour, odd shifts, welfare facilities
• Actively participating in all safety campaigns, safety programmers, seminars,
publicity.
• arguing both management and members on workers safety committee.
• deputing their members on committee.
• sending there to courses, seminar, training classes.

Role of factory medical officer.

• Sect.10-is for the certifying surgeon.

• The Medical Officer will organize the dispensary, outpatient department and
will allot duties to the ancillary staff to ensure smooth running of the OPD.
• He/she will make suitable arrangements for the distribution of work in the
treatment of emergency cases which come outside the normal OPD hours.
• He/she will organize laboratory services for cases where necessary and within
the scope of his laboratory for proper diagnosis of doubtful cases.
• He/she will attend to cases referred to him/her by Health Assistants, Health
Workers, Voluntary Health Workers where applicable, Dais or by the School
Teachers.
• He/she will screen cases needing specialized medical attention including dental
care and nursing care and refer them to referral institutions.
• He/she will provide guidance to the Health Assistants, Health Workers, Health
Guides and School Teachers in the treatment of minor ailments.
• He/she will cooperate and or coordinate with other institutions providing
medical care services in his/her area.
• He/she will visit each Sub-center in his/her area at least once in a fortnight on a
fixed day not only to check the work of the staff but also to provide curative
services.
• Organize and participate in the “health day” at Anganwadi Centre once in a
month.
 CHAPTER-1 INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE:

Definition: Industrial (Environmental) hygiene is defined by the American Industrial Hygiene

Association (AIHA) as that science and art devoted to the anticipation, recognition, evaluation and
control of those environmental factors of stresses, arising in or from the workplace, which may
cause sickness, impaired health and well-being or significant discomfort and inefficiency among
workers or among the citizens of the community.
Control Methods: Control method includes engineering and administrative controls, safe disposal
of wastes, medical examination, use of PPE, education, training and supervision.
The control measures can be applied at following three levels.
(1) At Source:
1. Substitution e.g. toluene in place of benzene, silicon carbide in place of silica in
grinding stone, or water in place of solvent.
2. Change of processor technology (airless paint spraying).
3. Enclosure of process (cover).
4. Isolation (by space or time).
5. Wet methods (water blasting).
6. Local exhaust ventilation (Capturing at source).
7. Waste disposal (pollution control).
8. Good maintenance.
(2) At Airpath:
1. Increasing natural ventilation.
2. Proving exhaust ventilation (fans).
3. Increasing distance between source and the receiver (semi-automatic or remote
control).
4. Dilution or Mechanical ventilation (supplied air).
5. Continuous Area monitoring (pre-set alarms).
6. Good housekeeping.
7. Good maintenance.
(3) At Receiver:
1. Personal Hygiene Methods (Washing, bathing, good diet methods, no smoking, no-
intoxication etc.).
2. Use of personal protective equipment and good maintenance.
3. Use of protective cream or lotion.
4. Personal monitoring device (Dosimeter).
5. Enclosure of worker (AC cabin).
6. Rotation of worker (Split up of dose).
7. Training and Education.
8. Medical Examination and follow up.
The control measures (technology) can also be classified as under:
Engineering Controls:
In this category are included those procedures which are applied to the working
environment rather than to the individual. They are as follows:
1. Substitution and Modification:The highly toxic material (carcinogenic, mutagenic or
teratogenic) and processes should be replaced by less hazardous materials and processes.
Following table gives such examples:

Substance Substitute

White phosphorous Phosphorous Sulphide

 Mercury compounds Mercury free materials.
Leaded glaze, paint, pigments Leadless glaze, paint, pigment
Benzene Cyclohexane or certain ketones
CCI4 Methyl chloroform, Dichloromethane
Solvents with low B.P. and high V.P. Solvents with high B.P. and low V.P.
Organic solvents Detergent and water cleaning solutions
Chlorine Argon for degassing
Asbestos Fiberglass
Quartz and Non-silica aggregates
Sand blasting Steel or silicon carbide shot
Silica bricks Magnesite or Aluminium oxide bricks
Sandstone grinding wheel Synthetic grinding wheel
Broom cleaning Vacuum cleaning
Precaution required while selecting safer substitute is that it should not bring any new hazard.
Modifications in the process or equipment can reduce the hazard. Reduction in noise, vibration,
excessive light and temperature, speed, grinding or mixing speed, mechanical handling instead of
manual, use of tongs instead of fingers, sitting posture instead of long-standing etc. help in
decreasing the health effects. Following table gives some examples –
Modification Instead of

Toxic pellet or lump Powder

Closed charging of toxic material Open charging of toxic material
Electrical motor Internal combustion engine
Covered containers Open containers
Mechanical gauges Mercury gauges
Mechanical pump seals Gasket pump seals
Material of the required size Odd size and then cutting
Copper electric wiring Aluminium electric wiring
Airless spray Hand spraying
Low pressure, Low temperature process High pressure, high temperature process
Water or air jet looms Ordinary power looms

Use of catalyzers (to convert CO into CO2), silencers, suppressing chemical (urea can suppress
generation of NO2), tank-size reduction, content reduction, dikes to reduce evaporating surface
area etc. are also necessary modification/ alterations.
2. Isolation and Enclosure of a Process: This has its widest application in the chemical
industries where frequently it is possible and practicable to design totally enclosed systems
for carrying out the manufacture or processing of chemical compounds. Enclosure may be
 total or partial. Closed systems, barrier walls, cabins and isolation by distance or time are
possible.
3. Segregation: This may be accomplished by shifting a potentially dangerous process to a
segregated or enclosed area to prevent contamination of adjacent work spaces. In some
situations, segregation can be accomplished by locating a process in an open shed or even
completely out of doors.
4. Ventilation:This is perhaps the most important engineering control measure. Ventilation
may be general or local. General ventilation consists in rapid dilution of contaminated air
with fresh air usually by fan. Local ventilation usually consists in providing air suction
close to the point where potentially harmful dusts, fumes, vapours, mists or gases are
generated. Safe collection and disposal of contaminants removed by local exhaust
ventilation is necessary. For volatile chemicals, it is common practice to install a recovery
system as part of the ventilating equipment,
5. Wet Process:The use of water to limit the dispersal of atmospheric contaminants finds its
chief application in the control of dust. This procedure is widely used in rock-drilling and
useful when sweeping is done in a dusty work room. Water spraying on coal heaps
suppresses coal dust.
6. Neutralization or inactivation of chemical compounds is sometimes useful in connection
with local exhaust ventilation and in cleaning up contaminated areas. See Chapter-18 also.
7. House Keeping:Regular clean up schedules, particularly where dust is a problem are
essential in any control programme.
Planning and follow-up for Control of House-keeping should include -
 Deciding policy and technique for good housekeeping.
 Proper layout of work area.
 Marking of aisles, ways and storage areas.
 Cabinets and holders for tools and equipment.
 Storage arrangements for materials.
 Containers for materials in process.
 Efficient sequence ofoperations to avoid bottlenecks.
 Anticipation of waste, scrap, dust, spillage, splashes etc., and inclusion of methods of
their control stated in Part 5.2.
 Efficient transportation of raw material, finished: products and refuse. Use of
mechanical feeding belt conveyor etc.
 Efficient cleaning methods including vacuum cleaners etc., and without interrupting
the production schedule.
 Necessary training of workers.
Waste Disposal (Air Pollution Controls):
1. Industrial ventilation systems viz. dilution ventilation, hood, duct, fan etc.
2. Settling chamber and dust collector.
3. Inertial devices viz. cyclone collector, centrifugal collector, multiple cyclones etc.
4. Electrostatic precipitators.
5. Particulate scrubbers viz.cyclone scrubber venturi scrubber, spray chambers etc.
6. Filters viz. filter bed, packed filter, bag filter etc.
7. 7. Absorption devices viz. gas scrubbers, absorption towers.
8. Adsorption devices viz. fixed-bed absorbers, moving bed absorbers etc.
9. Combustion devices viz. combustion chamber, flares, incinerators, catalytic
afterburners etc.
10. Condensation devices viz.direct contact condensers, surface heat exchangers etc. For
the details of such system study Reference No. 5 given at the end of this Chapter.

a. General safety measures to control air pollution in an industrial area are:

11. Air pollution control technique should be adopted from the design stage.
12. The allowable emission rate should not be exceeded by individual plant.
13. Total load of pollutants in any area should not be exceeded the prescribed limit
(community exposure).
14. A continuous air monitoring should be conducted in the locality.
15. Site appraisal Committee (Section 41A of the Factories Act) should consider
meteorological and ecological conditions to decide a sitting of a new factory.

Air Pollution Control Systems:

1. The stack height should be sufficient depending upon pollutants, meteorological condition
and statutory standards. See Table 12 to 14 of Chapter-32. Heated and unheated emissions
should be considered for stack design. High stack disperses the pollutants over a wider
area thus reducing their concentration.
2. Settling chambers (inertial separators, dynamic separators, wet and multiple cyclones and
other devices)
3. Filtration by fibrous mats, aggregate beds filters, paper filters, and fabric filters.
4. Liquid scrubbing by spray chambers, packed towers, plate towers, orifice" scrubbers and
mist eliminators.
5. Electrostatic precipitators.
6. Gas solid absorption.
7. Thermal decomposition and
8. Combination systems.
Thermal Incineration is an effective waste disposal method and is defined as engineered process
that use high temperature thermal oxidation to convert waste to a less bulky, less toxic or less
noxious material. The flue gases may generally contain CO, water Vapour and inert gases. But
depending on the residues being incinerated, it may also contain acidic gases such as halides and
their acid oxides of phosphorous, Sulphur, nitrogen and entrained salts of metals. Incineration
process can be employed to burn solid, liquid or gaseous wastes. Some such processes are given
below.
Incineration Process Temperature Range. Residence Time

Rotary kiln 820 to 1600 Liquids, gases- seconds Solids-

hours.
Liquid injunction 650 to 1600 0.1 to 2 seconds
Fluidized bed 450 to 980 Liquids, gases-seconds. Solids-
longer.
Multiple heart Drying zone 320 to 540
Incineration 760 to 980
Incineration 150 to 1600 Seconds to hours.
Starved air 480 to 820 0.1 second to hours/
Combustion

Venturi Scrubber is a simple, high efficiency unit to collect dust or fume by direct
contact with water and is useful where the gas to be treated is at elevated temperature or when the
contaminant is a difficult or sticky material. A venturi scrubber occupies little space, iseasy to
maintain and has a further advantage of predictable collection efficiency (dependent upon particle
size and density) for a given pressure loss. It may be a low-pressure loss unit (6 to 20 in wig
range) or a high-pressure loss unit (20 to 60 in wg range).
Personal and Medical Controls:
This term is used to describe those procedures which are applied to the employed person
(biological sampling, diagnosis and applying remedy). It includes-
1. Preplacement medicalexamination: Purpose of this examinations is to protect workers
with known susceptibility against any potentially harmful exposure, e.g. worker affected
by pulmonary tuberculosis should not be placed in exposure of silica and chlorinated
hydrocarbon atmosphere.
2. Periodic medical examination:A major purpose is to detect any existing evidence of
poisoning at an early stage when corrective measures can be expected to result in complete
recovery. Corrections may call for improved industrial hygiene practices for temporary or
permanent change of job assignment or both of these.
3. Personal Protective Devices:Protective clothing, masks, and respirators should be
properly selected for the purpose for which they are intended and usually worn to prevent
injuries. A programme of using, cleaning and replacing worn out parts is highly desirable.
4. First-aid:Keep first aider to take charges in the event of an emergency due to poisoning.
Give proper first-aid training to workers.
5. Laboratory Procedures:Check blood, urine, stool, lungs, skin etc. to detect onset of
symptoms of health effects.
Special Control Measures:
Above mentioned control measures are general measures applicable to most of the industries, but
special control measures are required depending on the specialty of the process or material. Such
measures may vary with the nature of industry. See Chapter-23 for 38 types of different industries
and more than 500 control measures.
Biohazards exist due to bacterial, fungal, viral, rickettsia, chlamydial, parasitic agents etc. (see
Part 10.9 of Chapter-28) and places where they exist include laboratory, hospitals, agriculture,
animal area etc. Their control measures include good housekeeping, personal hygiene, laboratory
safety, animal care and handling, biological safety cabinets, use of sterilization (autoclave) and
disinfection and precautions from Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) and
Legionnaires' disease.
Maintenance:
Keeping all the Control equipment in good working condition, maintenance is necessary.
 Regular maintenance
 Break-down Maintenance
 Annual Maintenance Schedule
 Weekly Maintenance Schedule
1.3 Introduction to Chemical Hazards:
(A) Gases and Vapours:
(1) Gases:Normally formless fluid which occupy the space of enclosure and which can
be changed to the liquid or solid state only by the combined effect of increased pressure and
temperature. Gases diffuse. The particle size varies from 0.0005 to 0.01 micron. Example: Cl2,
NH4, SO2, H2S, HCN, CO
Main pollutants are oxides of carbon, Sulphur and nitrogen.
(2) Vapours:The gaseous form of substance which are normally in the solid or liquid
state and which can be changed to these states by either increasing the pressure or decreasing the
temperature alone. Vapours diffuse. The particle size varies from 0.005 to 0.01 micron.
Examples are vapours of lead oxide, benzene, xylene, trichloroethylene and other solvents. Gases
and vapours are also classified as under-
1. Organic solvent vapours e.g. alcohol, acetone, CS2, CCI4, benzene, xylene.
2. Pulmonary irritant gases e.g. C12 NO2, phosgene.
3. Upper respiratory irritant gases e.g. NH3, SO2, formaldehyde, acetic acid.
4. Chemical asphyxiant gases e.g. CO, HCN.
5. Simple asphyxiant gases e.g. N2, CO2, methane, its homologues and acetylene.
6. Other inorganic and organic gases e.g. H2S, arsine and pesticides vapours.
(B) Particulate Matters:
These are solid tiny particles produced by blasting, crushing, drilling, grinding, mixing etc.
and suspended in the air. Examples are as under:
(1) Dusts:Solid particles generated by handling, crushing, grinding, rapid impact, detonation
and decrepitation of organic or inorganic materials such as rocks, ore, metal, coal, wood,
grain etc. Dusts do not tend to flocculate except under electrostatic forces. They do not
diffuse in air but settle under the influence of gravity. The particle size varies from O.I to
1000 microns. Fly ash from chimneys varies from. 3 to 80 microns.
(2) Fumes: Solid particles generated by condensation from the gaseous state, generally
after volatilization from molten metals etc. and often accompanied by a chemical reaction
such as oxidation. Fumes flocculate and sometimes coalesce. The particle size varies from
0.001 to 100 microns. Examples: lead, zinc, or nitrous fumes.
(3) Mists:Suspended liquid droplets generated by condensation from the gaseous to the liquid
state or by breaking up a liquid into a dispersed state, such as by splashing, foaming and
atomizing. The particle size varies from 50 to 100 microns. Example:Sulphur acid mist.
(4) Smokes:Small gas-borne particles resulting from incomplete combustion and consisting
predominantly of carbon gaseous material are grouped in this category. The particle size
varies from O.I to I micron.
(5) Aerosols:It is a colloidal system m which the dispersion medium is a gas and the dispersed
phase is solid or liquid. The term aerosol is applicable till the solids or liquids remain
suspended in the gaseous media. The particle size varies from 0.01 to 100 micron. Dust,
smoke or mist are examples. Aerosols affect weather, damage materials and impair health.
Atmospheric aerosols like hydrocarbons, lead, arsenic, Sulphur acid etc. may injure human
health because of their toxic nature.
1.4 Routes of Entry (Avenues) to Human System:

Following are the four main routes of entry of toxic material into human body:(1) Absorption
through skin (Dermal tract):Skin absorption attains its greatest importance in connection with
the organic solvents. The significant quantities of these compounds may enter the body through
the skin either as a result of direct accidental contamination or indirectly when the material has
been spilled on the clothing. Using industrial solvents for removing grease and dirt from the hands
and arms is a source of dermatitis. Some
solvents penetrate the intact skin, get into the
blood stream and produce ill effects on the
blood and throughout the body, e.g.
nitrobenzene, aniline, phenol, nicotine.

Occupation involving handling and

spraying pesticides, liquid splashes may enter
through skin and cause toxic effects. Vapours
of pesticide can enter through nose and solid
or liquid pesticide if taken through mouth
(unfollowing, accidentally or suicidal) it can
pass through digestive route also. Safety
measures are suggested in Part 24 of Chapter-
23.
Volatile material like phenol, aniline,
nitrobenzene, cresol, tetraethyl lead and many
organs phosphorous or organo-chlorine pesticides pose greater hazard through skin than through
inhalation. Absorption through losings of the epidemic is more rapid than through the intact skin.
Cut skin may absorb quickly. Therefore, safety gloves, aprons, face shield, goggles and overalls
are always desirable.
(2) Absorption through Tongue. (Ingestion or Digestive Tract): Use of contaminated and
dirty vessels used for eating and drinking is the most common route of ingestion. Accidental
swallowing of chemicals is also possible. The detoxification affects the liver exerts when the
ingested quantity is small. However, massive dose can lead to fatalities in absence of medical
attention.

1.5 Concept of Threshold limit values

Threshold Limit Values (TLVs)
 - Prepared by ACGIH volunteer scientists
- Denotes the level of exposure that nearly all workers can experience without an
unreasonable risk of disease or injury
- An advisory limit; not enforceable by law
- Generally, can be defined as ceiling limits, short-term exposure limits, and/or time-
weighted averages
- Usually equivalent to PELs
Air Sampling:
Basic need of air quality sampling and work environment monitoring and analysis is to
find the level of pollution and to work out strategy to reduce it. Need of sampling and monitoring
is statutorily suggested by Form no. 37, Rule 12B of the Gujarat Factories Rules. The format calls
for identification of airborne contaminants, sampling instruments and methods, number of samples
and comparison of measured value with the TWA concentration in 2nd schedule of the Factories
Act to assess the working environment and also the number of workers exposed to that. Correct
record of such workplace monitoring is essential for good health and good housekeeping.
Need of sampling and monitoring is also inferred from the types, sources and hazards of
air pollutants mentioned below. Monitoring is more than air sampling or medical examination of a
worker. It includes a series of actions to assess the protection necessary.
Purpose & Types of Air Sampling:
Purpose of sampling are (1) To determine type and concentration of exposure due to health
hazards to workers (2) To determine the types and effectiveness of the control measures provided,
any change if necessary in them and new control measures to be provided (3) To investigate
complaints and (4) For research purposes.
Types of Air Sampling:They are (1) Personal sampling (2) Area sampling (3) Grab
sampling and (4) Integrated sampling.
In personal sampling the sampling device is worn by the worker near his breathing zone to
evaluate personal or individual exposure to him.

In area sampling the air samples are taken at fixed places in a workroom or confined
spaces to evaluate general concentrations of flammable, explosive or toxic material in air for the
purpose of isolation or restriction to work or to design the control measures. It includes continuous
monitors for leak detection, ventilation failure, equipment malfunctions etc.
Short period (instantaneous) sampling is called grab sampling and long-period sampling is
called integrated sampling. Grab sampling is used to measure concentration at a particular time (at
least two samples within 5 minutes) e.g. peak value of NH3 or Cl2 at a particular time. The sample
is collected in evacuated flask or plastic bag, sealed and sent to a laboratory where trace analysis is
carried out by gas chromatography, IR spectrophotometry etc. Direct reading instruments can also
be used for grab sampling. Temperature and pressure should be recorded during sampling. It
should not be used for reactive gases.
Integrated air sampling is carried out by direct reading instruments (e.g. gas detector tubes
or digital meters) to measure STEL value for 15 minutes and TLV for 8 hr. TWA limits. An air-
sampling train consisting of air-inlet orifice, collection media (solid or liquid sorbent, filters and
passive monitors), air-flow meter, flow-rate control valve and suction pump, is used by qualified
and trained personnel. Direct-reading gas and Vapour monitors include (1) Colorimetric devices -
stain tubes and hand or battery-operated pump (2) Colorimetric paper tape samplers (3) Electrical
instruments (4) 0 monitors (4) CO monitors and (5) IR analyzers.
Types of sampling is also classified as
(1) Passive or diffusive' air sampling which involves collection of airborne gases/
vapours through a diffusion barrier onto absorbing medium without the use of air
sampling pump and
(2) Active air sampling which involves collection of airborne contaminants by means
of a forced movement of air by a sampling pump and through appropriate
collection medium i.e. filter.
Selection of equipment for air-sampling is important and depends on many factors such
as purpose of sampling, type of sampling, type of equipment available, nature of toxicant,
environmental conditions, required accuracy and sensitivity, reliability, property of air-
contaminant, presence of other chemicals which may mix or interfere, duration of sampling, cost
etc.
Sampling Calculations:Calculations for gas and Vapour concentrations depend on gas laws that
where temperature, volume, pressure, Concentration (mass/volume), molecular wt., density of gas
is considered
Concentration is normally expressed in ppm or mg/m3.
The following equation is used –
Samples are collected in the areas of (1) Breathing zone of the worker (2) General
atmosphere of the room (3) Operation itself.
The factors determining the duration of sampling or the volume of the air to be sampled
are: (1) Sensitivity of the analytical procedure (2) TLV, STEL etc. (3) The expected air
concentrations.
 The number of samples to be collected depends on (1) The purpose of sampling (2) The
concentration of the contaminant.
A minimum of 3 to 5 samples are necessary.
Air Sampling Methods:
Two basic methods employed to collect the gaseous contaminants are:
1. Use of a gas collector, such as an evacuated flask. The collector is resealed immediately to
prevent loss before to the sample is analyzed and
2. Passing a known volume of gas or air through an absorbing medium to remove the desired
contaminants from the sampled atmosphere. The absorbing medium is chosen according to
its efficiency for a particular contaminant.
Field methods require (1) Survey of work environment to collect basic data (2) Sampling
principles or strategies to decide location of measurement (nose level of the worker, at source of
emission and in general atmosphere of the workroom) (3) Types of samples (4) Minimum and
optimum volume of sample (5) Duration and time of sampling and (6) Number of samples.
Then air sample is collected and the contaminant is removed for analysis. Gas detection
tables, papers and liquids are used and finally the results are interpreted.
Sampling Strategies:Factors to be considered while deciding sampling strategy are as under:
1. Collection techniques:The sampling device is attached to the worker who wears it during
his presence in the workplace. It can be held at his breathing zone (nose level). For
environmental monitoring, it is placed in a fixed location in the work area. For designing
engineering control, it should be placed near the source of emission.

2. Place of Sampling:Purpose of sampling should be decided and accordingly the place, e.g.
breathing zone, source of emission, work area, confined space, place of highest
concentration, garage, tunnel etc. should be decided.
3. Selection of highly exposed worker:A worker who is closest to the source of toxic
emission should be selected. Individual differences in work habits can show different
levels of exposure at the same place - the same job, or the same material. Their work
methods should be noticed. Air movement pattern should be studied. The ventilation
booths, air supply inlets, open doors, windows, combustion or heating processes are some
factors which can produce higher concentrations away from the source.
4. Time of Sampling:When there is wide temperature difference during different seasons
(e.g. summer & winter), samples should be taken during all such seasons. When there are
more than one shifts, it should be taken in all shifts. For A.C. area, normally the
contaminants remain same throughout the year. The time of highest degree of hazard
should be selected.
5. Duration of Sampling:The volume of air and duration of sample depend on the type of
measurement i.e. 8-hour TWA TLV or 15 minutes STEL value and also on the sensitivity
of the analytical procedure or direct-reading instrument.
6. Types of Samples:They may be instantaneous or spot samples collected within short
period of 2 to 10 minutes and continuous samples collected over a long period in different
shifts or on different days for the same spot or the same worker.
7. Minimum Required Volume (MRV): If the volume is insufficient, false result is
possible. For detection of lower concentration, larger air samples are required. The
minimum required volume is given by -

MRV = S x 22400x 760x 273+t

M x TLV P 273

where MRV = minimum required volume of sample (liters), S = sensitivity of analytical

method mg, M = molecular weight of contaminant, TLV in ppm, P = barometric pressure in mm
Hg and t = air temp °C.

If t = 25 °C (or near about) and P = 760,

MRV = S x 24450

M x TLV

and if TLV is in mg/m' instead of ppm,

MRV = S x 1000

1. Number of Samples:Again, depending on purpose, the number of samples can be

decided. For TLV or STEL value, several dozen samples may be necessary to have
accurate result Amount should be sufficient for laboratory use and decision.
2. Accuracy and Precision:They should be maintained for meaningful data, reliability and
compliance of the statutory requirement.
1.6 Biological Monitoring
Biological monitoring is defined as the respective and regular measurement and
assessment of agents or their metabolites either in blood, urine, secrete, expired air or combination
of these to evaluate exposure and health risk compared to an appropriate reference.
The personal air monitoring provides airborne concentration of a contaminant, not
necessarily the absorption of the contaminant by an exposed individual. Biological monitoring
has distinct advantages over air measurement, mainly because it is the absorbed chemical, and/or
its biomarker, is measured.
Biological Exposure Indices (BEIs) are' analogues to TLV, except for BEIs apply to
biological monitoring and TLVs to air monitoring.
Biological or biochemical samples are the blood, urine, faces, breath (expired air),
plasma, body fluid, sweat, tissues, hair, nails, saliva etc. They are analyzed to measure any change,
deformation or damage due to absorption of a toxic material. Measurement of quantity deposition
or effect of lead, mercury, cadmium and fluoride in blood or urine gives evidence of their health
effect. By establishing baseline levels, such monitoring indicates need of personal or
environmental monitoring and also the need of necessary environmental control or improvement
in work method or need of personal protective equipment.
 Biological monitoring is not a replacement of any other form of monitoring. It is
complementary. Work environment monitoring does not give evaluation of individual's exposure
which is given by the biological monitoring.
Analysis of biological samples obtained from exposed workers provides information of
body burden of the substance, the amount circulating in the blood or the amount being excreted.
Though every tissue and fluid in the body can be analyzed, but mostly the urine or blood samples
are analyzed. Previous exposure of CO and many solvents can be known from the exhaled breath
samples. In addition to the air measurement, biological assays and determinants are more reliable
indicators (markers) of health risks and strengthen the evidence.
Biological analysis can be performed -
1. for unchanged substance in body fluids and tissues, e.g. Pb, Hg, As, Acetone, MEK,
phenol, ' styrene etc. This is called Direct Biological Monitoring.
2. for changed substance i.e. metabolite, e.g. phenol formed in urine due to exposure to
benzene, aniline or phenol and Hippuric acid formed in urine die to exposure to Toluene.
This is called Indirect Biological Monitoring.
3. for changed level of enzyme or other biochemical substance present in body fluids or
tissues, e.g. depression of cholinesterase activity in red cells due to exposure to organo-
phosphorous. Following tables give some examples.
Indications of Breath, Blood & Urine analysis
Breath analysis may indicate the effect of
Alcohols, aliphatic hydrocarbons, chloro-hydrocarbons, Co, ketones etc.
Blood analysis may indicate the effect of Lead, mercury, CO, zinc, manganese, aluminium,
cadmium, methyl bromide etc.
Urine analysis may indicate the effect of
Most of the toxic metals, gases and compounds such as mercury, nickel, zinc, cobalt, thallium,
vanadium, arsine, stibnite, benzene, HCN, HF, HBr; aniline, nitrobenzene, acrylonitrile, fluoride,
parathion etc.
Metabolic products as Determinants or Indicators or Markers

Product in Urine Indicates presence of

Phenol Phenol, Benzene, Aniline
TTCA CS2
Formic acid Methanol
Thiocyanate Cyanate, Nitriles
Hippuric acid Toluene, Styrene, Ethyl benzene
Methyl hippuric
acids Xylene
Trichloroacetic acid Trichloroethylene
p-Nitrophenol. Parathion
2.5 Hexane Dione n-Hexane
p-Aminophenol Aniline
BEIs or BELs:The ACGIH of USA publishes biological limits known as Biological
Exposure Indices (BEIs) for a limited chemical. They represent the levels of determinants (i.e. the
chemical itself or its metabolite(s), or a biochemical change induced by the chemical) which are
most likely to be observed in specimens collected from a worker exposed to chemicals. BEIs
apply to 8 hr. exposures, 5 days a week. Timing is indicated with BEI. The sample should be
collected at the same time, otherwise BEI is not applicable. Some BEIs are reproduced below from
the ACGIH booklet (2007).
 Adopted Biological Exposure Indices
Substance and Metabolite Time of Sample BEI

Acetone
in urine End of shift 50 mg/L
Aniline
p-aminophenol in urine End of shift 50 mg/L creatinine
Benzene
t.t. muonic acid in urine End of shift 500 g/g creatinine
S-phenyl Mercure acid in urine End of shift 25 g/g creatinine
Cadmium and
Inorganiccompounds
Cadmium in urine Not critical 5 g/g
Cadmium in blood Not critical creatinine 5 g/L.
CO
Carboxyhemoglobin in blood End of shift 3.5% of hemoglobin
CO in end-exhaled air End of shift 20 ppm
Chlorobenzene
4-chlorocatechol in urine
p-chlorophenol in urine End of shift 100 mg/ g creatinine
End of shift 20 mg/ g creatinine
Chromium
Total chromium in urine Increase during shift 10 g/L
Total chromium in urine End of work week 25 g/L
Lead
In blood Not critical 30 g/100 MI
Mercury
Hg in urine Prior to shift 35 g/g creatinine
Hg in blood End of workweek 15 g/L
Phenol
Phenol in urine End of shift 250 mg/g creatinine
Toluene
Hippuric acid in urine End of shift 1.6 g/g creatinine
O-Cresol in urine End of shift 0.5 mg/L
T in blood Prior to last shift of work 0.05 mg/L
week
Xylenes
Methyl hippuric acid in urine End of shift 1.5 g/g creatinine
These values (markers) - BEIs or BELs - can be developed for those substances only
which
1. can appear in biological sample.
2. appear as metabolites.
3. change type or amount of body constituent.
 4. change activity of an enzyme or
5. change quantifiable physiological function.
a. Such values cannot be developed for substances which are body constituents and
normal metabolites of the body itself and do not show any change.
2. do not dissolve, are rapidly decomposed or have local effect (e.g. corrosives, irritants).
3. produce allergic effects.
4. produce carcinogenic effects.
Initial studies on animals and later on human volunteers, defined the relationships between
exposure, absorption, biotransformation, retention and excretion of exogenous substances.
Response (damage) of the organism depends on concentration reached in the sites and the
concentration depends on physical, chemical and environmental properties, the mode of impact
and the person's own biological factors.
Biological Indicators, Determinants or Markers:
Biological indicators are determined from the biological samples - blood, urine, breath,
sweat, faces, hair, nails, body fluid, tissue etc. - and their biological analysis. For correct result
time of collection of samples is most important because, different chemicals show their significant
effects at different time, e.g. metabolite 'methyl hippuric acid' in urine is completed within 16 hr.
after the end of exposure and therefore its sample should be collected at the end of the shift.
Similarly sample for determination of effect of trichloroethylene should be taken at the end of
week as its metabolite 'trichloroacetic acid' in urine is metabolized slowly.
Thus, after taking biological samples (bioassays) at the correct time after allowing
biotransformation (metabolic transformation) biological analysis of these samples is carried out to
study the biological indicators, determinants or markers. These indicators are (i) the substance
itself i.e. exogenous agent (ii) metabolite formed if any and (iii) the metabolic effect (change)
produced.
Useful information:Above indicators provide some useful information which cannot
otherwise be available, as under:
1. Long-term effect of exposure/absorption.
2. Amount absorbed in body.
3. Routes of absorption.
4. Evaluation of total exposure due to workplace and outside environment.
5. Amount absorbed due to workplace effect, climatic factors, age, sex, genetic
characteristics, physical effect, condition of the organs for biotransformation and
elimination processes etc.
 6. Type and time of risk (exposure) which cannot be proved in any other way.
a. This is the usefulness of biological monitoring.
Medical monitoring means medical examination by the occupational health doctors of the
workers exposed to health hazards. Pre, periodical and post medical examination or monitoring
gives better judgement.

CHAPTER 2:PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

2.1.1: Need for personal protection equipment, selection, applicable standards, supply, use,
and care & maintenance respiratory and non-respiratory PPE

NEED for PPE

For any accident prevention work, engineering control is the best control, and aid of personal
protective equipment should be the last resort or a supplementary control. Nevertheless,
importance of personal protective equipment (PPE in short) is not less, its scope and utility have
been tremendously increased during last few years and wide varieties of such equipment are
available in the market. This requires proper selection of quality and utility for specific purpose.
The problem is not of the availability, but is of its use by workers on the shop floors. Particularly
in a country like ours where the majority of workers are illiterate, not safety conscious and not
trained to wear such equipment, the problem becomes more acute mostly in small and medium
scale factories.
The statistics of accidents exclusively due to non-use, misuse or defects of PPE is not available as
there is no such distinct accident classification. But if we consider causes No. 7 to 15 in Table
5.20, Chapter5, it can be said that in 1997, out of total 246 fatal accidents due to these causes, at
least 160 i.e. 65.04% could have been prevented by the proper use of PPE. Total of causation No.
120 to 131 in the last row of Table 5.22, Chapter-5, gives 65.89% (10334 out of 15683 accidents
during 1994) fatal and non-fatal accidents. Of this at least half i.e. 33% of total accidents could
have been prevented by the effective use of PPE. The conclusion is that @ 30 to 40% of total
accidents can be prevented or controlled by the proper use of personal protective equipment. This
figure is not small and highlights the need of PPE.
Most of the minor accidents are due to material handling, striking against objects, hurt by falling
bodies, falling or slipping, injury by hot substances or chemicals and neglecting PPE. Such
accidents can certainly be reduced to great extent by the effective use of appropriate PPE.
The PPE provides good defense against hazards of toxic exposure, oxygen deficiency, dusting,
chemical splashes, steam, water and liquids, flying particles, hot substances, radiation, sharp
edges, welding, cutting, grinding, striking against and stepping over objects, glare, personal falls
and injury due to falling bodies, noise, scrap cleaning, material handling, opening of pipe lines or
any hazardous work, electric shocks, burns and firefighting. Many fatal accidents are caused due
to these reasons and use of appropriate ' PPE can prevent or lessen many of them.
Limitation of the protection by PPE should be well understood. Respirators have limited use for
the concentration and time mentioned by the manufacturer. They cannot be used in higher
concentration for longer time. In heavy concentration, only self-breathing apparatus (SBA) is
recommended and that too for a limited time. Instead of providing hood and suction on flying
particles, there is no meaning of giving respirator to a worker. Instead of providing guard on a
grinding wheel, it is meaningless to provide eye protection to workers. Instead of sealing leakage
of gas or dust or allowing to continue, it is unsafe to advise the worker to use gas mask. Similarly,
instead of trying to reduce pollution, it is of no use to tell the workers to use PPE only. It is
always safer to improve the working conditions by engineering controls first. Then only the use of
PPE may be recommended. It is the second line of defense.
PPE is a second line of defense. The first line is to eliminate or minimize the workplace hazards.
PPE cannot eliminate the hazard, it can help eliminate an injury or reduce its severity.
I remember a few fatal accidents from my investigation where I was of the opinion that besides
engineering controls, PPE could have prevented such accidents. When an engineering control fails
or becomes ineffective, what is the protection? Then this line of defense (i.e. PPE) comes to help
and protect in most of the cases. In one case a worker died due to phosphine exposure and in
another case due to chloroform Vapour in a tank. In third case due to a splash of 2-4
dichlorophenol a worker died within 15 minutes. In still other case, a worker died due to pesticide
exposure in delayed effect. All four were young workers and died due to these toxic chemicals. If
they would have worn appropriate PPE, they could have been survived. This shows the
significance of need of PPE. Though PPE cannot eliminate the hazard (like engineering control) it
can certainly protect from it.

1. The need of PPE can be well judged from:

1. Visual and foreseeable hazards.

2. Accident experiences.
3. Report of the safety committee/ representatives.
4. Safety audits, surveys, sampling, job safety analysis and risk assessment.
5. Legal requirements and remarks of the authorities.
6. Record of the medical department.
The need of PPE exists because

1. Chances of failure of engineering controls, materials, process, equipment and safety

devices cannot be denied and, in those circumstances, the PPE can act .as a barrier
between the man and hazard and to save from the injury.
2. There arecertain operations or accidental situations where engineering controls are less
possible and PPE becomes necessary. For repair or maintenance or to enter into toxic or
 oxygen deficient atmosphere, or while working at height or doing jobs like welding,
cutting, grinding, chipping, PPE gives good protection.
3. It effectively avoids the contact of dangerous substances, noise, vibration and radiation.
4. It protects from atmospheric contaminants.
5. It is a legal as well as moral duty to provide suitable PPE.
2 STATUTORY PROVISIONS
As per Factories Act 1948, PPE should be provided by the occupier for the protection from
hazards due to dust, fume, gas, Vapour, flying particles, glare, revolving machinery, hot or
dangerous contents, entry in confined space, explosive or flammable atmosphere, fire, dangerous
operations and hazardous processes. Rules prescribed under above sections provide further
details. Noise induced hearing loss is an occupational disease under the 3rd Schedule of the
Factories Act.
OSHA standards prescribe tremendous details for PPE. requires noise reduction below 90 dBA
or to provide ear protectors to workers and their auditory examination by a doctor. Sch. 27
required protection against cotton dust.
INDIAN AND OTHER STANDARDS
Some IS Nos specify for protection of Head, Eye & Face, Ears, Hands, Feet & Legs, Body, Lungs
& standard of Breathing Apparatus
PPE Selection
Once it is decided that PPE is needed,
1. Select proper type of equipment (IS mentioned in Part 3 should be referred) and then
2. Make it sure that the supervisor sees to it that the worker uses and maintains-it correctly.
Proper selection, training and use of PPE are essential.
Factors of selection or requisite characteristics of PPE are:
1. It should give adequate protection against the nature, severity and type of hazard.
2. It should be of minimum weight, should give minimum discomfort with protective
efficiency.
3. Attachment to the body should be flexible yet effective.
4. The wearer should not be restricted in movement" or perceptions required for the job.
5. It should be durable and attractive.
6. It should not cause any hazard through its material, design, defect, use or failure.
7. It should conform Indian Standards and tests required
8. It should be easy to clean, repair and maintain. The parts, piece and service should be
easily available.
If all above criteria are not available effort should be made to get maximum of them.
Classification of PPE for selection and understanding is given below Table
For Protection of Head, Eyes, Ears, Face, Hands, Arms, Feet, Legs and Body. Special work
clothing- e.g. asbestos, aluminized, leather and wool garments, lead clothing, disposal clothing
etc.
Table Selection and Classification of PPE according to the body part and hazards:
Body-Part Hazard PPE necessary
Head Falling objects, shock, chemical spurting Safety helmet, hard hats, safety caps,
headgear
Eye Chemical splash, dust, flying, particles, Spectacles, lenses and goggles for
gas, welding radiation. chemical, welding, grinding, furnace,
dust etc.
Ear High level noise (> 90 dB) Earmuffs, plugs, inserts
Nose Dust, toxic gases Dust mask, cloth mask, rubber mask,
fume mask, respirators for dust, gas
and Vapour, rescuer plus pressure suit,
breathing apparatus (O2 or Air),
Canister gas masks, airline respirators,
chemical / mechanical filters.
Face Chemical splash, flying objects, hot Face shield, welding screen, furnace
substance. mask, face guard.
Hand Hot substance, acid, alkali, pigments, Hand gloves of rubber, PVC, hosiery
chemicals, handling, cut, sharp edge. cotton, leather, asbestos, canvas, fiber
glass, electrical rubber gloves, surgical
gloves, arm sleeves.
Body Chemicals splashes, hot substance, fire, Aprons, coats and pants, pressure suit,
handling, suits of rubber, PVC etc.
Foot / Leg Striking against objects, chemicals Leather or rubber sole shoes, steel toe-
falling bodies boots, antiskid sole shoes, ammunition
boots, gumboots, leg sleeves.
Overall Falling from heights, hurt by falling Safety belts, pole strap belt, nylon
bodies, chemicals safety harness, all-purpose safety
harness belt, vertical lift safety harness,
Boatswain’s chair, rope ladders, nets,
safety hooks.
Selection and classification of Respiratory equipment based on type of hazard:
 1 Self-contained Breathing Apparatus

2 Hose Mask and Blower with escape provision

Selection of Material of Construction of PPE is given in Table 25.2:
Table: Selection of Material of Construction for PPF.
No. Material For the protection from
Flying particles, falling body, sharp
1 Metal
edge, abrasion.
Sparks, falling body, flying particles,
2 Fiber metal
sharp edge, abrasion, machinery
3 Metal screen Sharp edge & abrasion
Hot liquid, moisture, water, petroleum
product, acid, alkali, spark, falling
4 Plastic, PVC
body, flying particles, electric shock,
sharp, edge, abrasion, skin protection
 Hot liquid, moisture, water, acid,
5 Rubber alkali, electric shock, machinery, skin
protection
6 Conductive rubber Explosive substance
Hot substance, flying, particles sharp
7 Chrome leather
edge, abrasion, sparks
Flying particles, sharp edge, abrasion,
8 Canvas
machinery
9 Asbestos Heat, hot substance, sparks
10 Acid proof fabric Acid & alkali
11 Reflective fabric Hot liquid
Heat, hot substance, sparks, chemicals,
12 Flameproof duck
flying particles, machinery
Heat, sparks, machinery, skin
13 Cotton wool
protection
14 Cotton canvas Sharp edge & abrasion
15 Steel hoe boot Falling body, striking
16 Non-skis shoes Moisture, slippery surface
Heat, hot substance, moisture, water,
17 Wooden sole boot or scandal acid, alkali, slippery surface, sharp
edge, abrasion.
18 Soft silicon rubber or plastic Molded type ear plug
19 Plastic goggles with hydrophilic coating To prevent fogging
20 Widescreen lenses (face shield) Heavy fog or dampness
Laser safety goggles (Antiglareseye
21 Laser beams
shield)
22 Aluminized welding helmet Infrared rays and to reduce heat effects
23 Polarizing lenses (filter shade lenses) To prevent glare
24 Steel, reinforced plastic & hard rubber Safety toe boot for foot protection
Boot with non-ferrous coating and Static charge, friction sparks, and to
25
conductive sole reduce fire and explosion possibility
Work with hot metal in foundry, quick
26 Congress or gaiter type shoes
removable shoes without lash
Non-conductive or insulating (non-
27 Electric work
metallic shoes)
Flexible metal reinforced stole or inner Construction work and cold metal
28
sole work with possibility of foot injury
Pharmaceutical factory needing higher
29 Plastic shoe cover or cap
product safety.
30 Specially made asbestos clothing To work with hot metal up to 1650 oC
To work near a furnace at temperature
Aluminized asbestos or glass fiber and
31 up to 540 oC for firefighting. Such
wool lining
proximity clothing should to be utilized
 to enter into the fire. they are for
working from a distance.
Flameproof or flame-resistant cloths – Fireproof cloths to work in the fire
32
THPC, Nomex or Modaphrilic fabrics flames
To carry heavy or sharp-edged load on
33 Cushion pads or padded duck
shoulder or back.
Apron of padded leather, fabric, plastic, For protection of abdomen or middle
34
hard fiber or metal body parts.
Thermal net cotton goes quilted material To work in cold weather (unsuitable to
35
(decron or nylon) work in hot or fire).
For construction and maintenance
36 High visibility and night hazard clothing Police and Fire brigade and Traffic
hazards
Disposable clothing (Plastic or In less radioactive work or drug or
37
reinforced paper) electronic industry
Leaded clothing (lead glass fiber, leaded Laboratory work, protection against X
38
rubber, leaded plastic) and Gamma rays
39 Electromagnetic radiation suit Radar field
For linemen to work at extra high
40 Conductive clothing voltage. Such clothing keeps the
linemen at the proper potential.
 APPLICABLE INDIAN AND OTHER STANDARDS
Some IS on PPE are as under:
Head - Helmets, industrial safety 2925, for two wheelers 4151, non-metal for
police force 9562, wooden head- form for testing of helmets 7692,
miner's cap lamps 5679 3
Eyes and Face- Guide for selection of eye, face and ear protection 8520, 8521,
maintenance and care 8940, for welding 1179, methods of test 7524
(Part& 2), eye protectors, filters 5983, safety glass 2553, eye and face
showers 10592
Ears - Guide for selection 8520, ear protectors 9167, earmuffs, method for
measurement 6229
Hands - Guide for selection 8807, Gauntlets and mittens, leather 2573, gloves -
safety 6994, rubber - electrical 4770, surgical 4148, postmortem 4149
Feet & Legs - Footwear, selection 6519,10667, Ankle boots for general purposes 583,
boots and shoes safety, leather 1989, leather for firemen 4128, rubber -
canvas for miners 3976, 10665, gaiters, protective 2472, knee boots,
rubber 3736, 3738, leather for leg guard 3946, toe caps, steel for footwear
5852, boots for oilfield workmen 9885 (Part I & 2), footwear for steel
plants 10348, for mines and heavy metal industry 13295, safety shoes for
women workers in mines and steel plants 11225, footwear with direct
molding sole 11226, rubber footwear 11264, PVC boots 12254, chemical
resistant 13292, 13695, PVC boots, oils and fats resistant 13038, code of
practice for manufacture 13295, lined antistatic rubber footwear 13575,
wooden, heavy duty 5520, rubber lined boots 5557, conducting 13996
Body - Guide for selection of body protection 8519, aprons - rubberized acid and
alkali resistant 4501, rubber for hospital use 6407, lead rubber, X-ray
protective 7352, Clothing - fire resistant 4355, fire (flame) resistant suit
7612, leather 6153, sheath rubber 3701, fabrics, PVC coated for foul
weather 3322, belt and strap, leather, lineman's safety 3521, material
(nylon webbing) for aircraft safety belts 8947, maintenance and care of
safety clothing 8990, evaluation of whole body vibration 13276 (Part I to
3), mechanical vibration and shock affecting man 13281
Lungs - Glossary of terms relating to respiratory protective devices 8347,
 selection, use and maintenance of respiratory, protective devices 9623,
colour identification of air purifying canisters and cartridges 8318,
mouth-piece assemblies 14170, full face mask 14166, threads for face
pieces 14138. Respirators - chemical cartridge 8522, canister type (gas
mask) 8523, filter type for particulate matter 9473, CO filter 9563, bag
type, positive pressure, manually operated 6194.
Breathing apparatus 10245 -
Part 1: Closed circuit (0, cylinder).
Part 2: Open circuit.
Part 3: Fresh air line.
Part 4: Escape type, short duration, self-contained.
Breathing apparatus for fire brigade self-contained 1910, Resuscitators for use with
humans 13366, life jackets 6685
Use, and care & maintenance respiratory and non-respiratory PPE
General Precautions to use PPE:
Following precautions are useful for training and practice
1. Hazards at workplace must be thoroughly studied, gas, oxygen, contamination, noise etc.
should be measured and their level should be minimized by engineering controls first and
then only the need of necessary personal protective equipment (PPE) should be ascertained.
2. PPE should be kept ready and in sufficient number. Gloves, shoes, goggles, aprons, earplugs
etc. should be given individually and kept clean by the worker in his locker.
3. PPE should be of approved (IS) quality and tested before use. Manufacturer's instructions,
limitations, time limit if any, procedure or method of use, symptoms of malfunctioning,
emergency action if it does not work and instructions for maintenance and care should be well
understood before using any PPE.
4. Written instructions should be prepared and displayed or given to the workers for the safe use
of the equipment. After medical examination of the worker, need and type of the equipment
shall be reconsidered. Change if any, should be incorporated.
5. Laziness in using PPE is not good. A cloth in place of effective respirator is insufficient.
Avoiding PPE because the use is for a few seconds or minutes, is unsafe.
6. Loose PPE should be kept away from the moving machine parts.
7. While entering in a tank or working at height, safety belt must be worn, in addition to good
sitting and supporting arrangement (safe platform or fencing). Gas and oxygen level should
be measured and kept safe as far as possible. PPE shall be selected based on its level.
8. Cotton clothing in hot days, woolen clothing in cold days and tight-fitting clothing while
working near machinery are 'basic requirement. Synthetic cloths are unsuitable to health. PPE
on cotton clothing gives more comfort.
9. A man working on electricity should wear nonconductive helmet. Conductive shoes or
clothing are required to discharge static electricity induced in a human body.
10. Canister gas mask and dust mask are useful for low concentration (100 to 200 ppm) and for
the gas and duration mentioned on the mask only. Filter is to be changed or cleaned soon after
choking. Canister gas mask is not useful if oxygen is insufficient (less than 18%) in air.
Different types of gas masks are recommended for different level of concentration.
a. Canister mask is not safe while working in a tank. When gas is less than 5% of LEL, canister
mask may be worn just to clean the tank. If this level is from 5 to 20% of LEL, airline
respirator may be used. If concentration is more than this it should be diluted.
b. Six months old canister mask should not be used. Every six months its chemical is to be
freshly filled. It should not be used after 100 hours after breaking its seal. If face piece is used
by another person, it may be reused only after sterilization. User of a gas mask should get his
heart and lungs checked by a doctor.
c. Canister mask of a gas which has no smell (e.g. CO, PH3), should be used new every time.
Gas mask should be kept away from moisture and heat and should be regularly checked.
11. Chemical cartridge and dust respirators can be used where flammable gas, fume or dust
concentration is so low that canister mask is not necessary. When the gas is poisonous or in
high concentration, eye burning, or without smell or where oxygen is insufficient, chemical
cartridge or dust respirators cannot be used. The cartridges should be kept dry. If they are
moist or giving smell, they should be changed. Valves for inhale and exhale should be
checked and kept efficient.
12. Where oxygen is less, gas, dust or smoke are more, toxic gases like C12, CO, H2S, PH3
phosgene exist, proper canister gas mask is not available or where one has to work in a tank
for a long time, an airline respirator is useful, because fresh air is available through blower or
air compressor and polluted air is being driven away near the nose. But because of the limited
length (80 mt maximum), where one has to move at a longer distance or upstairs and
downstairs at different floors, only SCBA is useful.
d. Connections (joints, clamps, clips etc.) of air line should always be checked before use,
otherwise accidental detachment of air supply will cause harm to. the wearer. Air drawing
point should not be kept in polluted air. Air filter (cleaner), air control valve, safety valve and
alarm are all necessary. Air flow should not be less than 6 ft3/min and its temperature should
 be comfortable. If hydrocarbon gas content is more than 20% of LEL, it is unsafe to enter into
a tank with air hose mask. Air inlet valve should not be completely closed (it should remain
partially open).
e. Cooling effect and circulating air type suits are also available which are useful in working
near high temperature.
13. Earplugs should be washed with soap and' water, dried and put into its box after every use.
Earplugs used by others should be sterilized before use. Earplugs should be supplied
individually to the workers. Ear muffs should also be cleaned before and after use.
14. Fire rescue (proximity) suit should be worn by two persons at a time so that one may act as a
standby. Air cylinder and lifeline should also be kept ready.
2. 15. Safety belt should be kept clean, dry and in sound condition. Its
connections and wear and tear should be checked before every use. Its free end should be tied
with a fixed (immovable) structure while working at height or given in another person's hands
while entering in a tank.
a. Strength members of a safety belt should be of very sound material other than leather.
Buckles should withstand 1315 kg tensile test and be quickly openable.
b. Lifeline should not be of pieces tied together. Nylon rope of '/2-inch diameter is safe. Wire
rope should be made oily before and after using it in acidic atmosphere. Metallic life line
shall not be used near electric work.
15. Nothing should be kept in helmets. It should be checked for crack and proper fitting.
16. Contact lenses are to beprotected against gas, Vapour, fumes, excessive heat, molten metal
and chemical splashes. Therefore, safety goggles over the lens or numbered glass are always
necessary. Safety. goggles are also necessary with the face shield. When goggles or face
shield are splashed with chemicals, they should be washed by a water shower before taking
out from the face. Plastic lenses are more useful than glasses. Side shields are useful.
17. Mechanical filter respirators are useful for dust and smoke. Filters are to be changed or
cleaned when choked. Mechanical filter respirators are not suitable for solvent Vapour, toxic
gas or oxygen deficiency. In firefighting work, only SBAis useful and not the gas mask.
18. A respirator should be carefully selected while working in IDLH (immediately dangerous to
life and health) environment. An operator is necessary with blower hose mask. One can run
away till the air is available from the hose even when the blower is closed. While working
with SBA, one should come out after hearing the low-pressure alarm.
19. No other gas mask than SBA or airline is useful where oxygen is less than 18%. Level of
oxygen should be measured with oxygen meter.
20. When gas concentration is more than its safe limit or within explosive range (between LEL
and UEL) or oxygen is less than 18% in a tank, (or confined space), it should be ventilated by
air (not by oxygen), the levels should be again measured and when they are safe, permit to
enter should be signed.
21. Air supplying hoods are useful in hot or dusty atmosphere to work for a longer time.
22. Where atmospheric pressure is more than 2 bar, oxygen SBA should not be used because of
the possibility of oxygen poisoning. Quick start canister used in closed circuit oxygen self-
generating (recirculating) SBA, may prove dangerous in atmosphere of gas having less than
315 °C auto ignition temperature. Venting device to release excess oxygen is required in that
case. Used canister should be disposed safely. SBA should be used by a healthy and trained
worker only.
23. In empty air cylinder, oxygen should not be filled. It may cause fire due to contact with oil or
grease.
24. Safety toe shoes should withstand 300 ft pound impact load. Resistance of conductive shoe
should not exceed 450 kilo ohms.
c. Electrician's boots should not have any metal parts, and steel toe if any, should be insulated.
d. Sole with flexible metal sheet inside, give protection against nails and sharp edges.
25. Where full hand gloves are not required, stalls for fingers, mittens or pads for palms, and
another PPE for thumb, wrist, palm and elbow are also available.
e. Leather gloves are Useful to work with glass or metal sheet or sharp edges but not useful to
work above 65 °C temperature.
f. Natural rubber is not suitable to work with oil, grease or organic solvent.
g. Hand gloves with any metal part are not suitable for electric work. High voltage tested rubber
gloves are suitable for such work.
26. After the use is over, PPE should not be left anywhere. They should be returned to the proper
person or put in a cupboard meant for it.
27. Arrangement for keeping, cleaning, testing and disposal of PPE should be provided and every
such person should be properly trained in addition to the user.
Respirator Care:

Proper inspection, maintenance and repair of respiratory protective equipment is

mandatory to ensure success of any respiratory protection program. The goal is to maintain the
equipment in a condition that provides the same effectiveness it has when first manufactured.
Inspection
 All equipment must be inspected periodically before and after each use. A record shall be
kept of all inspections by date with the results tabulated. Follow precisely the recommendations of
the manufacturer. Maintenance
All respiratory protective equipment shall be cleaned and decontaminated after each use.
Repair
Replacement of other than disposable parts must be done only by personnel with adequate
training to ensure the equipment is functioning properly after the work is accomplished. Only
parts supplied by the manufacturer for the product being repaired shall be used.
Maintenance:
It is a cooperative activity between the employee who takes care of his equipment and the
safety professional who teaches him how to use it and provides proper instructions. After
inspections, cleaning and necessary repair, personal protective equipment shall be stored to protect
against dust, sunlight, heat, extreme cold, excessive moistures or damaging chemicals to retain its
original effectiveness. When in doubt about the maintenance of any type of personal protective
equipment, it is a good practice to contact the manufacturer. All PPE should be cleaned and
examined after each use. Respirators should be cleaned daily. Face-piece should be washed in
warm water with soap or a detergent. Filter and chemical cartridge should be replaced when
needed.

2.1.2: Non-Respiratory PPE (Head protection, Ear protection. Face and Eye protection.
Hand protection, Foot protection, body protection.)
Selection and Classification of PPE according to the body part and hazards:
Body-Part Hazard PPE necessary

Head Falling objects, shock, chemical spurting Safety helmet, hard hats, safety caps,
headgear
Eye Chemical splash, dust, flying, particles, Spectacles, lenses and goggles for chemical,
gas, welding radiation. welding, grinding, furnace, dust etc.
Ear High level noise (> 90 dB) Earmuffs, plugs, inserts

Nose Dust, toxic gases Dust mask, cloth mask, rubber mask, fume
mask, respirators for dust, gas and Vapour,
rescuer plus pressure suit, breathing
apparatus (O2 or Air), Canister gas masks,
 airline respirators, chemical / mechanical
filters.
Face Chemical splash, flying objects, hot Face shield, welding screen, furnace mask,
substance. face guard.
Hand Hot substance, acid, alkali, pigments, Hand gloves of rubber, PVC, hosiery cotton,
chemicals, handling, cut, sharp edge. leather, asbestos, canvas, fiber glass,
electrical rubber gloves, surgical gloves, arm
sleeves.

Body Chemicals splashes, hot substance, fire, Aprons, coats and pants, pressure suit, suits
handling, of rubber, PVC etc.

Foot / Leg Striking against objects,

chemicals Leather or rubber sole shoes, steel toe-boots,
falling bodies antiskid sole shoes, ammunition boots,
gumboots, leg sleeves.
Overall Falling from heights, hurt by falling Safety belts, pole strap belt, nylon safety
bodies, chemicals harness, all-purpose safety harness belt,
vertical lift safety harness, Boatswain’s chair,
rope ladders, nets, safety hooks.

NON-RESPIRATORY EQUIPMENT IN DETAILS

Head and Hair Protection:Head protectors are hard hats, caps and helmets made of aluminium,
PVC fiber glass, laminated plastic or vulcanizedfiber. They may be fitted with brackets for fixing
welding masks, protective face screen or a lamp. The hats and caps are provided with replaceable
harness which provides sufficient clearance between the top of the head and shell. Selection is as
follows:

Material Protects against

1 Asbestos Sparks, hot materials, heat

2 Hot liquids, moisture, acids, alkalis, electric

Plastic rubber
shocks, dermatitis

3 Cotton wool Sparks and heat, dermatitis, machinery

4 Metal Falling objects, flying particles, cuts, abrasions.

5 Sparks, falling objects, flying particles electric

Plastic
shock, cuts, abrasions.

Head Protectors
Type Protects Against Characteristics
 Generally made of aluminium alloy, PVC,
fiber- glass, or vulcanized fiber. Saddle
(geodetic strap suspension) inside to dissipate
Falling objects, hitting against
Safety impact pressure over wide area of head and to
obstructions such as low
Helmet provide clearance between the head and the
ceilings, beams, scaffold
(Hard hat) shell of helmet. Chin strap or other device to
members etc.
prevent displacement. Peak and full brim to
protect face, neck, ears. Ventilation holes for
comfort.
Electrical Electric shock when working Made of synthetic electrically non-conductive
Safety near live electrical lines. materials (PVC etc.)
Helmet
Welder’s Falling welding spatters from
Made of leather with cloth lining inside.
Cap above.
Usually fiber / plastic material with saddle
Crash Skull injuries in road inside, without peak or rim and with chin
Helmet accidents. strap. Covers forehead, temples and lower
portion of head (above neck)
Soft caps and hoods are also used for protection against heat, spark and other dangerous
materials and are made of appropriate materials. Sometime hoods are made with rig frame which
is held away from the head.
Long hair or beards may be caught in moving machine parts (e.g. belts, chain, in-running
nips etc.) while seeing or leaning down or by heavy static charges. Protective caps covering the
hairs are useful. Hair net is not a full protection. The hair cap should be of flame- retardant
material for protection against sparks or hot metal. It should be cool, lightweight, adjustable and
with visor in front.
Ear Protection:
Hearing loss is an occupational disease under the Factories Act, 1948
 Noise level above 90 dBA is hazardous for an exposure more than 8 hrs./day or 48
hrs./week. It may cause deafness, fatigue, loss of efficiency, irritation and also loss of hearing.
Noise level can be measured by a noise
average meter or a noise dose meter. Ear
plugs or Ear muffs reduce to @ 25 to 40
dBA. Ear plug is made of plastic, rubber or
polyurethane foam. Ear muffs covers
external ear and provides better attenuation
than ear plug.
Face and Eye Protection:
Eye injuries can be caused by
mechanical, chemical, thermal and radiation hazards such as dusts, flying particles, splashes and
harmful radiation. Eye protectors are safety spectacles, mono goggles, impact goggles, welding
goggles, foundry goggles, chemical goggles, gas tight goggles, face shields, welding helmets etc.
Possible hazards are:
Chipping, fettling, riveting, sledding,
1 Large flying particles from
chalking.
Scaling, grinding, stone dressing, wood
2 Dust and small flying particles from
working.
Pouring of liq. metal from ladle, crucible etc.,
3 Splashing of metals from casting of metals, galvanizing and dipping in
molten metals.

Splashing of liquids, gases and fumes

4 Handling of acids and other chemicals.
from

Reflected light, glare and radiant Foundry work, glass furnaces, gas welding
5
energy from and cutting, arc welding.

Utility and characteristics of eye protectors are shown in Table

Type Protects Against Characteristics

Spectacle-type Flying bodies (dust, metal chips, Plain, shatter – proof, toughened
 Goggles etc.) glass or plastic lenses.
With or without side shields.
Metal or heat –resistant frame.
Panorama Oil and paint splashes, dust and chip Light in weight, Non-fogging
Goggles exposure cellulose clear visor.
Ventilation holes on either side.
Soft pliable plastic frame wide
enough to wear over prescription
glasses.
Leather-mask Smoke, dust, foreign bodies Sweat lining along edges, ventilation
Goggles holes with baffles for light and dust.
Shatter-proof lenses.
Chemical Chemicals and toxic dusts Acid / alkali – resistant rubber frame
Goggles with clear lenses and shielded
ventilating ports.
Gas-tight Goggles Irritating fumes, Vapour or gases Airtight – fitting without ventilating
ports.
Welding Goggles Gas Welding/ Cutting. Flames & Similar to panorama goggles with
sparks filter glass of suitable grade and
indirect ventilation ports.
Welding Shields Arc Welding / Cutting flames and Fiber or fiberglass shield, hand-held
sparks or suspended from helmet, with
window for filter glass.

Eye and face protection standards are provided for - Rigid and non-rigid welding helmets.
Welding hand shields. Attachments like lift fronts, chin rests, aprons, magnifiers, snoods etc.
Face-shields, Flammability, Goggles for welder, cutter, chipper (eye cups) and dust & splashes
and Spectacles of metal, plastic or combination.
Face Protection: Plastic face shield with acrylic visor, and Daric guard
with fiber/PVC head band, with adjustable head gear helmet attached
to face shield. Welding screen shield. Furnace masks. Large vision red
vinyl goggles with Perspex lens and sponge lining.
Laser eyewear should be marked with optical density values and
wavelengths for which they are to be used. Laser glasses or goggles
designed for specific wavelengths should not be used for different
wavelengths of laser radiation.
Hand and Arm Protection:
Protection of hands and arms are required when
workers have to handle materials having sharp end, sharp
edges, hot and molten metals, chemicals and corrosive
substances. The protective equipment may be gauntlet
gloves, wrist gloves, mittens, hand pads, thumb and
finger guards and sleeves. Gloves, hand leathers, arm
protectors, finger stalls, mittens etc. should not be used
near moving machinery or machine parts. Selection
guideline is given in Table 25.5.
Selection of Gloves:
Material Protects against

1 Asbestos Sparks, hot materials, heat.

2 Chrome leather Sparks, hot materials, hot liquids, flying
particles, cuts, abrasions.
3 Flame proofed Duck Sparks, hot materials, heat, flying particles,
machinery.
4 Plastic Hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis,
dermatitis.
5 Rubber Hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis electric
shock, dermatitis
6 Chemical resistant material Acids and alkalis
7 Reflective fabric Hot liquids
8 Plastic rubber coated fabric Hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis
9 Metal Mesh Cuts and abrasions
10 Cotton Canvas Cuts and abrasions

Glove material selection should be asunder:

1. Natural rubber gloves are stretchable and highly resistant to punctures. They perform well
in mild caustics and ketone-based solutions and in temperatures ranging from 0°F to 300
"F. These gloves work well for job which require handling rough materials or sharp-edged
objects such as plate glass and lumber.
2. Neoprene is a premium-grade, synthetic rubber. Gloves coated with neoprene are resistant
to strong acids, oils, grease, solvents and caustics. They perform well in temperatures from
0°F to 300 °F.
3. Nitrile is a super synthetic compound available in either a smooth or rough finish. They
perform well in temperatures from 25°F to 300 "F. Nitrile coated gloves offer superior
 abrasion, snag and puncture resistance for tasks such as handling coarse building materials
and rough castings.
4. Viton gloves are especially useful for resisting chemical permeation from chlorinated and
aromatic solvents as well as many other liquids and vapours.

5. Polyvinylchloride (PVC) plastic gloves resist a broad range of chemicals and abrasives.
They provide ample flexibility and durability in temperatures ranging from 25°F to 150 °F.
PVCcoated gloves are ideal for jobs which involve handling rough machine parts, castings
or petrochemicals.
6. Butyl rubber gloves offer high permeation resistance to many gases and vapours.
7. Latex gloves are not appropriate for primary chemical resistance but offer good protection
from standard grit/grime.
Hand Protectors
Type Protects against Characteristics

Leather gloves Cuts, bruises, abrasions, lacerations Plain, cut-resistant leather

during handling of metal sheets and with or without metal mesh at
other sharp-edged objects and sparks palm.
Aluminized fabric Flames, intense heat radiation, burn Heat-resistant aluminized
gloves injuries fabric or other special material
Asbestos gloves -do- Padding inside for comfort
and to withstand high
temperatures
Acid/Alkali-proof, Corrosive chemicals (organic acids or Rubber, neoprene or vinyl
rubber/ synthetic gloves petroleum products) material
Lead – lined gloves Ionizing radiation (X-rays, gamma rays, Rubber, leather or plastic with
etc.) lead lining.
Canvas gloves Grease oil, dust and dirt which may Fabric or coated fabric
cause slipping of hands
Electric gloves Low voltage electric shocks (up to 4000 Made of insulated rubber
V) High voltage electric shocks (tested having required dielectric
11 KV) strength and electrical
resistance. Generally red in
colour
Barrier Cream Contact dermatitis from solvents,
lubricants and other oils.
 Foot and Leg Protection:
Some typical risks are handling of heavy materials,
caustic and corrosive liquids, wet conditions, molten
metal’s, etc. Common foot and leg protective equipment are
safety shoes or boots, leggings and foot guards. Leg
guards (e.g. Cricketer type) are used to protect - shins
against impact. Knee pads are worn by mould lofts men and
others who do continual kneeling. Selection is as follows:
Safety shoes/boots may be conductive, non-
conductive or spark resistant. Rubber boots are useful to
work in wet conditions, steel toe boots against impact and
puncture resistant soles to walk on surfaces having nails, sharp objects etc.
Conductive shoes allow draining of static charges and non-ferrous shoes reduce possibility
of friction sparks and much useful in fire/explosion prone area. Conductive footwear resistance
should not exceed 450 kilo ohms.
Conductive shoes are used where floors are nonconductive and grounded such as in
manufacture of certain explosive compounds or while cleaning tanks that have contained solvent
or volatile hydrocarbons. These shoes have conductive soles and non-ferrous metal parts.
Foundry workers should wear gaiter or congress type safety shoes which have no fasteners
or lashes and rapidly removable. The tops of the shoes should be covered by full pant leg, spats or
leggings to keep out molten metal. Electricians need insulated shoes with non-metal parts. Leather
shoes are useful to work in wet condition. Wooden soles to walk on hot surfaces and rubber shoes
for working with acids and alkalis but not with solvents which dissolve the rubber.
Feet Protection
Hazards Protection

Falling, rolling objects and materials Shoes with steel toe-caps. Aluminium, steel fiber or
plastic instep to protect top of feet
Sharp cutting edges, wood chips, glass shards, Steel spring in –soles.
nails
Chemicals, solvents, alkalis, caustics, bleaches, Non-soluble natural rubber, vinyl, plastic footwear,
cutting oils and compounds, grease, creosol. synthetic rubber, neoprene, cord or cork soles
Oily floors Synthetic rubber or chrome leather soles
Hot surfaces, sparks, metal splashes Heat-resistant soles, slip-on wooden sandals over
shoes; foundry boots with elastic band or buckle for
quick removal; trouser legs rolled down over boot
tops
Extreme heat and direct flame Insulated or aluminized over-shoes or boots of fire-
resistant material
Fungal infection from prolonged exposure to Lined rubber shoes. Silicone- treated leather or
water rubber shoes for minor or occasional wetness
Sparks can ignite flammable gases, liquids and Shoes with non-ferrous metal parts, steel toes
explosives covered with non-sparking material.
Static electricity built up in the body can ignite Shoes with special conductive soles of cork, leather
volatile material etc.
Skids and slips; icy surfaces Cleated, wooden, non-slip or neoprene soles. Slip-on
non – skid sandals; strap – on cleats.
Live circuits or equivalent Electrically non-conductive standard safety shoes.

Sanitation hazards; Contamination and infection Special plastic over shoes; paper or shower shoes.
Disposable strictly not to be re-used.

Safety footwear must be carefully chosen for maximum protection and its suitability for the particular
hazard. Care and proper maintenance are of vital importance.
Footwear must be regularly inspected. Worn-out or defective shoes should be immediately repaired or
replaced. Defective footwear should never be worn. Footwear must always be kept clean and dry.
Material for Knee Pads, Leggings etc.

SR Material Protects against

1 Asbestos Sparks, hot materials, heat.

2 Chrome leather Sparks, hot materials, hot liquids, flying particles, cuts,
abrasions.

3 Flame proofed Duck Sparks, hot materials, heat, flying particles, machinery.

4 Plastic Dermatitis, hot liquids, moisture, acids, alkalis.

5 Rubber Dermatitis, hot liquids, moisture, acids, alkalis, electric

shock

6 Fiber metals Sparks, flying objects, flying, particles, cuts, abrasions,

machinery.

7 Chemical resistant material Acids and alkalis

8 Reflective fabric Hot liquids

Material for Shoes and Boots

SR Material Protects against

1 Steel toe caps Falling bodies

2 Non-skid shoes Moisture.

3 Wooden soles Hot materials, heat, hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis,
slips and falls, cuts, abrasions.

4 Chrome leather. Sparks, hot materials, heat, hot liquids

5 Rubber Hot liquids, moisture, acids and alkalis, electric shock,

dermatitis.

6 Conductive rubber Explosive.

Body, Skin and Fall Protection:

Body protectors are coats, waist, aprons, overalls, jackets and complete head to toe
protective suits. Aprons of different materials are used for protection against blows, splashes,
radiant heat, flying particles etc. Pads are used to protect shoulders and back from bruises.
Impervious clothing of rubber or synthetic fabrics are used for protection against water, moisture,
dusts, vapours and liquid chemicals.
Nature of potential hazard, degree of the hazard involved and nature of activities of the
wearer are important in the selection of safety clothing. Although complete coverage of the body
and legs is not needed in many cases, unnecessary safety clothing may hamper the efficiency of
the wearer. No compromise should be made with strict safety requirements. Selection is as
follows:
Material Protects against

1 Asbestos Sparks, hot materials, heat.

2 Chrome leather Sparks, hot materials, hot liquids, flying particles,
cuts, abrasions.
3 Plastic or Rubber Hot liquids, moisture, acids, and alkalis, electric
shock, dermatitis, machinery.
4 Canvas Flying particles, cuts, abrasions, machinery.
5 Chemical resistant fabric Acids and alkalis
6 Reflective fabric Hot liquids

Types of body protection available are:

Body Protection :- Asbestos combination suit, asbestos jacket, hood, clogs, boots and
gloves, mittens, aprons, spats, leggings, furnace mask; rubber apron with hood combined, low
weight rubber coated fabric suit, low weight PVC coated fabric suit, heavy duty PVC suit or
rubber coated fabric suit, PVC or rubber coated aprons with sleeves, sand or shot blast helmet
rubber mat for electrical purpose, vulcanizedfiber face mask for radiant heat, PVC splash proof
coat, PVC hood with protected ventilator, PVC pressure suit, PV( boiler suit, overall, coat-pant
and hood.
Special work clothing includes leather or wool clothing, asbestos or aluminized clothing
and flame retardant or fireproof work cloths.
Safety Belts: -Linesman leather belt, leather safety strap or belt, man-hoisting leather belt,
safety belt of harness made from leather or cotton webbing, nylon safety belt. Quick-on coverall
harness. Suspension harnesses. Wrist rescue systems. Descent system. Total encapsulating suit
harness. Linemen's belts. Structural steelworker's, car dropper's and derrick worker's belts, Shock-
absorbing lanyards. Retractable lanyard, Retractable lifeline. Winches, Rope grabs. Horizontal
lifeline system. Rail slider anchorage connector. Sure, hold confined space positioning equipment
or system.
Skin covers the whole body and it is the first defensive barrier for body protection.
Therefore, skin protection cannot be avoided. Types of skin affecting hazards can be classified as
under:
Preventive measures should include -
1. Frequent skin washing using proper cleansers.
2. Changing contaminated clothing and washing and drying the cloths properly.
1. 3. Removal of irritants and chemicals (including oils) by effective washing using
shower bath, eye washer fountain etc.
3. Wash immediately cuts, scrapes, punctures etc. and apply antiseptic bandage and seek
medical advice.
4. Use appropriate PPE to protect skin, fingers, foot and body. Selection of proper
goggles, gloves, footwear, aprons, overalls and clothing is important. Avoid loose
clothing and exposed skin or body parts to moving machinery, high temperature, toxic
chemicals (e.g. pesticides) etc.
5. Barrier creams to protect against dermatitis, lubricants, solvents, hydro-carbons etc.

Aprons for Skin Protection

Type of Apron Protects against

PVC, Acid / alkali proof Chemical splashes

 rubber, Face shield with visor
Leather Hot materials like molten slag, chips, hot or sharp
surfaces.
Asbestos Heat radiation
Lead Ionizing radiation (X-rays, Gamma rays)
Fall protection for the body includes safety belts, lifelines (ropes) and lanyards, harnesses
(belts & straps with buckles) and fall-arrester devices or safety net.

Full body harness with Safety Belt and fall arrester

It is important to note that such safety belts and associated equipment are used when fall
hazards cannot be eliminated by strong support like railings, floors, platforms etc.
OSHA Standard has prohibited the use of a body belt-only for fall arrest and a fall arrest
system is suggested, since 1-1-1998.
Body belts are used where less than I’m free fall is anticipated and a body harness (belts or
straps on chest, shoulders and thighs) is used for a limited fall up to 2 m. A harness can spread the
shock load over the shoulders, thighs and seat (hips). The body belt or lifeline D-ring should be
arranged at the back of the worker. The wearer of the safety belt should not tie off below waist
level (to prevent turning down head). A window cleaner's belt length is limited to 8 ft (2.5 m). The
chest belt is worn loosely to allow smooth breathing.
 The lifeline may be vertical from a fixed anchorage or horizontal between two fixed
anchorage independent of the work surfaces Lanyard is a flexible. line up to 6 ft (1.8m) to secure
the wearer's harness (D-ring) to a lifeline or fixed
anchorage. Lanyards may be made of nylon or other
fibrous or metallic material and non-stretchable to
limit free fall distance. -Shock-absorber lanyards
are available to absorb up to 80% of the stopping
force of a normal lanyard. Metal lanyard must not
be used where electrical hazard is possible. Snap
hooks (locking type •preferable) and D-rings should
be maintained in good condition. Knots or
lengthening of lanyards must be avoided. Horizontal Lifeline
Body belts (work belts) are used to reduce the probability of falls. Chest harnesses are
used where there is limited fall hazard (not vertical free fall) such as for removal of a person from
a tank or bin. Body harnesses, covering chest, shoulders and thighs, are used to arrest the most
severe free falls.
Retrieval method is necessary to shorten the hanging distance after a fall up to 6 ft
(maximum limit of free falls, for more fall height, other supporting fixed structure must be
provided by fencing, railing, platform, fixed-ladder with platform and handrails etc.). Retractable
lifeline, which will be shorten automatically (e.g. spring action) after its full length, can limit falls
to inches and avoid prolonged suspension causing high discomfort to a hanging person.
Fall arrester net, if used, should be tied firmly as near as possible under the working place
to minimize the fall distance.
Belts, harnesses, lifelines, lanyards, buckles, joints, D-ring etc. should be checked for weak
points, washed regularly and kept dried at room temperature.

2.1.3: Hazard, Classification & Selection of Respiratory PPE

Respiratory Hazards:

Type of hazards to which a worker is exposed is the basis of selection of the right type of
respiratory protective equipment.
There are three basic classifications of respiratory hazards: oxygen-deficient air; particulate
contaminants; and gas and Vapour contaminants.

1. Oxygen Deficiency:
 Normal ambient air contains an oxygen concentration of 20.8 percent by volume. When
the oxygen level dips below 19.5 percent, the air is considered oxygen-deficient. Oxygen
concentration below 16 percent is considered unsafe for human exposure because of harmful
effects on bodily function, mental processes and co-ordination.
It is important to note that life-supporting oxygen can be further displaced by other gases,
such as carbon dioxide or nitrogen. When this occurs, the result is often an atmosphere that can be
dangerous or fatal when inhaled. Oxygen deficiency can also be caused by rust, corrosion,
fermentation or other forms of oxidation which consume oxygen. The impact or oxygen-
deficiency can be gradual or sudden.
Atmospheres in confined spaces such as vats, tanks, hold of the ships, etc. may contain air
with oxygen content much lower than normal (21% by volume). This may be due to dilution or
displacement of the air by other gases or vapours or because of loss of oxygen due to decay of
organic matter, chemical reaction and natural oxidation over a long period of time. A person
breathing air with oxygen content of 15% or less may exhibit symptoms ranging from increased
rate of breathing, acceleration of pulse rate to unconsciousness and death, such oxygen deficiency
condition can easily be detected as the flame of a safety lamp will be extinguished in such
atmosphere. Oxygen deficient atmosphere is immediately dangerous to life. The respiratory
protective equipment in such conditions should either supply normal air or oxygen to the wear.
Self-contained or combination breathing apparatus is suitable.
2. Gaseous Contaminants:
Gas and Vapour contaminants can be classified according to their chemical characteristics. True
gaseous contaminants are similar to air in that they possess the same ability to diffuse freely
within an area or container. Nitrogen, chlorine, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and Sulphur
dioxide are examples.
Vapours are the gaseous state of substances that are liquids or solids at room temperature. They
are formed when the solid or liquid evaporates. Gasoline, solvents and paint thinners are examples
of liquids that evaporate easily, producing vapours.
In terms of chemical characteristics, gaseous contaminants may be classified as follows:
Inert Gases - These include such true gases as nitrogen, helium, argon, neon, etc. Although they
do not metabolize in the body, these gases represent a hazard because they can produce an oxygen
deficiency by displacement of air.
Acidic Gases - Often highly toxic (corrosive), acidic gases exist as acids or produce acids by
reaction with water. Sulphur dioxide, hydrogen Sulphide and hydrogen chloride are examples.
Alkaline Gases - These gases exist as alkalis or produce alkalis by reaction with water. Ammonia
and phosphine are such examples.
In terms of chemical characteristics, vaporous contaminants may be classified as follows:
Organic Compounds - Contaminants in this category can exist as true gases or vapours produced
from organic liquids. Gasoline, solvents and paint thinners are examples.
Organo-metallic Compounds - These are generally comprised of metals attached to organic
groups. Tetra-ethyl-lead and organic phosphates are examples.
These may be toxic or inert gases or vapours. The toxic gases may produce harmful effect even if
they are present in relatively low concentrations. The inert gases produce undesirable effects
primarily by displacement of oxygen. Vapours are from volatile, evaporating liquids. Gaseous
contaminants can also be classified as:
a) Gaseous Contaminants Immediately Dangerous to life: These contaminants are
gases present in concentrations that would endanger life of a worker breathing them even
for a short period of time. In other words, a gas is immediately dangerous to life if it is
present in certain concentration. Where it is not possible to determine the extent 6f
concentration or the kind of gas, all gases should be considered as immediately dangerous
to life and health. IDLH values of many gases and dusts are available. Positive pressure
self-contained or combination breathing apparatus is suitable.
b) Gaseous Contaminants not immediately Dangerous to life:These contaminants are
gases present in concentration that could be breathed by a worker for a short time without
endangering his life but which may cause possible injury after a prolonged single exposure
or repeated short exposures. But even after the concentrations of the contaminant is
known, no exact formula can be applied to determine if the contaminant is immediately
dangerous to life or not. Air - line respirator, hose mask with or - without blower and
chemical cartridge respirator are suitable.
3. Particulate Matter or Contaminants:
Particulate contaminants can be classified according to their physical and chemical characteristics
and their physiological effect on the body. The particle diameter in microns (1 micron = l/ 25400
inch) is of utmost importance. Particles below 10 microns in diameter have a greater chance to
enter the respiratory system and particles below 5 microns in diameter are more apt to reach the
deep lung or alveolar spaces.
In the healthy lungs, particles from 5 to 10 microns in diameter are generally removed by the
respiratory system by a constant cleansing action that takes place in the upper respiratory tract.
However, with excessive "dust" exposures or diseased respiratory system, the efficiency of the
cleansing action can be significantly-reduced.
The various types of airborne particulate contaminants can be classified as follows:
Fumes - An aerosol created when solid material is vaporized at high temperatures and then cooled.
As it cools, it condenses into extremely small particles generally less than I micron in diameter.
Fumes can result from operations such as welding, cutting, smelting or casting molten metals.
Dusts - An aerosol consisting of mechanically produced solid particles derived from the
breaking up of larger particles. Dusts generally have a larger particle size when compared to
fumes. Operations such as sanding, grinding, crushing, drilling, machining or sand blasting are the
worst dust producers. Dust particles are often found in the harmful size range of 0.5 to 10 microns.

Mists - An aerosol formed by liquids, which are atomized and/or condensed. Mists can be created
by such operations as spraying, plating or boiling, and by mixing or cleaning jobs. Particles are
usually found in the size range of 5 to 100 microns.

Majority of particulate contaminants are not immediately dangerous to life. They may be solid,
liquid or a combination of solid and liquid and may be classified into three broad groups- dust,
mist and fumes. Dust and fumes are solid flying particles, fumes being extremely small. Mists are
tiny liquid droplets given off by spraying or. very fast mixing or agitating.

Dust, mist or fume respirator, air-line respirator and abrasive blasting respirator are suitable.
Types of contaminants can also be classified as under:
a) Toxic particulate contaminants:
These when inhaled may pass from the lungs into the blood stream and are then carried to
the various parts of the body. The effect may be chemical irritation, systemic poisoning or
allergic reactions. Common contaminants in this group are antimony, arsenic, cadmium,
chromic acid and chromate, lead and manganese.
b) Fibrosis-producing dusts:
These dusts do not pass into the blood stream but remain in the lungs and may cause
pulmonary impairment. The common example under this group are asbestos, coal, iron,
bauxite and free silica.

c) Nuisance Dusts:
 These may dissolve and pass directly into the blood stream or may remain in the lungs
neither producing local nor systemic effects. Examples are saw dust, chalk clay, starch,
cement dust etc.
4. Combination of Gaseous and Particulate Contaminants:
Here gaseous and particulate contaminants occur together as in case of paint spraying
where solvent Vapour (gas) and paint mists are mixed. They may be entirely of different
substances like carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen produced by blasting or volatile liquids.
For contaminants immediately dangerous to life, positive pressure self-contained or
combination breathing apparatus or gas masks with special filter and for not immediately
dangerous to life, airline respirator, hose masks with or without blower and chemical cartridge
respirator with special filter are suitable.
Respirator Selection:
Respiratory protective devices vary in design, application and protective capability. Thus,
the user must assess the inhalation hazard and understand the specific use limitations of available
equipment to assure proper selection.
The respirators fall under two classifications: air-purifying and air-supplied. Air-purifying
respirators are used against particulate, gases and vapours. These include negative-pressure
respirators that use chemical cartridges and/or filters; gas masks; and positive pressure units such
as powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs), Air-supplied devices rely on a primary air source to
deliver a steady flow of respirable air to the user's facepiece. These include SCBA and airline
devices.
Selection and classification of Respiratory equipment based on type of hazard:
2.1.4 Instructions and training (in the use, maintenance and care) of self-containing
breathing apparatus. Training in the use of breathing apparatus (opens circuits and close
unit).

SCBA Training
Instruction and Training in the use of Respirators:
Instructionsfor care should include the following aspects:
1. Why and how it is to be used.
2. Protecting the equipment from dust, heat, moisture, extreme cold and damaging chemicals.
Storing in a dry cool place.
3. Checking that it is in good operating condition. Valves should be maintained in efficient
working condition.
4. Fitting of respirator on the wearer and
5. Proper use and maintenance of the respirator.
6. Cleaning and keeping it in a sealed plastic bag with name tag of the user.
Training for respiratory equipment should include following points:
1. Reasons of need of respiratory protection and limitation or inability of other controls or
Methods.
2. Identification and understanding of the hazard for which the equipment is to be used and
selection procedure;
3. Limitation, capability, function and operation of the respirator.

4. Proper fitting, wearing, adjusting face piece & valves and removing of the respirator.

5. Maintenance and storage procedure.

6. Practice to wear first in a safe atmosphere to become familiar with its characteristics.

7. Practice to wear in a test atmosphere under close supervision of the trainer, and to do
similar activities and to detect respirator leakage or malfunction.

8. How to ascertain and handle emergency situation.

9. Statutory provisions regarding use of respirators.

10. When and how to replace filters, cartridges, canisters and cylinders.

11. Instructions for special use if any.

The trainer should be qualified safety officer, industrial hygienist, safety professional or
manufacturer's representative

OSHA Standard for Respiratory Protection:

Program Requirements:
The OSHA Respiratory Protection Standard (29 CFR 1910.1-34) lists seven key elements that
every respiratory protection program should contain. These include:
1. A written plan detailing how the program will be administered.
2. A complete assessment and knowledge of respiratory hazards that will be encountered in
the workplace.
3. Procedures and equipment to control respiratory hazards, including the use of engineering
controls and work practices designed to limit or reduce employee exposures to such
hazards.
4. Guidelines for the proper selection of appropriate respiratory protective equipment.
5. An employee training program covering hazard recognition, the dangers associated with
respiratory hazards, proper care and use of respiratory protective equipment.
6. Inspection, maintenance and repair of respiratory protective equipment, and
7. Medical surveillance of employees.
Administration:
The first step in a respiratory protection program is to establish written standard operating
procedures governing the selection and use of respirators.
Finally, there should also be regular inspection and evaluation of the program itself to
ensure its continued effectiveness.
Hazard Assessment:
Proper assessment of the hazard is the first important step to protection. This requires a
thorough knowledge of processes, equipment, raw materials, end-products and by-products that
can create an exposure hazard.
To determine an atmosphere's oxygen content or concentration levels of particulate and/or
gaseous contaminants, air samples must be taken with proper sampling instruments during all
conditions of operation. The sampling device, the type and frequency of sampling (spot testing or
continuous monitoring) will be dictated by the exposure and operating conditions. Breathing zone
samples are recommended and sampling frequency should be sufficient to assess the average
exposure under the variable operating and exposure conditions.
If contaminant concentrations exceed exposure limits recommended by the American
Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists (ACGIH), OSHA or NIOSH, hazard control
procedures must be implemented promptly.
Exposure monitoring plays a critical role in the respirator selection process. The results
from such tests will help you determine whether respiratory protection is needed and, if it is, the
type of respirator required. Generally, respirator selection is based on three factors:
1. The results of your atmospheric monitoring or sampling programme,
2. The accepted ACGIH, OSHA or NIOSH exposure limits for the substance(s) present and
3. The maximum concentration (of a substance) for which a respirator can be used.
Exposure limits include ACGIH Threshold Limit Values (TLVs), OSHA Permissible
Exposure Limits (PELs), NIOSH Recommended Exposure Levels (RELs) and AIHA Workplace
Environmental Exposure Levels (WEELs). These values are guides for exposure concentrations
that healthy individuals can normally tolerate for eight hours a day, five days a week without
harmful effects. Unless otherwise noted, exposure limits are eight-hour, time-weighted-average
(TWA) concentrations.
In general, gas and Vapour exposure limits are expressed in ppm by volume (parts of
contaminant per million parts of air), while particulate matters (concentrations) are expressed as
mg/ 3 (milligrams of concentrations per cubic meter of air). For substances that can exist in more
than one form (particulate or gaseous), concentrations are expressed in both values.

It is important to note that exposure limits and other exposure standards are constantly
changing as more data is gathered about specific chemicals and substances. As such, you must be
certain that you are using the most recent data when determining allowable exposure levels for
employees.
Hazard Control:
Hazard control should start at the process, equipment and plant design levels where
contaminants can be effectively controlled at the outset. With operating processes, the problem
becomes more difficult. In all cases, however, consideration should be given to the use of effective
engineering controls to eliminate and/or reduce exposures to respiratory hazards. This includes
consideration of process encapsulation or isolation, use of less toxic materials in the process and
suitable exhaust ventilation, filters and scrubbers to control the effluents.
Because it is sometimes not practical to maintain engineering controls that eliminate all
airborne concentrations of contaminants, proper respiratory protective devices should be used
whenever such protection is required.
Respirator Selection:
Respiratory protective devices vary in design, application and protective capability. Thus,
the user must assess the inhalation hazard and understand the specific use limitations of available
equipment to assure proper selection.
The respirators fall under two classifications: air-purifying and air-supplied. Air-purifying
respirators are used against particulate, gases and vapours. These include negative-pressure
respirators that use chemical cartridges and/or filters; gas masks; and positive pressure units such
as powered air-purifying respirators (PAPRs), Air-supplied devices rely on a primary air source to
deliver a steady flow of respirable air to the user's facepiece. These include SCBA and airline
devices.
Medical Surveillance:
 Workers should never be assigned to any operations requiring respiratory protection until a
physician has determined that they are capable physically and psychologically to perform the work
using the respiratory protective equipment.
Although instituting a sound respiratory protection program will take effort and financial
investment, the objective of such a program is sound - ensuring that every worker is protected
against potentially fatal diseases.
Cleaning Procedures for Respirators:
1. Remove filters, cartridges, or canisters. Disassemble face pieces by removing speaking
diaphragms, demand or pressure-demand valve assemblies, hoses, or any components
recommended by the manufacturer. Discard or repair any defective parts.
2. Wash components in warm (43°C/110°F maximum) water with a mild detergent or with a
cleaner recommended by the manufacturer. A stiff bristle (not wire) brush may be used to
facilitate the removal of dirt.
3. Rinse components thoroughly in clean, warm, preferably running water. Drain the
components.
4. When the cleaner used does not contain a disinfecting agent, respirator components should
be immersed for two minutes in-
Hypochlorite solution (50 ppm of chlorine made by adding approximately one
milliliter of laundry bleach to one liter of water at 43°C/110°F), or
Aqueous solution of iodine (50 ppm iodine) made by adding approximately 0.8
milliliters of tincture of iodine (6-8 grams ammonium and/ or potassium iodine/lock of
45% alcohol) to one liter of water at 43°C/110°F
5. The importance of thorough rinsing is most important. Detergents or disinfectants that dry
on facepieces may result in dermatitis. In addition, some disinfectants may cause
deterioration of rubber or corrosion of metal parts if not completely removed.
6. Components should be hand-dried with a clean, lint-free cloth, or air-dried.
7. Reassemble facepiece, replacing filters, cartridges, and canisters where necessary.
8. Test the respirator to ensure that all components work properly.

2.2 PPE TESTING PROCEDURES AND STANDARDS

Fit Testing
 Respirators should fit properly to provide protection. To obtain adequate respiratory
protection, there must be a proper match between respirator and wearer. Respirators not properly
fitting cause illusion of protection. To accommodate the variability of face size characteristics
among individuals, a number of manufacturers offer face pieces in several sizes and models.
Purpose:
The primary purpose of tit testing is to identify the (1) specific make (2) model, style and
size of respirator best suited for each employee.
In addition, fit testing also provides an opportunity to check any problem with respirator
wear, methods of donning and wearing the respirator.
Requirement:
1. Fit testing is required for all negative or positive pressure tight-fitting facepiece respirators.

2. The OSHA respiratory protection standard requires that tit testing be performed before an
employee first starts wearing a respirator in the work environment, whenever a different
respirator facepiece is used, and at least annually thereafter.
Method:

 Prior to the actual fit test, the employee must be shown how to put on a respirator
 Position it on the face, set strap tension, and determine an acceptable fit. Next, the
employee must
 be allowed to choose a respirator from a sufficient number of models and sizes so that the
employee can find an acceptable and correctly fitting respirator.
 Once an acceptable respirator has been found — which considers the position of the mask
on the face, nose, and cheeks; room for eye protection; and room to talk — a user seal
check must be conducted.
Types of Fit Testing.
 Fit testing may either be qualitative (QLFT) or quantitative (QNFT)
 Prior to the commencement of the fit test, the employee must be given a description of the
fit test and a description of the exercises that he or she will be per forming during fit
testing.
 The respirator to be tested must be worn for at least five minutes before the start of the fit
test.
 The employee must be fit tested with the same make, model, style, and size of respirator
that will be used in the workplace.
Qualitative fit testing (QLFT).
Qualitative fit testing involves the introduction of a gas, vapor, or aerosol test agent into an
area around the head of the respirator user.
A determination is then made as to whether or not the wearer can detect die presence of the
test agent through means such as odor, taste, or nasal irritation. If the presence of the test agent is
detected inside the mask, the respirator fit is considered to be inadequate.
There are four qualitative fit test protocols approved in OSHA's standard.
1. The iso-amyl acetate (IAA) test determines whether a respirator is protecting a user by
questioning whether the user can smell the distinctive odor of IAA.
2. The. irritant smoke (e.g., stannic chloride) test involves a substance that elicits an
involuntary irritation response in those exposed to it.

3. Before conducting a qualitative test, the worker must undergo a sensitivity test to
determine if he or she can taste, smell or react to the substance.
4. When performing the iso-amyl acetate test, the protocol requires that separate rooms be
used for the odor screening and fit tests, and that the rooms be sufficiently ventilated to
ensure that there is no detectable odor of IAA prior to a test being conducted.
Quantitative fit testing (QNFT).
In a quantitative fit test, the adequacy of respirator fit is assessed by numerically
measuring the amount of leakage into the respirator.
This testing can be done by either generating a test aerosol as a test atmosphere, using
ambient aerosol as the test agent, or using controlled negative pressure (CNP) to measure the
volumetric leak rate. Appropriate instrumentation is required to quantify respirator fit.
Fit Test Exercises:
The following test exercises must be performed for all fit testing methods.
Normal breathing in a normal standing position, without talking.
Deep breathing in a normal standing position, breathing slowly and deeply, taking precaution not
to hyperventilate.
Turning the head slowly from side to side, while standing in place, with the employee
holding his/her head momentarily at each extreme so that the employee can inhale at each side;
Moving the head up and down slowly, while standing in place, inhaling in the up position
when looking toward the ceiling;
Bending at the waist as if to touch toes (jogging .in place can be done when the fit test
enclosure doesn't permit bending at the waist); and normal breathing (as described above).
Retesting:
If the employee finds the fit of the respirator unacceptable, he or she must be given a
reasonable opportunity to select a different respirator and to be retested. In addition, retesting is
required whenever an employee reports, or the employer, supervisor, or program administrator
observe changes in an employee's physical condition that could affect respirator fit. Such
conditions include, but are not limited to, facial scarring, dental changes (e.g., wearing new
dentures), cosmetic surgery, or an obvious change in body weight.
Facepiece Positive and/or Negative Pressure Checks:
1. Positive Pressure Check
Close off the exhalation valve and exhale gently into the facepiece. *
The fade fit is considered satisfactory if a slight positive pressure can be built up inside the
facepiece without any evidence of outward leakage of air at the seal.
For most respirators, this method of leak testing requires the wearer to first remove the
exhalation valve cover before closing off the exhalation valve, and then carefully replacing it after
the test.
2. Negative Pressure Check
Close off the inlet opening of the canister or cartridge(s) by covering it with the palm of the
hand(s).
Inhale gently so that the facepiece collapses slightly and hold your breath for ten seconds.
The design of the inlet opening of some cartridges cannot be effectively covered with the
palm of the hand, which requires' that the test be performed by covering the inlet opening of the
cartridge with a thin latex or nitrile glove.
If the facepiece remains in its slightly collapsed condition and no inward leakage of air is
detected, the tightness of the respirator is considered satisfactory.
 CHAPTER 3: Ventilation and Heat Stress

Purpose of Ventilation and Heat Control:

The need or purpose of ventilation and heat control are summarized here as follows:
1. Air is life and fresh air is the first need for survival of living creatures. Absence of air brings
death within a few minutes. Life without breathing is not possible and the clean air is needed
for the whole life- for breathing and functioning of human body. Therefore, good ventilation
giving sufficient fresh air is the permanent requirement.
2. Human body cannot tolerate excessive temperature. Heat stresses produced by very hot or
cold exposures cause adverse effects on health and safety of work people. Therefore,
environmental temperature control is also permanently needed for well-functioning of human
body. Ventilation helps in removing excessive temperature.
3. Heavy physical work or heavy work load causes heat stress and strain and increase metabolic
heat, body temperature, sweating, heart rate etc. To maintain (control) body temperature,
ventilation is necessary. See Part 5.1.
4. Carbon dioxide is continuously exhausted by all human beings. Much more contaminants are
added by manufacturing processes to pollute air. Therefore, cleaning of air and supply of fresh
air with sufficient oxygen are also necessary. This is possible by good ventilation and pollution
control techniques only.
5. Where due to weather or atmospheric conditions or process parameters, excessive temperature
is unbearable or uncomfortable, air conditioning or HVAC systems are also necessary.
Conversely where air heating is necessary as in case of excessive cold climate, it must be
provided.
6. Basic functions of ventilation are to (a) maintain the oxygen content of the air and to prevent
CO, concentrations from rising (b) prevent or removal of body odor’s (c) prevent harmful
concentration of aerosols and air-borne contaminants and (d) maintain reasonable conditions of
thermal limits for comfort and efficiency which result in decreased heat stress, increased
productivity, reduced accident rates (hot conditions induce unsafe acts) and adverse health
effects (interaction with other hazards), higher level of job satisfaction, reduced absenteeism,
improved attitudes, reduced downtime for hot vessels and compliance of required standards.
7. While designing industrial buildings care must be taken to provide good ventilation for dilution
of inside air to prevent vitiation by causes, such as body odor’s, to remove process released
contaminants and heat exposures to maintain satisfactory thermal environments, to maintain
heat balance of body and to prevent acute discomfort and injury to the health of the workers. If
natural ventilation is not sufficient for these purposes, mechanical ventilation, cooling system
or other techniques must be employed to achieve satisfactory results.
8. As explained in subsequent part 5.1 & 5.2 of this Chapter, the basic need for ventilation is to
maintain the body heat balance equation by controlling air and surrounding temperature,
humidity and air velocity. Therefore supply, well distribution and maintenance of fresh air
throughout the factory are utmost necessary to maintain comfortable working conditions as
expected by sections 13 to 15 of our Factories Act.
Thus, main purpose of ventilation is to remove heat 'and contaminants from air in residential or
industrial building and to supply or regulate fresh and cool (or hot) air for the comfort of the
occupants or workers.
The term industrial ventilation refers to ventilation systems for the industrial use. Main four
functions of ventilation are (1) to supply sufficient fresh air (2) to distribute it throughout the work
room (3) to remove polluted and hot air and (4) to maintain comfortable working conditions.
Mainly ventilation is employed for human comfort and therefore called comfort ventilation or air-
conditioning. It is also employed for process control by mechanical ventilation (process
ventilation) as explained in Part 7.3.2.
The quantity and quality of air required for ventilation depend upon -
 Rates of heat generation in the room.
 Rates of contaminants (gas, Vapour, dust) generation in the room.
 Rates of dispersion of heat & contaminant.
 Rates of dilution and/or removal that may be achieved by ventilation.
 Electric fittings for ventilation system in flammable/explosive area should be flameproof
and of the approved type.
THERMAL ENVIRONMENT AND ITS MEASUREMENTS:
Before controlling temperature, humidity and air movement it is necessary to measure their
adequacy. Subsequent measurement is also necessary for the, satisfaction that whether they are
properly controlled or not. Some methods and equipment are explained below for this purpose.
Temperature Measurement: The mean radiant temperature of the surroundings is calculated (not
measured) from the values of dry bulb air temperature, the glob temperature and the air velocity.
Thermometers placed at the height 1.5 m above floor level and not within I’m from any heating
device are used to measure the air temperature. For precise measurement and recording of
temperature, thermographs are used. Recording period may be as per requirement.
The Glob thermometer is a black-painted (mat), hollow copper sphere, 15 cm in diameter, into
which a thermometer is inserted. It therefore measures temperatures which include radiant heat
effects. It is preferable to a dry-bulb thermometer. Rule 18A (1) of the • Gujarat Factories Rules
1963 provides for a glob thermometer of 15 cm dia to be kept in the environment for not less than
20 minutes and consideration of the temperature recorded by it, if it exceeds the dry-bulb
temperature of the air.
The glob is suspended at the point of measurement, about 1.2 m above the ground, not contacting
any solid. Thus, the globe gains heat by radiation and loses by convection (not conduction). When
thermal equilibrium is reached (by @25 minutes)/ the reading in the thermometer gives the globe
temperature to.
Humidity Measurement:
Psychrometers or wet and dry bulb hygrometers are used to measure relative humidity of the air.
Hydrographs are used for continuous recording of the air humidity where the humidity
requirements are most stringent. The two temperatures of dry and wet bulbs are used with a
psychometric table or chart to determine relative and absolute humidity, dew point and other
conditions of an air-water mixture. The direct dial hygrometers are also available.
A whirling hygrometer (sling psychro-meter) is used to assess the ambient air temperature and
humidity. The dry and wet bulb assembly is rotated at 60 rpm till the readings become steady. The
reading of the dry bulb gives the ambient temperature while drop between dry and wet bulb
temperature is an indication of relative humidity by using a psychometric chart.
Air Movement and Content Measurement:
For recommended values for air movement and air changes See Part 2 and 6.4. Values
recommended by IS:3103 are as under -
Anemometers (Velometers) are used to measure the velocity of the air. The revolving - vane and
the revolving - cup types are in common use. The Vane anemometer consists of eight vanes fixed
on a hub at 45Q to the air stream and pivoted so as to rotate in a vertical plane. The speed of
rotation is indicated on a dial calibrated to read air velocity from 0.3 to 5 m/s. 77ie Cup
anemometer consists of four hemispherical cups carried on the ends of four radial arms pivoted so
as to rotate in a horizontal plane. The speed of rotation is indicated on a dial graduated to read air
velocity from I to 20 m/s. Velocities under 0.3 m/s are measured by means of a micro anemometer
or electrical thermal anemometer.
Kata thermometer designed by Leonard Hill in 1914 measures the cooling power of the air to cool
skin surface, a power that is measured in terms of dry-bulb temperature, the radiation and the rate
of air movement. The kata thermometer is an alcohol, liquid - in glass thermometer with a large
bulb and an upper reservoir. There are two marks on the stem. It is cheap but fragile and useful for
low air velocities below 0.25 "V s (50 fpm). The bulb is warmed by a warm water so that the
alcohol fills up the whole thermometer (up to 40 "C). The thermometer is then carefully dried
and placed at the sampling point. The cooling time is measured .by a stopwatch. Then air velocity
is calculated by using the values of cooling time, air temperature and instrument factor.
Swinging van anemometer. Hot wire anemometer (another air. meter), Alnor thermo-anemometer,
Mechanical anemometer. Thermistor Bead anemometer, Heated thermocouple anemometer and
Rotating vane anemometer of clock type or electronic direct-reading type are also used in
industrial hygiene to measure the air velocity.
Pressure tubes are used to measure both pressure (total and static) and velocity of the air in air
ducts. The dynamic (velocity) pressure is determined as the difference between the total and the
static pressures. The air velocity in air ducts can be measured with a Pressure head device (static
and pilot tube connected with differential pressure U-gauge).
Indication tube or Gas detection tube is used to measure contents of air contaminants such as toxic
vapours and gases viz. Cl2, CO, SO2, NO2, PH2 ethanol etc. A common type is hermetically
sealed glass tube about 4 to 7 mm wide and 100 mm long containing a filler (crushed silica gel,
glass or porcelain crumbs) treated with solutions of various reagents. The tube is kept into intimate
contact of the air to be analyzed. By pump-strokes air sample is drawn in. The concentration of the
impurity can be read on a scale by a length or rate of change in colour of the filler material that has
completed reaction.
Air purity can be measured by air or gas analyzers of various designs. Direct techniques of gas
analysis-spectrometry, electrical-chemical and optical methods permit automatic and continuous
air analysis. In air sampling method the samples collected by air sampler pumps, are analyzed in a
laboratory to get accurate measurement.
Indoor air quality monitors are direct reading instruments for gaseous sampling.
Dust contents in the workroom are determined by passing a measured\quantity of air through
filters during a particular time and calculating the dust mass collected. Methods to measure
character and size of dust particles are also available.
Following three parameters should be measured to assess the performance of ventilating
systems:
1. Capture velocity.
2. Air volume flow rates in various places in the system.
3. The pressure losses across filters and other fittings and pressures developed by fans.
The design value of these items is specified by the manufacturer of the equipment. Therefore,
instruments and devices are required to
1. Measure air velocities in various places.
2. Measure air pressure differences.
3. Trace and visualize airflow patterns.
As stated earlier, air velocity can be measure (by vane anemometers or heated head (hot wire or
thermostat) air meters. Anemometers are most suitable for open area (e.g. large hood and tunnel).
While heated head air meters are more suitable for inserting into duct or slot but it is not suitable
where flammable gas/Vapour may be present. Average velocity (measured) multiplied by the area
of the opening gives the volume flow rate.
Pilot-static tube is used to measure air velocity above 3 m/s. If <air flow pressure P (N/m2 or Pa)
is known, considering air density d=1.2 kg/m3 for most ventilation situations, the air velocity V
(m/s) is given by-
V =  2P or P = 1 dV2
d 2
Pilot static tubes are thin and can be easily inserted into ducting. All velocity meters should be
placed parallel to the air stream and calibrated from time to time.
Pressure difference in air can be measured by a manometer or U-tube gauges filled with water or
paraffin. Diaphragm pressure gauges are also available.
Air flow patterns can be detected by smoke tubes which produce a plume of smoke when air is
puffed through them. For airborne particles, dust lamp is used to see moving particles in a light
beam.
See also Form No. 26A, GFR, for 'Test Report of Dust Extraction System'.
Thermal Limits for Comfort and Efficiency:
The effect of atmospheric condition i.e. temperature, ventilation, humidity, radiant heat,
greenhouse effect etc., upon worker's efficiency or susceptibility to accident is difficult to predict,
because, it varies with person to person and one comfortable condition may be uncomfortable for
others. Much variation from the body temperature 37°C (98.6° F) causes discomfort for the
majority of factory workers doing light work. A dry-bulb temperature of 18°C (64° F) represents
the most satisfactory condition and variations of 2 to 3 degrees from that seem to have little
discomforting effect. In Indian atmosphere 20 to 30°C is the comfortable temperature for a variety
of workers.
 American Ventilating Engineering Association recommends the following ranges as the
most acceptable:
Place 0C 0F

1 Lecture Hall 16-18 61-64

2 Sleeping Rooms 12-15 54-59

3 Workshop (moderate activity) 16-18 61-64

4 Workshop (vigorous activity) 10-15 50-59

5 Bathrooms 20-22 68-72

6 Gymnasium 15.5 60

Some recommended upper limit values of comfortable temperature are as follows:

Consideration Critical Effective Temp.

0C 0F

1. Safe tolerable limit for -

(a) Light work 32 89.6

(b) Moderate work 29.5 85.1

(c) Heavy work 29 84.2

2. Prevention of steep fall in production 28.9 84

3. For efficient production 26.7 80

4. For thermal comfort in light / sedentary work 20-24.7 68-76.5

Effects on skin in contact with surfaces at different temperatures are also noted. Temperatures
160°F, 180°F and 212°F because second degree burn on 60, 30 and 15 second contact
respectively. 140°F gives pain due to tissue 'damage (burns) and temperature below 32°F also
gives pain due to tissue damage (freezing). 120°F gives pain due to burning heat. 9U4°F gives
warm or neutral feeling (physiological zero). 37 to 54°F gives cool effect and from 32°F and
below gives pain due to freezing.
But the temperature alone is not a good indicator of comfortable conditions. In spite of
above desirable level, discomfort may be caused because of frequent drafts (wind speeds),
excessive moisture, undue dryness and high radiant heat. The recording and regulating of these
factors and equating them with experiences of comfort, .and discomfort has been an old problem
of safety engineers.
The effect of atmospheric conditions on output and accident rate has been demonstrated in a
number of studies. The optimum temperature varies with the type of work that is performed and
depends upon the state of health, age, clothing, diet and the ability of the employee to adapt
himself to different climatic ' conditions.
 Numerous studies have been reported showing a close relation between accident frequency
and atmospheric conditions. One study of collieries workers indicates that at an average
temperature of 16.5°C (62°F), the accident frequency and severity rates were minimum. Another
study pointed out 21-23.5°C (70-74°F) temps. Range to keep the accident rate minimum. One
study of hourly accident rates inferred that the accidents were higher during the last hours of the
day shift and the first hours of the night shifts.
Mental Work experiments of the New York ventilation commission demonstrated that
such work may be performed as effectively under humid (80%), hot 30°C (86"F) and stagnant air
conditions as under optimum conditions of circulating air at 30°C (68°F) and 50% humidity. The
influence of controlled ventilation on attitudes and labor turnover affects all types of workers and -
a favorable attitude of workers toward the management is an indirect benefit which should not be
overlooked.
Barometric pressure has little effect, whereas temperature and humidity have considerable effect
on behavior. Production was at its highest level when the temperature was 30°C (68°F) and the air
was fresh and circulating. Using this as a base, it was noticed that stagnant air caused production
to fall off® 9%. Relative humidity of 40-50% is desirable for comfort and hygiene. Humidity
below 30% are undesirable as they may cause dehydration of mucous membranes of the nose and
respiratory tracts.
Toxic effects of chemicals may be magnified when temperature is raised, because, toxicity
of chemicals is known to increase due to temperature rise as follows:

Toxicity at
SR. Chemical
24 0C 35 0C

1 Carbon Tetrachloride 1 3.9

2 Carbon Monoxide 1 2.4

3 Amyl nitrate 1 3

4 Lead 1 >1

Heat Disorders are noticed at higher temperatures. A man may collapse at core (body)
temperature of 39.5°C (normal oral temp. 37°C). At about 40.6°C (105°F) the sweating mechanism
fails and the core temperature rises sharply. When the temperature reaches 42 to 43.5°C (108 to
110°F) death occurs. The commonly disorders experienced by Indian workers are (1) Heat exhaustion
and collapse (2) Water depletion, heat exhaustion and heat cramps (at times).
Accident rate in hot environment was double than that under comfortable climatic conditions.
The contributing factor according to Stephen Altman (1976) was lowered physical performance.
Thus, temperature exceeds thermal limits cause discomfort, annoyance, agony and frequency of
errors and accidents ultimately resulting in poor productivity.
Other Factors affecting ability to withstand high temperatures are (1) Fatigue and lack of sleep (2)
Worry, frustration and nervousness (3) Smoke from cigarettes, dust, gas etc. and (4) Disagreeable
odor
Heat and Cold Stress and their Indices:Attempts have been made in past to evaluate the total
heat stress limits (Tolerance or Threshold limits) by integrating some climatic and non-climatic
factors which affect heat exchange between the man and surrounding environment. Heat Stress
Index (HSI) can be calculated or obtained from charts and considers clothing and work load. From
it can be recommended duration of work and rest period. Some such indices are as follows:
(1) Effective Temperature (ET): It is a sensory scale of warmth derived from the dry and wet
bulb temperature (i.e. air temperature and humidity) and air velocity from standard nomogram. ET
is not a temperature measurable with instruments. It is an index combining effects on a body of
temperature, humidity and air movement. It is equivalent to the comfort a person generally feels
(there may be exceptions) in a saturated atmosphere with the same dry bulb temperature and with
a specific movement of air. A person remains equally comfortable under different conditions,
provided the ET remains the same.
(2) Corrected Effective Temperature (CET): It is a modified ET considering the radiant
temperature measured by glob thermometer instead of dry bulb temperature. It does not include
metabolic heat.
Considering lower body weight of Indians, ET and CET proposed by the Central Labor Institute,
Bombay is as follows:
Energy Expenditure
Workload ET or CET 0C
Kcal/ hr.

Light 135 32

Medium 225 29.5

Heavy 315 29

(3) Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT): It embraces in a single value the effect of
radiation, ambient air temperature and humidity. It is the weighted value of the wet and dry bulb
temperature and globe thermometer readings, calculated using temperature measurements alone
thereby eliminating the need to measure air velocity.
For outdoors (exposure to sun light):
WBGT = 0.2 tg + 0.1 tdb + 0.7 twb
For indoors (no direct exposure to sun light):
WBGT = 0.3 tdb + 0.7 twb
Where tg = Black Globe temperature,
tdb = Dry bulb (air) temperature and
twb = Wet bulb temperature
(°C) index is adopted by many countries to set up standards for work in hot environments. Its
determination is simple and requires less expensive equipment.
It is necessary to determine the average exposure of a person over a long period of time when
WBGT varied. A time-weighted average is given by: Average WBGT =
WBGT1 x t1 + WBGT2 x t2 + ... WBGTn x tn
t1+ t2 +.....tn
Exposures should not exceed the values given in the following chart:
 50
120
45
110
40 WBGT (o F)
o
WBGT ( C) 100
35
90
30
80
25

0 60 120 180 240

Exposure time (min)

The graph shows the upper limits of exposure for feeling comfort.
Calculated time weighted or average WBGT can be compared with permissible (comfortable)
level of WBGT values (°C) given in Table .10.1
This table is changed in 'ACGIH booklet 2007'. There the words "TLV' and 'Action Limit' are
used for 'acclimatized' and 'unacclimated' respectively. WBGT figures are slightly changed. For
detail, it should be referred.
For non-cotton, non-woven clothing, overalls (double cloth) which disallow free air movements
through fabric or does not absorb sweating '3 to 5' should be added to measured and calculated
WBGT values which should be less than the values given in Table 10.1. These values (Table 10.1)
are near the upper limit of the metabolic rate category. They are also called Screening Criteria for
heat stress exposure. See Part 10 for worked examples.
(4) Oxford Index: This index of heat stress has been devised to assess the severity of hot
humid conditions 'of the working places, particularly where the ventilation is poor. It is expressed
by a simple weighting as follows:
WD = 0.15 tdb + 0.85 twb
Where WD = weighted value, tdb and twb are dry and wet bulb temperature respectively. All units
are in °C.
Table: WBGT -(heat stress) values in "C (ACGIH Booklet 2006.
Acclimatized Un-acclimatized
Work
demand Very Very
Light Moderate Heavy Light Moderate Heavy
heavy heavy

100% work 29.5 27.5 26 27.5 25 22.5

75% work
30.5 28.5 27.5 29 26.5 24.5
25% rest

50% work
31.5 29.5 28.5 27.5 30 28 26.5 25
50% rest

25% work
32.5 31 30 29.5 31 29 28 26.5
75% rest
(5) Predicted Four Hourly Sweat Rate (P4SR): This index assumes of the amount of sweat that
would be prescribed by a physically fit and acclimatized young man in the condition under review
over a period of four hours. It considers the metabolic level and type of clothing in addition to the
climatic factors, unlike other indices mentioned earlier. But this has the drawback that
cumbersome nomograms are. required which is not always practical.
(6) Cold Stress and Wind Chill Index (WCI):It refers to the cold environment and uses only dry
bulb temperature and air velocity but considers the cooling effect of the wind.
In cold countries where environmental temperature goes below °C, cold stress (hypothermia or
frostbite) is also possible. Body (core) temperature (rectal 37.6°C, Oral 37°C) should not fall
below 35°C (95"F). Hands, feet and head are most likely to be affected by cold injury. Wind speed
increases cold stress. As TLV body (core) temperature should not fall below 36°C (96.8"F).
Wind chill cooling rate is defined as heat loss from a body expressed in watts/m', which is a
function of air temperature and velocity upon the exposed (area of) body. Higher wind speed and
lower air temperature require higher insulation. Value of the protective clothing. Exposure or
working time of workers should also be reduced. Old and weak workers need such extra
precaution.
Since the physical activity level on the shop floor will remain almost constant, we may
make use of the simple indices like CET/ET or WBGT in our control programmers.
Heat Exposure Threshold Limit Values (USA) and Bolding Hatch Heat Stress Index (HSI) are
other indices.
Toxic effects of chemicals may be magnified when temperature is raised, because, toxicity of
chemicals is known to increase due to temperature rise as follows:
Toxicity at
Chemical
24 0C 35 0C

1 Carbon Tetrachloride 1 3.9

2 Carbon Monoxide 1 2.4

3 Amyl nitrate 1 3

4 Lead 1 >1

Heat Disorders are noticed at higher temperatures. A man may collapse at core (body)
temperature of 39.5°C (normal oral temp. 37°C). At about 40.6°C (105°F) the sweating
mechanism fails and the core temperature rises sharply. When the temperature reaches 42 to
43.5°C (108 to 110°F) death occurs. The commonly disorders experienced by Indian workers are
(1) Heat exhaustion and collapse (2) Water depletion, heat exhaustion and heat cramps (at times).
Accident rate in hot environment was double than that under comfortable climatic
conditions. The contributing factor according to Stephen Altman (1976) was lowered physical
performance.
Thus, temperature exceeds thermal limits cause discomfort, annoyance, agony and frequency of
errors and accidents ultimately resulting in poor productivity.
Other Factors affecting ability to withstand high temperatures are (1) Fatigue and lack of sleep (2)
Worry, frustration and nervousness (3) Smoke from cigarettes, dust, gas etc. and (4) Disagreeable
odor
TYPES OF VENTILATION: Classification of Ventilation Systems:
For better grasping, major ventilation systems are classified as below:
Ventilation systems are of two types (1) Supply air system and (2) Exhaust system. Supply air
system has two purposes (A) heating, ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) for comfortable
environment and (B) to replace exhausted air from the plant. Exhaust system is of two types:
General and Local exhaust type. General exhaust system is for heat control and/or removal of
contaminant by dilution ventilation and Local exhaust system is for capturing contaminant at
source.
The details of these varieties of ventilation and calculation methods occupy much space. Their
design is a specialized job for ventilating engineers. Here they "are explained in brief as follows.
Natural Ventilation:
Natural ventilation is induced because of two reasons (1) outside wind pressure i.e., wind action
and (2) temperature difference of the air inside and outside the room i.e. chimney effect. There is a
positive pressure on windward side and negative pressure on leeward side. By providing adequate
openings in these pressure areas, natural ventilation can be achieved.
The rate of ventilation by natural means through windows or other openings depends on direction
and velocity. of wind outside, solar radiation, size and disposition of opening (wind action),
convection currents arising from temperature or vapor pressure difference (or both) between
 Ventilation Systems

Natural Mechanical
Ventilation Ventilation

1 Dilution or Cross
ventilation (Wind
action)
2 Roofed
ventilation (Stack
action)

(A) For Building (B) For Contaminants

1 Exhaust or Control
Negative 1 Dilution or forced
Ventilation Ventilation
(Induced draft)
2 Plenum or 2 Local Exhaust or
Positive Extract
Ventilation Ventilation
(Forced Draft)
3 Emergency
3 Combined or Ventilation
Compound
Ventilation
4 Roof Ventilation
5 Comfort
Ventilation
(Air
Conditioning)

(a) Refrigeration
(b) Heating
(c) Humidity Control or
Evaporative Cooling

inside and outside the room and the difference of height between the outlet and inlet openings
(stack effect). They are of two types as under
(1) Dilution or Cross Ventilation: Inlet openings should be located on the windward side at a low
level and outlet openings should be located on the leeward side near to the top so that incoming air
stream is passed over the occupants. Greatest flow per unit area opening is obtained by using inlet
and outlet openings of nearly equal areas. Under the Factories Rules ventilation opening area in a
work room shall be at least 15% of the floor area. At least 10% of the floor area shall be located at
not more than one-meter sill level height from the floor level. Wind velocity in hot weaver should
be 40 to 60 mt/min. Ventilation due to wind outside is given by the formula Q = kAV given in
Part-9.
Inlet openings should not be obstructed by surrounding buildings, walls, partitions, trees and
other obstructions in air path. Great advantage is available by providing windows in west and east
direction. However, if wind direction is not effectively available, openings in all four sides can
help the natural ventilation.

Fig. With flat roof, cross ventilation is effective when span is less than 20 meters.
When the room temperature is higher than that of outside because of hot processes, season etc.,
cool outside air tends to enter through openings at low level and warm air tends to leave through
openings at high level. Therefore, it would be advantageous to provide ventilators near to the
ceilings.
(2) Roofed Ventilation:: Cross ventilation suitable for narrow building is not much suitable for
large buildings and where roofed ventilation is suitable. Here ventilators are provided in roofs viz.
cowl, vent pipe,, covered roof and ridge vent to give stack effect.
For a 60 cm (24 in) diameter cowl type ventilator the formula's -
Q= A (8 H(ti-t0) +5.82V)
Where Q = capacity of the ventilator in m3/min, A = cross sectional area of the ventilator in 2
H = height of the ventilator above the inlets in m, t. and t are the inside and outside temperatures
in °C and V = wind velocity in kmph.
See fig. for different types of roof and fig. for modified roof ventilation.

Fig.: Types of roof for natural ventilation

Fig: Modified pitched roof and monitor roof.
In roofed ventilation, natural ventilation is used by chimney (stack) effect due to temperature
difference. This effect is counteracted by wind blows straight against roof openings. By suitable
design of itched roof, saw-tooth
tooth roof or monitor roof this interference can be reduced.
Cowl type Roof Ventilation: Fixed orr rotating owl (hood on roof vent) is provided to accelerate
natural roofed ventilation. The performance of roof cowls depends on temperature difference
between inside and outside air, velocity of incoming wind, cross sectional area of the ventilator
and its
ts height above air inlet. For a 60 cm (2 ft) diameter cowl, air flow capacity is given by the
formula stated above.

Rotating cowl requires a lubricant reservoir for its long service to run without jamming.
Mechanical Ventilation:Mechanical
Mechanical ventilation iiss employed for building i.e. workroom and also
for process for removal of contaminants. Both the types are explained below.
Building Ventilation: These are of many types as classified earlier. When natural ventilation is
not sufficient to keep thermal env
environment
ironment within the limits specified by dry and wet-bulb
wet
schedule under the Factories Rules, or where the span of work room exceeds 18 meters or where
any work place is more than 9 meters away from a ventilation opening, mechanical ventilation
(exhaust, positive or their combination) shall be provided and in case of positive ventilation, air
shall be cleaned and cooled before sending into the work room.
(1) Exhaust or Negative Ventilation: Exhauster induced draft fans are provided in walls on one
side of the building or in the attic and roofs to draw large volumes of air through building. These
fans are generally propeller type. The windows and other openings near the fans should be kept
closed to avoid 'short circulating of air'. Adequate inlet openings shall be provided on opposite
side of the building to limit inlet velocities. When fans are centrally located on an attic or arranged
to draw from exhaust appliances with ducting, they should be centrifugal or axial types to
overcome duct resistance. The total inlet area should be at least 3 times the total disc area of the
fan.

The exhaust fans should have wind shields on outside of the wall so that wind pressure may not
decrease their efficiency. The fans discharge should be diverted into large ducts carried vertically
upwards with rain water cap at the top. Fans should have proper guarding or fencing.
(2) Plenum or Positive Ventilation: It is provided by centrally located supply fans (generally
centrifugal type) having a wide range of capacity and quiet operation. Air-tight ducts increase the
advantage. Unit ventilators should be provided for individual rooms and may be placed against
outside wall near the central line of the room. Evaporative cooling coils can be incorporated for
cooling purpose.
Plenum ventilation is useful for large workrooms where exhaust ventilation is normally not
effective. Its air movement and regulation are more than that by exhaust ventilation. Better
dilution of contamination is also possible. The air velocities should not be excessive to disturb
manufacturing processes. Good distribution can be achieved by using diffusers or swivel type
ejector nozzles at high velocity at the inlets. For positive ventilation, the volume of air is given by
Q = AV, where Q = air volume in m"/ in, A = free area of intake openings of ducts in m' and V=
average velocity of air in m/min.
 The positive air pressure inside the room disallows outside hot or cold air leakage inside.'
Better dilution is achieved. Ducts should be smooth, straight, with minimum bends and without
sudden enlargements or contractions. The air velocity should not be too excessive to interfere with
the manufacturing process or be unpleasant. Discharge nozzles should discharge air horizontally at
a height little above the heads of the workers. Air velocity in a duct should be @10 m/s for gases
and @20 m/s for particulates.
(3) Combined (Compound) Ventilation: It is the combination of positive and negative (exhaust)
ventilation with the advantage of better air distribution over the entire area of a large building. By
supplying proper volumes of air at suitable velocities at the required areas through duct and by
extracting the air in the return duct and re-circulating this air after proper cleaning and mixing it
with cool fresh air, good results can be obtained. It is preferable to provide slight excess of
exhaust if there are adjoining occupied spaces and a slight excess of supply if there are no such
spaces. Unit exhausters can be used to match with unit ventilators exteriors and located along the
outside wall.
(4) Mechanical Roof Ventilation: It is used for augmenting natural ventilation in buildings with
large width (>30 m) or where the heat load is very heavy. Exhaust fans exercise very little
influence beyond a velocity contour at about 15 m/min which is a short distance from the fan. The
volume of air required in removal of sensible heat gained (in Kcal/hr.) can be calculated from the
formula -

Q= Kcal/hr. x 3.462
Temperature rise in °C

Where Q is the volume of air in m3/hr., and allowable temperature rise = Inlet opening temp.
Outside temp., is given by following approximate figures.

Roof elevation in mt Rise in oC

6 3 to 4.5
9 4.5 to 6.5
12 6.5 to 11
These values are at roof exit and not the floor temperatures. The maximum allowable temperature
rises for an air stream as it leaves the grills and reaches the working level is 1.7 to 2.8 °C (5 °F).
(5) Comfort Ventilation: It is the method by which the interior of a room is heated or cooled or
the humidity altered for process control or comfort conditions.
As refrigeration is very expensive, evaporative cooling may be adopted with advantage where
summers are dry with low wet bulb temperatures. The quantity of air required for ventilation could
be reduced if the outside air is cooled before the air is discharged into the building. Although the
relative humidity of supply air will be increased but due to the large sensible heat loads, the
resultant relative humidity in the workroom will be lowered after mixing with the inside air to
produce body cooling.
Water spray chamber and a fan to supply outside air into the workroom through a distribution
duct is preferable to spray which only humidifies the air where the cooling capacity of the air is
not much improved and no hot air is removed from the building.
Evaporative cooling is generally used in cotton textile mills where humidification is necessary to
meet the process conditions. It can also be used in chemical plants (where water is not reactive),
non-ferrous casting shops, tobacco factories etc. It is useful in rubber factory to prevent static
electricity due to solvent and in printing or lithographic works to maintain paper size. It is suitable
where dry bulb temperature is 35 °C (95 °C) or more, wet bulb temperature 25 °C (67 "F) or less
and relative humidity 5% or more during 15th March to 15th July as required under Rule 18A (3)
of the Gujarat Factories Rules.
The spray chamber (air washers) and single or multi bank up or down spray system can be
designed after careful considerations. Make-up water in circulation (about 1.5 to 2%) can be
calculated from evaporation losses, bleed off losses and driftage. For safety in air-conditioning
and mechanical refrigeration, IS:659 and 660 shall be referred respectively.
Process Ventilation (Contaminants Control):
Mechanical ventilation is also employed for contaminants control as follows:
(1) Dilution or Forced Ventilation:It is helpful in reducing contaminant concentration in work
area to control health and fire hazards. This is useful to control less toxic vapours such as from
organic solvents. It is not useful to control fumes, dusts and contaminants of high toxicity (TLV
less than 100 ppm) and high quantity or concentration. It is also not useful where pollutants are
released intermittently. The amount of air required for dilution can be calculated from the
following formula:
Air required for dilution in m3/kg of evaporation or generation of gas
24 x 106 x F
= Molecular weight of toxic gas x TLV in ppm of liquid or gas
Where F is a factor of safety for health hazard varying from 3 to 10 and depending on the -
toxicity, evolution rate of contaminant and effectiveness of the ventilation.
The formula for control of fire hazard is as follows:
Air required for dilution in m3/kg of flammable gas.

24 x 100 x F Molecular weight of the gas x

LEL x C
Where F is a factor of safety for fire hazard varying from 4 to
12 depending upon the percentage of LEL (Lower Explosive
Limit) and C is a constant which is 1 for temperatures up to
121 °C and 0.7 for temperatures above 121 °C.
Normally this method is adopted where it is impossible to
fit an extractor to the work point. Hourly air changes in a work
room are for dilution purpose. It should be 6 times the room
volume per hour.

The air flow volume to be provided should consider (1)

the volume of the pollutants released (2) the concentration
permitted in the workplace and (3) a factor of safety which
allows for the layout of the room, the airflow patterns created
by the ventilation system, the toxicity of the pollutant and the steadiness of its release.
(2) Local Exhaust or Extract Ventilation: It is applied
at the release points of contaminants (dust, gas, fumes,
particles etc.) to reduce their concentration in the
workroom below TLVs. Su (; h points shall be enclosed
except where access is necessary for the process, but in
that case, the exhaust appliance shall confine the
contaminants as much as possible.
The volume of air required is calculated from the area of
openings and the capture velocity sufficient to prevent
outward escapement. The sizes of the ducts shall be
calculated from the volume of air required and duct
velocities necessary to convey the contaminants with
minimum static resistance.
Fig. Elements of a local exhaust System
Capture velocities may vary from 0.25 to 10 m/ s
proportionately increasing with the contaminants velocity
as given in Table-10.3. The test report for dust/ fume
extraction system shall be in form No. 26A under the Gujarat Factories Rules.
Where the emissions of heat or contaminants are high, dilution ventilation is not fully effective
and the well-designed exhaust ventilation becomes necessary.''
Exhausted air may be re-circulated after cleaning and filtering to increase the rate of
mechanical ventilation.
Hood, duct, air cleaning device, filter or collector (to separate contaminant from the air
before discharging it into atmosphere) and fan and motor (for air flow) shall be designed or
selected properly.
Hoods are of many types - booth, canopy, side draft, cabinet, single or double lip and push
and pull type
Duct may be square or rectangular, with material to resist abrasive or corrosive action. Sharp
corners shall be avoided. Cleaning and trapping gates shall be provided. Generally, the conveying
velocity may be from 10 to 25 m/s depending upon the type of contaminant and balancing of equal
flow rate of air.
Types of air-cleaners, dust separators or collectors are settling chambers, cyclones, dry
dynamic precipitators, scrubbers, wet collectors, electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters and air
cleaners for gases and vapours. The fan selection depends upon air volume and static pressure
required. A guide for selection of collectors is given as Table-18 in Chapter-32.
Points to be considered while designing a hood are:
1. Enclose the operation as much as possible. Hood should be as near as possible to the source of
generation. Doubling the distance require approximately four times the air volume.
2. Hood should be so located as to keep the flow of contaminants away from the worker.
3. Hood should be so placed as to take advantage of initial velocity and direction of the throw of
the contaminant. For example, lighter Vapour, hot substances, gas tending to rise, should be
collected by hood overhead, while heavier particles or gas/ Vapour with Vapour density > I and
tending to settle, should be collected by placing hood down or at the side.
4. Hood should not interfere the movement of the operator and the job.
5. Portable power drills, grinders, saws etc. should have machine attached extractor and dust
collection chamber to be carried on back or on wheels to suck the particles flying at the point of
operation. Fixed machine-like carding machine also needs extract ventilation.
Minimum capture velocities are given in Table 10.3, for the capture of dusts, fumes, gases,
smokes, mists etc.
Table: Recommended Capture Velocities:
Minimum Capture Velocity in
Releasing Velocity Examples
fpm m/s
Low, into quiet air 50 to 100 0.25 – 0.5 Evaporation or fumes from
open vessels, degreasing,
pickling, plating.
Slight, into moderately 100 to 200 0.5 – 1.0 Spray booth, low speed
quiet air conveyor, cabinet, welding,
and dry dumping.
High, into rapid air 200 to 500 1.0 – 2.5 Spray painting in small booth
movement with high pressure, conveyor
loading, barrel filling, and
crushers.
Higher, into very rapid 500 to 2000 2.5 – 10 Grinding, blasting, rock,
air movement. surfacing, tumbling.

Note: Similar to Table 3, IS:3103

See part 10 for worked examples.
(3) Emergency Ventilation:It is a type of mechanical local exhaust ventilation where specialized
air ducts for delivering air may not be necessary. It is useful in gas-generating plants and
compressor-rooms where risk of sudden outburst of explosive or flammable gases or vapours
exists. At least 8 air changes per hour is necessary. Axial fans are selected for spark-free
operation. Automatic switches are required to operate the system at the time of emergency.
(4) Other Methods: Despite of above three types of ventilation system for contaminants control,
other methods of prevention are: Substitution, segregation, enclosures, natural and general
mechanical ventilation, wet methods, use of personal protective equipment and warning and
publicity. In substitution safe substitute should be found for a toxic material.
In segregation the hazardous process and persons are kept away by means of suitable partition or
increasing their distance. Enclosure prevents contaminant of surrounding by physical separation of
toxic material or process by enclosing them. Wet method uses water spray to prevent dust escape
into atmosphere. In Dust suppression method jet or spray is applied to cutting tool, chisel, grinder,
saw etc. to wet the surface for dust suppression. Dust prevention includes both, wet method and
dust suppression method. Using paste instead of powder, dipping in water, oil or other suspension
are useful for gases, dusts and clothing. Proper personal protective equipment should be utilized as
the last control against contaminants.
Air conditioning processes are as under:

1. Cooling only (without humidification or dehumidification).

2. Cooling and dehumidification.
3. Cooling with humidification
4. Cooling and/or Heating,
5. Finned cooling coils with direct expansion.
6. Desert coolers.

The desert cooler or air cooler works on the principle of evaporative cooling. A fan sucks outside
air through a wetted pad which is kept continuously wetted by circulating water through it
(independent circuit). The air passes through the wetted pad, gets cooled and humidified and
discharged into the room where it picks up sensible heat and maintains fairly comfortable
condition. The heated air escapes from the room openings i.e. the same air is not taken back in
ducting. As a fresh air it may come back through the wetted pad.
Thus, the purpose of air conditioning is to provide the most comfortable ventilation and better heat
control at home and also at some specified industries (e.g. electronic, computer/telephone, watch,
and pharmaceutical industry).
The hazards associated with industrial air conditioning plants (e.g. chilling plants, cold storage,
central AC for theatre, auditorium, dairy etc.) are:
1. Leakage of refrigerant. Ammonia leak has toxic effect and compounds of chloro-fluoro-
methane have ozone depletion effect (environmental hazard). Ammonia leak
is detected by smell or SO, torch (gives white smoke) and leakage of other
gases by Halide torch or electronic gas detector.
Common refrigerants are R-717 or Ammonia (NH3), R-11 (CCl3F), R-12
(CC12F2), R-22 (CHCIF2) and R-502 (CHCIF2, + CC1F2CF3)
(Commercial name & formulae)
2. Pressure of compressed gas in cylinder, condenser and pipelines.
Appropriate safety valve or pressure controller, pressure gauge, isolation
valve, drain, etc. are required. Periodical pressure testing (normal and
hydraulic) is also necessary.
Control of Heat Stress: Heat stress should be measured to find appropriate
control measure. Heat stress monitors with or without air probe are available and they are useful
for area heat stress monitoring. Personal heat stress monitor with sensor is
available for personal heat stress monitoring.
How to control atmospheric conditions so that varying effects on
workers can be reduced to a minimum is a good task for safety engineers.
The remedies varying from plant to plant should be determined from the
specific study of the plant (including workers) itself. Ventilating system
which moves and filters the air and which controls the temperature and
humidity is a good control. Various engineering, administrative, statutory
and personal protective controls can be applied to minimize heat stresses.
Methods of engineering control and personnel management are given
below:
Methods of Engineering Controls: Then to control the effects of
parameters M, C, R & E following control measures are necessary:
To reduce heat of metabolism i.e. gain by M - Reduce level of physical activity by sharing work
load with others or by using mechanical means. Schedule cooler periods for work. Increase rest
periods.
To reduce high air temperature i.e. gain by C -
Insulate hot equipment. Provide
ovide canopies with fans
over hot equipment to drive away hot air. Improve
general and localized ventilation over personnel.
Provide exhaust ventilation, local cooling,
evaporative cooling, refrigeration, isolation,
substitution, relocation and redesign as per need.
Use ventilated suits against excessive heat.
To reduce radiation temperature, i.e. gain by R -
Insulate hot 'equipment. Use reflective or absorptive
shielding between the heat source and man. Paint
the surface of hot equipment or shield or cloth
clothee it by using white colour for short wave of solar
radiation and aluminum colour for infra-red radiation. Wear protective clothing of reflective
surface of polished metal or paint or ventilated suits. Interpose line of sight barrier. Cover exposed
parts of the body. Use fans to move air and exhaust ventilation.
To reduce high humidity (restriction on loss by E) - Prevent steam leaks. Improve general
ventilation. Apply dehumidification in confined spaces. Use ventilated suits for high humidity.
Decrease humiditydity and increase air speed.
2. Methods of Personnel Management (Administrative efforts):
a) Provide ample supplies of cool water or flavored drinks.
b) Provide extra salt where required.
c) Ensure lightweight, loose fitting clothing. In conditions with no radiaradiant heat load, use as
little clothing as possible. With high radiant heat loads, clothing should cover skin; where
possible, clothing should be of cotton and white.
d) Ensure quickest development of acclimatization. Lack of salt, lack of water or poor
physicall condition retards acclimatization.
e) Where possible do not employ men in hot conditions if they are: obese, suffering from any
cardiovascular disease, suffering from or recovering from febrile illness, over 45 years of.
age, physically unfit and suffering from any skin disease or if they fail to sweat properly.
f) Where possible, arrange for men who are to work in hot surroundings to spend their first
two weeks working in cool surroundings in the morning and in the heat in the afternoon.
(This - will help acclimatization)
limatization)
g) Analyze Working situations for estimation of heat load through various channels. Apply
physical methods to control hazard; if necessary amplify by control of work and rest
routine.
h) 8. Rest periods should be taken in cool surroundings
surroundings.. Men may effectively 'cool off
even when they continue to work in cool conditions.
i) In extreme conditions man may: wear ventilated suits, be pre pre-cooled
cooled by immersion in cool
water and be cooled down by spraying them with cool water.
j) Train in first-aid for heat strain symptoms.
k) 11. Pre-employment
employment and periodic medical examinations for proper placement of
individuals considering their age, sex and physical fitness and
l) 12. Observation of individual physiological responses to heat and to change their jjob or
place if necessary.
3. Acclimatization: is an important factor for a worker to work for a long period in hot
environment. Acclimatization means the habit by which a person adapts himself to living and
working in a hot and humid atmosphere. It is mani manifested
fested as a reduction in the heart rate and
internal body temperature at the expense of increased sweating.
The factors affecting physiology of acclimatization are (1) Process of thermal regulation (2)
Cardiac output and heart rate (3) Sweating.
 Sweating starts when the skin temperature exceeds 33 °C. There are some 25 lacs sweat
glands in a body of 70 kg man. During the period of acclimatization, the sweating rate may rise
from 1.5 lit/ h to 3.5 lit/h. The maintenance of a body temperature 37 °C is achieved by constant
adjustment of the process of thermo genesis and thermolysis. An acclimatized person should not
lose more than I lit/h and the rectal temperature should not exceed 38 °C.
The following factors help acclimatization to high temperatures:
1. Persons having less than 50 kg body weight, more than 45 years of age and maximum oxygen
consumption less than 2.5 lit/min should not be selected. Females get difficult to acclimatize.
2. Liquids should be taken in small quantities and often from the start of exposure to high
temperatures.
3. The intake of fatty foodstuffs should be reduced.
4. Small doses of vitamins B and C are supplementary.
5. Work breaks during shift should be increased. During rest cold drinks reduce stress.
6. Heat resisting barriers which include insulation over the heat source, polished reluctant
shields, absorbent shields (being cooled by air or water) and personal protective equipment (e.g.
water jacketed clothing).
(1) Dilution or Cross Ventilation: Inlet openings should be located on the windward side at a low
level and outlet openings should be located on the leeward side near to the top so that incoming air
stream is passed over the occupants. Greatest flow per unit area opening is obtained by using inlet
and outlet openings of nearly equal areas. Under the Factories Rules ventilation opening area in a
work room shall be at least 15% of the floor area. At least 10% of the floor area shall be located at
not more than one-meter sill level height from the floor level. Wind velocity in hot weaver should
be 40 to 60 mt/min. Ventilation due to wind outside is given by the formula Q = kAV given in
Part-9.
Inlet openings should not be obstructed by surrounding buildings, walls, partitions, trees and
other obstructions in air path. Great advantage is available by providing windows in west and east
direction. However, if wind direction is not effectively available, openings in all four sides can
help the natural ventilation.

Fig. 10.9 With flat roof, cross ventilation is effective when span is less than 20 meters.
When the room temperature is higher than that of outside because of hot processes, season etc.,
cool outside air tends to enter through openings at low level and warm air tends to leave through
openings at high level. Therefore, it would be advantageous to provide ventilators near to the
ceilings.
(2) Roofed Ventilation: Cross ventilation suitable for narrow building is not much suitable for
large buildings and where roofed ventilation is suitable. Here ventilators are provided in roofs viz.
cowl, vent pipe, covered roof and ridge vent to give stack effect.
(2) Local Exhaust or Extract Ventilation: It is applied at the release points of contaminants
(dust, gas, fumes, particles etc.) to reduce their concentration in the workroom below TLVs. Su (;
h points shall be enclosed except where access is necessary for the process, but in that case, the
exhaust appliance shall confine the contaminants as much as possible.
The volume of air required is calculated from the area of openings and the capture velocity
sufficient to prevent outward escapement. The sizes of the ducts shall be calculated from the
volume of air required and duct velocities necessary to convey the contaminants with minimum
static resistance.
Capture velocities may vary from 0.25 to 10 m/ s proportionately increasing with the contaminants
velocity as given in Table-10.3. The test report for dust/ fume extraction system shall be in form
No. 26A under the Gujarat Factories Rules.
Where the emissions of heat or contaminants are high, dilution ventilation is not fully effective
and the well-designed exhaust ventilation becomes necessary.''
Exhausted air may be re-circulated after cleaning and filtering to increase the rate of mechanical
ventilation.
Hood, duct, air cleaning device, filter or collector (to separate contaminant from the air
before discharging it into atmosphere) and fan and motor (for air flow) shall be designed or
selected properly.
Hoods are of many types - booth, canopy, side draft, cabinet, single or double lip and push and
pull type. Duct may be square or rectangular, with material to resist abrasive or corrosive action.
Sharp corners shall be avoided. Cleaning and trapping gates shall be provided. Generally, the
conveying velocity may be from 10 to 25 m/s depending upon the type of contaminant and
balancing of equal flow rate of air.
Types of air-cleaners, dust separators or collectors are settling chambers, cyclones, dry dynamic
precipitators, scrubbers, wet collectors, electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters and air cleaners for
gases and vapours. The fan selection depends upon air volume and static pressure required.

Points to be considered while designing a hood are:

1. Enclose the operation as much as possible. Hood should be as near as possible to the source of
generation. Doubling the distance require approximately four times the air volume.
2. Hood should be so located as to keep the flow of contaminants away from the worker.
3. Hood should be so placed as to take advantage of initial velocity and direction of the throw of
the contaminant. For example, lighter Vapour, hot substances, gas tending to rise, should be
collected by hood overhead, while heavier particles or gas/ Vapour with Vapour density > I and
tending to settle, should be collected by placing hood down or at the side.
4. Hood should not interfere the movement of the operator and the job.
5. Portable power drills, grinders, saws etc. should have machine attached extractor and dust
collection chamber to be carried on back or on wheels to suck the particles flying at the point of
operation. Fixed machine-like carding machine also needs extract ventilation.
Minimum capture velocities are given in Table 10.3, for the capture of dusts, fumes, gases,
smokes, mists etc.
Noise and Vibration
Types of Sound / Noise:Sound or Noise is continuous when the source is constantly vibrating,
e.g. motorized bell. It may be impulsive when the source causes vibration only for a short time e.g.
sound from a drop forge hammer, explosion or a rifle shot.
Third category of sound is classified as fluctuating sound. In a large workshop where numbers
of machines are in operation, noise level varies from time to time. As a result, the noise pattern
produced throughout the day is plotted. Then equivalent continuous level should be measured as a
mean of fluctuating level.
The effect/hazard of noise on man: The harmful effects of noise depend upon a number of
factors:
1. Noise frequency and intensity.
2. Total length of exposure.
3. Length of exposure at a time.
4. Distance from the noise source.
5. Whether noise is continuous, interrupted, sudden or impulsive.
6 Whether ear protector is worn or not and
7. Individual susceptibility depending on age, health (ear disease)
Harmful Effect due to Excessive noise: -
1. Mental stress: Excessive noise produces physiological (Sleep disturbance (WHO report, even
at less than 35 dBA) and stress reaction (e.g. jet aircraft personnel exposed to 120 dBA or more)
have been noticed. Psychological effects on industrial workers, such as, mental fatigue, irritation,
annoyance (people are annoyed by noise- unexpected impulsive -noise can be more annoying.
High frequencies are more annoying than low frequencies. Distraction (The sudden ringing of a
telephone or any audio signal can distract attention and disturbs concentration), nervousness
masking (hearing interference). Continuous noise may have subtle psychological and psychomotor
effects.
2. Physical stress: Nausea, tiredness, vascular neuropathy, myopathy etc.
A very loud impulsive noise can cause ringing in the ears (tinnitus) and immediate loss of hearing
sensitivity. It can disappear if there is no further exposure to high noise levels. The impulsive or
impact level should not exceed a ceiling limit of 140 dB (OSHA).
It is also reported that noise above 115 dB (i.e. ceiling level) as 8-hour TWA and 155 dB as peak
exposure (impulsive or impact noise) to the abdomen of pregnant workers, beyond the fifth month
of pregnancy may cause hearing loss in the fetus. (Arbhak-Infant)
3. Certain illness: change in blood pressure or/and respiration or digestive system, dilatation of
pupils and headache
4. i) Hearing Loss: Hearing ability can be greatly reduced by repeated or long exposure to
high noise and this permanent effect is known as noise induced hearing loss. (temporary result
from ageing, long-term exposure to high noise which is more than 90 dBA) It is impairment in ear
that obstructs receipt of sound and understanding of speech in a sentence form (not in the form of
test words). It is deafness. It is irreversible and incurable disease and can be corrected partly by
hearing aids. Early audiometric examination can prevent further damage. Some of the men tested,
even at 30 years young, found it difficult to understand speech after about 10 years of exposure.
Men showed greater hearing loss than women because the women had regular work breaks during
each shift while the men did not. Generally hearing losses in this frequency range which are
compensable under Workmen's Compensation Laws.
ii) Deafness: Permanent hearing loss including physical damage to ear due to ruptured
eardrums by very high intensity noise which is more than 160 dBA).).
5. Accidents: Not hearing horn blown can cause accident to deaf person
6. Labor productivity: There is a Noise induced Behavioral Effects. Impulsive noise disrupts
work performance.
Hearing Loss: Temporary hearing loss can be caused by exposure to loud noise for up to a few
hours, which numbs the hair cells. Fortunately, hearing is usually restored after a period away
from noise. Permanent hearing loss occurs when exposure to loud noise permanently damages or
destroys the hair cells. Hearing cannot be restored. Signs of permanent hearing loss include -
1. Inability to hear pitched or soft sounds.
2. Trouble in understanding conversation, or speech heard over the telephone.
3. Ringing or roaring m the ears (tinnitus).
Sensor neural hearing loss is mostly irreversible. It involves the organ of corgi and
degeneration of the natural elements of the auditory nerve. It indicates sever injury to the hair
cells. This type of loss occurs due to various causes including presbycusis, viruses (e.g. mumps),
some congenital defects and drug toxicity (e.g. streptomycin).
Mixed hearing loss occurs when above both the types of losses are found in the same ear.
Central hearing loss means person's difficulty to interpret when he hears. The abnormality is
localized in the brain between the auditory nuclei and the cortex. Psychogenic hearing loss
indicates nonorganic basis for threshold elevation. It may be due to malingering and hysteria.
No cure exists for hearing loss caused by noise. Hearing aids do not restore noise damaged
hearing, although they help some people if such aids are properly selected. Exposure to intense
noise creates a temporary threshold shift (TSS) first. This is greatest from 1 to 24 hours after the
exposure and reduces gradually if the noise has not been too loud. or has not been too long. This
condition is also known as auditory fatigue. This effect is transitory i.e. removable. It is of two
types TTS, and TTS,the later persists beyond 16 hours.
While deciding whether a certain noise is a hazard, the important factors are both the sound level
and the number of hours of exposure per day. Table 12.4 and 12.5 given in Part 4 must be
followed for that.
Hearing loss is a notifiable Disease under the Factories Act 1948: Noise induced hearing loss
(exposure to high noise levels) is a notifiable disease under the Third Schedule of the Factories
Act and duty is cast upon both the manager of the factory and the medical practitioner attending
the person affected, to report to the Chief Inspector of Factories without delay (Sections 89 & 90).
MEASUREMENT AND EVALUATION:
Sources of Industrial Noise: Before studying methods of measurement, it is necessary to know
the main sources of industrial noise. They are:
1. Impact: Impact noise is usually impulsive but it can be continuous as in case of
tumbling. Operations like forging, riveting, chipping, pressing, cutting, weaving,
tumbling and sheared steel plates falling one over another produce such noise.
2. Friction: Friction processes like grinding, sawing, sanding, cutting and turning on
lathes and other machine tools, brakes and less lubricated bearings produce noise.
3. Reciprocation: Vibrating, reciprocating or unbalanced rotating machinery radiate
noise and vibration directly.
4. Air Turbulence: High velocity air, steam or gases cause noise. The intensity increases
with the velocity of the air stream. Examples are exhaust noise from pneumatic tools
and jet engines.
5. Other Noises: In addition, there are other noises also, such as humming noise from
transformers
Need of Measurement:
Measurement of sound provides definite quantities which describe and rate sound. This
measurement can be useful in
1. Improving building acoustics.
2. Permitting precise, scientific analysis of annoying (Irritating) sounds, and
3. To Identify damage to hearing and suggesting corrective measures to be taken. Hearing
loss can be determined by measuring a person's hearing sensitivity by audiometry.
Methods of Measurement: (IS: 3483 describes following points :)

Intensity levels are measured by a sound level meter.

Process: The noises are picked up by a high-quality microphone, passed through an octave-band
filter and the sound pressure levels recorded on a level recorder. Alternatively, noises recorded on
a magnetic tape. It is also sometimes displayed on oscilloscope screen.
As the noise levels are not the same at all locations inside the factory or workshop, the levels are
measured mostly at locations enveloped by high integrity noises. Also, while determining damage
risk, it is necessary to measure the noise levels as close to the operator's ear position as possible.
The methods depend on the objective to be attained is to assess -
1. The hearing loss (auditory effect).
2. The interference with communication essentials for safety and productivity (Non-auditory
effect), and
3. The hazard involves in the task (to study a specific problem).
Results obtained from sound level meter should be compared with threshold
limits of National or International standards. 85 dBA is an alert threshold limit
and 90 dBA a hazard threshold limit. Ear protector is must to work in exposure
exceeding 115 dBA.
For measuring ……….
Continuous noise, the equivalent continuous sound level should be determined in
dBA and frequencies be analyzed as per standard methods.
Impulsive noise is measured either by using sound level meter in 'impulse'
Position a calculating mean value of 8 hour per day,
Risk areas (1) Where noise hazard is liable to be present (2) Supervision,
inspection or medical examination suggest that there may be a noise hazard and
(3) Workers complain such inconvenience to them.
Where speech communication at normal voice is interfered at a distance of 50
cm, noise level should be assessed.
The noise levels should be measured at a height of @ 1.5m above the work floor
and at distance of at least 1 mtr. from the walls. It is advisable to establish the
mean value of the sound level recorded in different directions.
Noise level should be measured at the worker' head level in his normal work
posture or at a distance of I’m from either side of his head position.
A noise chart should be prepared of the area where the measured noise levels are equal to or in
excess of 80, 85, 90, 100 and 115 dBA. The Measurement Report:
A measurement report should contain at least the following information.
1. A sketch of the measurement site showing applicable dimensions (e.g. size of room
machine dimensions), the location of the microphone and object being measured.
2. Standard(s) to which measurements are made. (Ref. Std. for comparison)
3. Type and serial number of instrument (s) used.
4. Method of calibration.
5. Type of sound (e.g. impulsive, continuous etc.).
6. Background noise level. (Surrounding Ambient Noise)
7. Ent. Conditions (e.g. winter, summer or rainy season)
8. Data on object being measured (e.g. Location, Area, machine type,).
9. Date when measurements were performed.
Noise Dose Measurement: (Commonly used)

A noise dose is a measurement of noise or individuals who move between many different noise
environments during the working day and can be obtained by using a
noise dose meter.
Noise dose meter is a portable instrument which can be carried in a
person's pocket. The microphone can be operated from the noise dose
meter body and should be mounted close to individual's more exposed
ear.
Noise dose meters display the percentage of daily allowable noise dose.
They directly measure the noise continuously and at the same time read
out (display) noise does as a percentage of maximum allowable (100%)
over an exposure period of 8 hrs. Beside this it also indicates when
certain levels are exceeded i.e. 115 dB(A) maximum allowable and 140
dB(A) peak.
Wearable Noise monitor (Discretely varying Noise Levels):
Many employees are exposed to varying noise levels because the job
requires them to move around the department or plant.
Noise codes describe procedures for summing a series of partial doses
that such employees receive during their working period
In addition, OSHA and many other national standards impose an
overriding limit of 115 dB(A) "S" which should never be exceeded for
any length of time.
One method of determining the noise dose of mobile employees is
through the job-study interview. First/ a noise survey is conducted
throughout the factory to determine the noise level at each working
location. Then each employee is interviewed to determine what
locations he works at and for how long. This rapidly leads to the
determination of noise doses received by a large number of employees;
furthermore, periodic updates can be performed quickly. The job-study
interview method readily lends itself to computerized record keeping. It
is also a valuable aid for setting priorities in noise control schemes by identifying locations where
the noise doses are excessive. A record form may be of the following type:
Employee noise exposure record

Employee name _________________________________________________________

Date ______________________________ Signed _____________________________

Interview Computation iso

Work location % time Db (a) 8 hr. dose Partial dose *

A-5 60 85 30% 18%

A-8 5 95 315 16

B-21 10 88 60 6

D-13 25 91 125 31

100

Total dose 71%

Recommendations:

Within ISO limits

% Time

* Partial dose = x 8 hr. dose

100

Permissible Limits of Noise and Evaluation:

The evaluation and control of noise hazards include -
1. Setting objectives for a noise abatement programme.
2. Measurement of noise levels at workplaces and also with a moving man by measuring his
doses of exposure.
3. Comparing the measured values with the permissible exposure limits and assessing the
situation whether within limit or needs control measures (90 dBA under GFR).
4. Controlling exposure of excessive noise, and
5. Monitoring the hearing of exposed persons.
 First three steps are 'evaluation' and the last two steps call for engineering control
measures, audiometric and hearing conservation programmers.
As mentioned ACGIH booklet, TLVs for noise to prevent a hearing loss at higher
frequencies such as 3000 Hz and 4000 Hz are given in Table 12.3.
Table: TLV for Noise (ACGIH, 2007)

Duration per day Sound level dBA

(exposure time) (TLV)

24 Hours 80

16 Hours 82

8 Hours 85

4 Hours 8/8

2 Hours 91

1 Hours 94

30 Minutes 97

15 Minutes 100

7.5 Minutes 103

3.75 Minutes 106

1.88 Minutes 109

0.94 Minutes 112

28.12 Seconds 115

14.05 Seconds 118

7.03 Seconds 121

3.52 Seconds 124

1.76 Seconds 127

0.88 Seconds 130

0.44 Seconds 133

 0.22 Seconds 136

0.11 Seconds 139

In measuring above values, standard sound level meter or dosimeter is to be used arid
no exposure above 140 dB is permitted. The meter response should be kept slow. A dosimeter or
integrating sound level meter should be used for sounds above 120 db. Exposure is to be limited
by noise source and not by administrative control. Method and formula to calculate the combined
effect of two or more periods of noise exposures of different levels are also suggested.

The TLVs in Table 12.3 should be used as guide in the control of noise exposure and
due to individual susceptibility. They should not be regarded as fine lines between the safe and
dangerous limits. The TLV cannot protect all workers from the adverse effects of noise exposure.
It can protect the median of the workers against slowly growing hearing loss.
It must be noted that a hearing conservation programme with audiometric testing is
necessary when workers are exposed to noise at or above the TLV levels.
Hearing impairment should be evaluated in terms of a worker's ability or inability to
hear speech under daily conditions. To hear sentences and to repeat them correctly indicates good
hearing ability. Workers working in a noisy environment should be regularly checked for any
detrimental effect on their hearing.
The critical factors to analyze noise exposures are
1. A weighted sound level.
2. Frequency composition or spectrum of the noise.
3. Duration and distribution of noise exposure during a typical workday.
dBA as a function of number of occur exposures per day.
A variety of sound measuring instruments are 1 available such as sound level meters,
octave band! analyzers, narrow band analyzers, sound survey meters, tape and graphic level
recorders, impact sound level meters and equipment for calibrating these instruments. Of these,
the first two provide ample information.
Thus, by measuring high noise levels at work places and interrogating workers regarding
hearing difficulty if any and carrying out noise surveys, noise values are evaluated and their
effects are also determined by audiometric tests on workers. This suggests the necessary steps for
noise control. For assessment of measured values and control measures, statutory provisions and
IS are useful.
CONTROL METHODS
 First step is to measure the quantity and quality of noise by sound level meter, octave band
analyzer, sound dosimeter, audiometer or vibrometer. Control areas are the source, path and the
receiver. Control methods should be aimed at
1. Controlling noise at sources.
2. Precluding the propagation, amplification and reverberation of noise, (path)
3. Isolating the workers (receiver).
Based on this, the control methods for prevention and reduction of noise can be classified as
under:

Control at the Source:

Much noise can be eliminated by good engineering design. Wire mesh screens instead of
sheet metal panels reduce vibrating noisy surfaces. Lining of absorbent materials would also
reduce noise considerably. Machines can be mounted on rubber or other materials so that vibration
and noise will be reduced. Quitter machine with plastic or rubber parts, lubrication, tuning and
well maintenance give less noise.
Noise sources are of three types (1) Mechanical forces such as vibration of solid or liquid
surface (2) Aerodynamic forces such as turbulence in air or gaseous environment and (3)
Electrical forces such as electric arc or electric corona discharge.
Vibrations can be reduced by maintaining dynamic balance, diminishing the force causing
vibration, reducing rpm, increasing duration of work cycle.
 Response of vibrating elements can be reduced by increasing their damping power and
improving fastening.
Liquid/gas flow rate should be reduced. Acoustic insulation on pipes can reduce 10 to 20
dBA.
Other measures include conversion of reciprocating movements into rotational movements,
replacement of sudden stoppage by gradual braking, helical teeth instead of straight teeth on spur
gears, prevention of impact of falling materials, installation of damping elements at points of
contact between machine and plant elements, proper design of fan blades, proper tool and cutting
speed in conformity with the material, proper design of air lines, ventilation ducts, gas mains and
liquid pipes to prevent noise propagation, providing rubber tires on trucks, trolleys etc., reduction
in noise radiating surface area, machine guards of perforated sheet or wire mesh instead of plain
sheet, reducing transmission of mechanical vibrations, inserting rubber or felt pads between the
ends of the spring and the surfaces to which it is fastened, use of felt/cork as resilient mats or pads
under machine bases, using isolators between the machine' and its foundation, heavy machines
likely to cause impact noise should be rigidly mounted on massive concrete blocks having weights
many times greater than the weights of the supported machines, loose and flexible connections in
all pipes and conduits lending from vibrating machine, reduction in clamp sizes, use of sharp
cutting edges, wobble dies in forging, quitter dies, use of anti-vibrating mounts, mufflers for
exhaust pipes and use of asphalt or tar for vibration damping.
Noisy machine may be placed in an enclosure or behind a barrier. A close-filling acoustic
(insulated) box serves good purpose. The inside of the enclosure can be lined with sound
absorbing materials. Bounding walls of enclosures should have adequate transmission loss to
provide proper sound insulation (IS:1950).
Noise propagation can be controlled by installing machines on vibration-damping bases,
using ant vibration mountings and separate installation of noisy machines.
Substitution of Less Noisy Processes:
Examples are: Welding instead of riveting, mechanical forging instead of drop forging,
grinding instead of chipping, belt drives instead of gears etc.
Other substitution includes hydraulic riveting instead of pneumatic riveting, grinding or
flame gouging (20 dB) instead of chipping (120 dB), mechanical ejectors instead of air ejectors,
slow acting process instead of high speed, hot working of metal instead of cold working, presses
instead of hammers, rotating shears instead of square shears, belt drives for gears, pressing instead
of rolling or forging etc.
Segregation and Isolation:
 Noisy machines are removed to an area where few people work (segregation). Well
insulated partition and tightly closing doors may be installed surrounding the machines (isolation).
Other isolations include providing a soundproof booth for the operator, separate location of
noisy machines and processes from quiet ones -e.g. air compressor or diesel generator rooms
should be separate and away from library, training center, conference room, medical center etc.
Similarly, office space should be segregated from the production area.
Equally noisy areas should be located together and segregated from quiet areas by buffer
zones that prod
Reflected sounds from ceiling and walls can be reduced by hanging isolators made of
rubber, felt or cork.
Enclosure of Noise Source:
Noise producing operation can be enclosed or baffled in such a manner as to prevent
dissipation of the noise into the surrounding area. Sound proofing by barrier structures.
Enclosures and barriers (partial or full, insulated or uninsulated, soundproof etc.) can
curtail sound waves and reduce noise. More surface area of enclosure will reduce more noise.
A partial reduction of noise in certain directions can be obtained by one or more sided
walls of barrier. Barrier wall facing the noise source should be coated with acoustic absorption
material on that side to reduce noise appreciably. The barrier/enclosure opening should face a wall
covered with sound absorbing material. If the top of the enclosure is open, sound absorbing
material should be applied on the ceiling overhead.
Double wall with 10 cm intervening space is more effective than single partition of the
same height. Porous materials (e.g. porous concrete) can absorb more sound than rigid material.
Sound Absorption and Silencers:

High frequency sounds can be absorbed by applying sound absorbents to ceilings and
walls in die form of acoustical tiles, plasters and blankets of porous materials such as glass wool.
Acoustic baffles can be hung from the ceilings.
Reflection of sound waves from surfaces can be prevented by using absorbents which are
usually porous materials that convert incident sound energy to heat. The amount of absorption
depends on frequency and angle of incidence and can be expressed by the absorption coefficient
which is die ratio of the absorbed energy to the incident energy.
A variety of absorbent materials are available for an acoustic engineer in the form of
vegetable or asbestos fibers, glass or mineral wool and hard but porous plaster having less
susceptibility to physical damage, fire resistance, light reflection, aesthetic qualities etc.
 By sound absorbing walls, the operator near machine is not protected from noise, but the
other workers working behind the walls would be benefited, particularly, if there are
reverberations 'in the building.
Application of acoustical material on ceiling and side walls, can reduce 3 to 8 dB noise
level and bring down the general reverberate noise level to make the noise conditions less
confusing.
Functional Sound Absorbers may be clustered as near the machines as possible. These
units may be suspended and- distributed in any pattern to obtain lower noise levels within the
machine shop. They are pyramidal or rectangular in shape. They use fiber glass as packing
material. They have higher noise reduction coefficients than conventional acoustic materials
placed directly on ceilings and walls. Noise reduction (absorption) coefficients are given in Table
12.9.
Noise Absorption Coefficients

Type Coefficient for 250-2000 c/s

1 Flat area

Fiber glass thickness

2.5 cm 0.7

5 cm 0.93

2 Functional Sound Absorber

(a) Pyramidal Shape

Fiber glass

Thickness

2.5 cm 0.91

5 cm 1.39

(b) Rectangular shape

Fiber glass

Thickness

2.5 cm 0.6

5 cm 1.18
 Most of the construction materials (concrete, bricks, glass blocks etc.) absorb less than 2 %
of sound energy incident on their surfaces reflecting the rest 98% back to the room. Note that the
level of noise produced by a source located in the room is 5 to 15% higher in loudness than that
produced by the same source in open.
The application of sound absorbing materials with high coefficient of sound absorbency
for walls and ceilings permit the reflected noise to be diminished thereby reducing the total noise
level in workroom.

Another benefit from sound absorption is the possibility of easy aural checking on
operation of machinery because a direct sound from every apparatus or a machine tool installed in
the enclosure can be detected by the ear easily.
Ceilings and upper portion of walls 1.5 to 2.00 mtrs above floor levels should be lagged
(insulated) with sound absorbing material.
Best result can be achieved when at least 60% of total area of walls and ceilings are
insulated.
Mufflers or silencers are also one type of sound absorbers. The velocity .and pressure of
the air gets reduced when it is routed through devious paths in the muffler components.
The mufflers are of two types. In absorptive or dissipative type, a lining of absorptive
material is provided and is protected by a perforated metal cover. Reactive mufflers are similar to
electrical filters and give good reduction over a narrow range of frequencies by reflecting the
sound energy.

The absorptive silencer has better performance at higher frequencies whereas the reactive
type at low frequencies. Sound reduction or insertion loss increases with length, thicker splitters
and reduced air gap.
Sound proofing:
Soundproofing includes construction or barrier structures such as walls or partitions, to
safeguard the workers from external noise.
Sound proofing utilizes the principle of reflection of sound i.e. the greater part of sound
energy incident on a surface is reflected and only it's smallest part (l/ 1000 or less) penetrates
through it.
In fact, an ideal sound proof structure should not let noise into an enclosure it safeguards.
Heavier (massive) the barrier-structure, the more soundproof it is. The sound proofness of barrier
surface is determined by its acoustic in entrance. It is more sound proof to high frequency sound
waves than to sound waves of low frequencies. Therefore, the knowledge of the characteristics of
sound is very important in sound proofing. In sound proofing following factors are required to be
considered for obtaining desired results of sound proofing.

1. Intensity of sound.
2. Frequency of sound.
3. Co-efficient of absorbency of material used for sound barriers.
A higher co-efficient of sound absorbency is preferred to that of low coefficient in order to
get good noise attenuation.
Adequate care should be taken to ensure that all openings in the noise enclosure should be
properly sealed over entire area to prevent any leakage of unwanted sound through such openings.
Doors and windows should be properly fit to match the perimeter and window frames receiving
glass panels should be adequately shut. All such measures should be essential for efficient
isolation of room with noise producing processes.
Ear Protection:
Ear plugs, ear muffs and helmets can be used by the exposed person for attenuation of
noise to a safe level. Where noise levels are very high, better attenuation can be obtained by using
both ear plugs and ear muffs.
These devices are a preventive measure, Ear plugs or
defenders (Fig. 12.10) are the simplest, cheap and convenient
devices used to reduce the harmful effect of noise. They are
conical shaped plugs of various materials for insertion into the
ear to reduce perception of noise, particularly impulse noise.
They can be soft or rigid. Rigid plugs are made of rubber or
plastic materials while soft plugs are of cotton cloth or of very
fine glass cloth impregnated with oil or a waxy mastic. Plugs
do not prevent the wearer from wearing headpieces or goggles. However, during long use, ear
defenders may cause discomfort and irritation in the ear, particularly
at elevated temperatures. Application of multi-use ear defenders
requires special medical supervision.
Earmuffs (Fig. 12.11) are large pads of rubber or similar
material attached to a band or strap and worn about the head for
reducing the effect of noise on factory workers (during impact
riveting, straightening, chopping and the like operations). The device is light, convenient to wear
and effective against noise of high frequency which is exclusively harmful to the human ear
Head-niece or helmet is an effective device against the effect of noise levels exceeding 120
dB where the above protective devices are ineffective. High level of noise affects the skull causing
the bones to vibrate. Such vibration adversely affects the auricular nerves and the brain function.
Helmets provide adequate protection of the skull, particularly its paratenic region.
The efficiency of ear protectors is expressed by the degree of attenuation of the noise
penetrating into the external ear canal. Noise attenuation by ear protectors is limited by bone
conduction for high frequencies and by skin resistance to low ones. Earmuffs offer higher
attenuation than earplugs at the same frequency. Hearing protector's attenuation capacity is known
as Noise Reduction Rating (NRR) and must be printed on the package.
Hearing protective devices are classified in four groups:
1. Enclosures (entire head) e.g. helmet.
2. Aural inserts e.g. earplugs - formable, customable&remolded type.
3. Super aural protectors - A soft rubber like material is held and inserted in the
external ear canal. Band tension holds it inside (ear plugs).
4. Circus aural protectors e.g. earmuffs. Two cups are held by a spring-loaded
suspension assembly or headband.
Rotation of personnel:
Since the effects of noise on hearing depend partly on the length of exposure, the bad
effects may be reduced by removing the worker from the noisy environment wherever audiograms
indicate a hearing loss.
Their rotation of noisy job or worker or dividing the noise period among one or more
workers to reduce their exposure time is explained. Rotation of personnel or changing their work
place should be done by taking their union in confidence so as to avoid any labor problem. As this
is for the purpose of safety and health, normally they should co-operate.
Active Control (Antipas) System:
Sound waves are intervened and obstructed by similar powerful sound waves to nullify
their effect. Thus 'sound against sound' is the principle employed here. Reference microphone,
error sensor and active control unit are used. Reference microphone detects the sound coming
from source and supplies information to controller unit. This control unit with the aid of digital
signal processing system, calculates the drive signals. Loudspeakers use these drive signals to give
antiphase sound. Upper and bottom peaks of sound waves (cycles) are flattened. Bottom curves of
drive (control) sound waves are thrown on the top curves of the sound waves to be absorbed. This
modern system is useful to control noise from diesel engine, gas turbine, aero plane, submarine
and compressors.
Most of the practical aspects to control noise at source are given as under:
1. Substitution of non-percussion tools and processes for pressure ones e.g. use of hydraulic
drives instead of (Mechanical) cam or eccentric drives and straightening instead of forged
rolling (Avoid roller noise) etc.
2. Use of rotational, preferably uniform motion instead of reciprocating motions,
3. Use of vee-belt transmission instead of chain or gear transmission,
4. Use of lubricant baths for meshed gears and forced feed lubrication for articulated joints
to minimize wear and noise caused by friction.
5. Use of lining/elastic inserts in joints to avoid or minimize transfer of vibrations from one
part to another.
6. Use of rubber lining for insides of metal containers and crates to be used for material
handling.
7. Use of plastic and mute materials for metal or combination of metal parts with plastic.
8. Keeping fans and engines off when not in use.
9. Good regular maintenance by tightening loose guards and panels.
10. Oiling, greasing and replacement or adjustment of worn, lose or unbalanced parts of
machines.
11. Reduction of forces and speeds.
12. Use of vibration dampers.
13. Reduction in radiating area and overall size.
14. Use of flexible mountings and couplings.
15. Use of resilient flooring and sound absorptive material on walls and ceiling.
16. Reduction in pressure, turbulence and increase in the cross section of the streams.
17. Elimination of air and steam leaks.
18. Increase in the distance from the noise source.
Care at the planning stage is more useful. Vendors and suppliers should be asked to
provide information on the noise levels of currently available equipment. The inclusion of noise
specifications in purchase orders is useful to get quiet equipment. If purchasers will insist, the
designers will pay more attention on noise control.
Remote control of noisy equipment or its isolation in a separate room can control the
exposure.
 Administrative controls such as providing ear protection to workers, rotation of Jobs or
workers in order to reduce their exposure times, transferring workers from high noise location to
lower one for some period, scheduling of machine operating time so as to reduce the radiating
time and also the number of workers exposed to noise, transferring more susceptible workers to
less noisy area or dividing work at high noise level or extended period among two or more
workers, if it may not cause any personnel problems.
Implementation of the legal standards and purchase agreements is also essential to reduce
noise levels in all work places.
Despite of all efforts, periodical audiometric tests of workers working in high noise areas
must be carried out and their records maintained.

Industrial Lighting & Illumination

PURPOSE AND BENEFITS OF GOOD LIGHTING

Purpose and Advantages of Good lighting:

Purpose, need, advantages or benefits of good lighting are many. There are three groups of
working conditions: (1) Physical or environmental i.e. lighting, ventilation, noise, atmospheric
conditions etc. (2) Relating to time i.e. hours-of work, rest pauses etc. and (3) Relating to social
situation within which an individual works. The lighting influences all the three categories and is
an important working condition not only in factories but at all work places. Therefore, it should be
effective and not poor.
The purpose of light is most important, because without light the things have no appearance, no
colour, no shape and no perspective. Light and colour affect human efficiency, accident-possibility
and his general well-being, morale and fatigue. Medical research has proved that a sufficient
amount of light is needed for the healthy physiological functioning of human organism. Light
regulates various physiological functions within the body and poor light adversely affect the
health.
Benefits of good lighting are also direct and manifold, because, it affects our sight as well as the
object to be seen. It helps in two ways, by better seeing for work performance and better
environment. Better seeing condition causes better discrimination, concentration, alertness and
less fatigue. Better discrimination causes less spoilage and quick fault detection. Greater
concentration causes better work. Less fatigue allows greater output and greater production. Better
environment produces better morale, comfort, supervision and interest. All these factors cause
better ability to perceive objects and keep a clear view of all details, of better conservation of
energy and material, reduced labor turnover, better housekeeping, more production with less waste
of material, energy and labor, prevention of eye strain and accidents, increased accuracy,
efficiency, productivity, speed of seeing and reading and improvement in health and safety of
work-people. It is most useful to elderly people.

PURPOSE OF LIGHT

Lighting is primarily provided for people, not for the buildings or roadways or objects
illuminated. Peoples’ needs should determine what kind of lighting is provided. Meeting those
needs is important because a good visual environment is critical to health, productivity, comfort,
aesthetics, safety, communication and mood. Lighting designers have an opportunity and
responsibility to support and improve the quality of life for everyone.
Recently, lighting has become a subject of much greater interest than for many years. This is for
three reasons:
 The ageing of the population in many developed countries. As the human visual system
ages, its capabilities deteriorate. Lighting can be used to help older people to see well and
hence to live active lives for longer.
 The need to reduce carbon emissions to minimize climate change. Lighting is a major user
of electricity and the generation of electricity is a major source of carbon emissions. This
means that lighting is under pressure to do more with less.
 The recognition that exposure to light can have significant non-visual effects on human
health. The potential for exposure to light to cause tissue damage has been known for
many years, but now its influence on the human circadian system, which operates at a very
basic level of human physiology, is also appreciated. The Health & Performance section
includes a detailed conversation regarding the circadian system.
Taken together, these developments mean that the number of factors that should be considered
when determining if a lighting installation is fit for purpose has increased. However, one factor
that will almost always need to be considered is how well the lighting enables people to see. This
is the topic of this chapter
The Benefits of Good Lighting

Did you know that approximately 80% of all information reaches us through our visual link
withthe environment?
This fact sheet is aimed at business, but the information can be used in the home.
The quality of light affects people in many different ways. For example, office worker satisfaction
and productivity can be positively affected by well-designed illumination. Building owners and
managers have the potential to add value, reduce costs and enhance performance through the
application of good lighting. People are attracted to well-lit public facilities, shopping areas and
parks. Good lighting enhances the mood and desirability of these spaces, and it contributes greatly
to people's sense of wellbeing.
Even though each lighting situation is different the basic elements are to provide a safe,
comfortable and pleasant visual environment that is easy to maintain and is as efficient and cost-
effective as possible.
What is involved in good lighting design?
It is vital to consider the effect different lamps (or globes) and fittings will have on the area and
objects you are illuminating. Differences in colour temperature and colour rendering capabilities
can change the colour appearance of objects quite dramatically. A qualified lighting designer can
help you to decide the best application for your business? choose one with experience in the
specific lighting applications that relate to your business.
Then consider how objects, people and the interior space as a whole is lit. For example, where it is
important to achieve true colour rendition for clothing, cosmetics and other instances, low voltage
lamps are used with metal halide lamps. Metal halides are used for the punch and the low voltage
are used for the color rendition. Well-designed lighting helps:
direct customers to displays and products highlight areas of service ensure true colors in spaces
such as change rooms etc. show products and staff in their best light?
The rest of the interior is then considered for ambient lighting, color warmth, wall or floor surface
characteristics, objects and structural features.
Ceiling height, color of walls, surface texture, daylight, size of the space, and energy usage are
also considered.
It is important to provide a reasonable budget. Ineffective lighting results when the design
specifications are altered in the interests of cost savings.
Common mistakes: Poor lighting design may be immediately recognized or subtly felt over time,
usually resulting in visual fatigue. For example:
not having sufficient light on the task too great a contrast between the task and its background
(e.g. working on a drawing board using a local light while the rest of the room is in darkness)
glare due to luminaries, windows or other sources, seen either directly or by reflection (e.g. the
mirror effect of display windows or showroom glass means that customers can't see the products)
flicker from lamps.
Imitating lighting from other establishments, unless the purpose, installation, natural light etc. are
the same, may not give you the desired effect.
Lighting designers for critical and demanding projects, professional lighting designers should be
considered. Their in-depth knowledge of the equipment and marketplace, as well as the techniques
of theatrical and architectural lighting, allows them to offer the most appropriate and cost-effective
solutions.
BENEFITS OF GOOD LIGHTING
New studies show the quality of light affects people in many different ways. For example, office
worker satisfaction and productivity can be positively affected by well-designed illumination.
Building owners and managers have the potential to add value, reduce costs and enhance
performance through the application of good lighting. It's no secret that people are attracted to
well-lighted public facilities, commercial shopping districts and parks.
Good lighting enhances the mood and desirability of these spaces. It contributes greatly to people's
sense of well-being. Many of the current efforts to attract people to downtown areas after dark are
being spearheaded by IALD lighting designers.
Through cost-control techniques, IALD lighting designers help clients realize improved energy
efficiency and reduce lighting costs. The initial investment in a professional lighting designer is
offset by a reduction of construction and operating costs.
An IALD lighting designer will add value to any project, whether large or small, interior or
exterior, public or private.
For greater details, see the Why Use a Lighting Designer
Types of Light Sources:
It is interesting to note that electric lamps produce more heat than light as follows:
Type of Lamp Heat (%) Light (%)

Incandescent 97 3

Fluorescent 90 10

Sodium Vapor 80 20

Other types and lamp data are given in Table

Lamp Data: There are following types of Artificial Lamps

Type of Lamp Luminous Efficiency Bulb life Hours Colour Rendering

lumens / watt Index

Incandescent 12-22 1000 100

GLS or PAR 10-13

Tungsten-filament 13-18 10000 50-69

Tungsten- 20-27
2000 70-84
halogen (T-H) 14-22

Fluorescent 75-95 5000 55-75

Tube 50 85-95

White Tubes 62-66 5000 56

Triphosphoric 69-70 7500 85

3000
Mercury Vapour
Lamps High Pressure 55 5000 25
(HPMV) with

fluorescence
35-50 6000 45
MBI
63-72 7500 70-84

Sodium

Vapour 110-140 4000 20

Lamps

Low
 Pressure

(SOX)

High

Pressure 95 8000 45

Metal halide lamps 75-125 3000 to 20,000

Apart from above factors, the selection of light source also depends on -
1. Type of application.
2. Atmospheric conditions of industrial interiors and/or exteriors.
3. Surface features.
4. Initial outlay.
5. Running cost.
6. Ease of maintenance.

Types of lamps are:

Incandescent filament lamps including tungsten and halogen are simple, compact, versatile and
suitable where artificial lighting is occasionally required, space is restricted and a powerful
concentrated beam of light is required. Short life and low efficiency is their disadvantages.
Halogen lamps are mainly used for terrain lighting and as automobile head (driving) lights.
Fluorescent lamps or tubes are good for medium height ceilings and general uniform lighting
whereas for highways HPMV lamps or their combination with tungsten filament lamps are used.
Generally fluorescent tubes are preferred because of their higher efficiency, long life, low
brightness, minimum glare and shadows, colour rendering close to daylight, less heat and linear
form. They are mostly required for regular artificial light, good colour rendering effect and
increasing illumination level.
Mercury Vapour lamps, colour corrected, are more suitable and economical in a large,
lofty building (viz. steelworks) having high height and also for exterior lighting of storage areas,
clocks, roadways etc. If colour rendering is not important, ordinary uncorrected mercury lamps
may be used.
Sodium Vapour lamps are seldom suitable for interior lighting due to their poor colour
rendering properties. Low-pressure sodium lamps are used for terrain and road lighting and also in
high halls where colour rendering is not demanded. High pressure sodium lamps are also
developed to improve colour rendering.
 High-pressure sodium lamps have efficacies that range from 77 lumens per watt to 140
lumens per watt, depending on size. The colour rendition is a distinct orange. Warm-up time for
high-pressure sodium lamps is from 3 minutes to 4 minutes. Restrike time is less than I minute,
and instant restrike devices are offered for 50-watt to ISO-watt high-pressure sodium lamps.
Power factors range from 40 percent to 99 percent depending on the heavy type and the age of the
lamp. Lamp life is 24,000 hours.
Metal halide lamps are similar in construction to mercury Vapour lamps. The difference is
that metal halides are added to the mercury and argon in the arc tube. The efficacies are improved
to the range of 75 lumens per watt to 125 lumens per watt, excluding ballast loss. The colour
rendering is quite white and is usually superior to the phosphor-coated mercury Vapour lamp. The
warm-up time for metal halide lamps is 2 minutes to 4 minutes, and re-strike time varies from 5
minutes to 15 minutes, depending on the type. Power factors in the range of 90 percent can be
obtained. Lamp life varies from 3000 hours to 20,000 hours. Metal halide lamps have more rapid
lumen depreciation than do mercury Vapour lamps and have high surface operating temperature
which must be. considered before application in classified locations. The lamp life and lumen
output are affected by burning position.
Compared with incandescent lamps, mercury Vapour lamps offer the advantages of longer
average life and higher lumen output; however, with the advent of metal halide and high-pressure
sodium lamps, the mercury Vapour lamp is considered by many to be obsolete, except in existing
plants. having similar lamps. The mercury Vapour lamp is considered obsolete because of its rapid
lumen depreciation and low lumens-per-watt characteristics.
Mercury Vapour, or mercury-halide lamps, tubular fluorescent and sodium Vapour lamps are
generally called 'electric discharge lamps' as electric current is passed through certain gases to
produce emission of light.
From above types the mercury Vapour lamps take up to 6 minutes and sodium Vapour lamps take
up to 20 minutes to reach their maximum output, the actual time will be determined by the wattage
of the lamps. In the event of a power failure, restoration of power will immediately start
machinery, while discharge lamps would take 'warming time' to relight. This time gap may cause
accident due to insufficient lighting. To avoid such situation emergency lighting is a must which
will glow during power absence.

General Principles of Good Lighting:

General Principles or requirements of good lighting are as follows:
 1. Adequate illumination.
2. Avoidance of glare.
3. Avoidance of shadow.
4. Uniform lighting.
5. Appropriate contrast.
6. Appropriate colour contrast.
7. Colour effect and
8. Avoidance of flicker and stroboscopic effect.

These are briefly explained below:

Adequate Illumination:
Adequate, rational or good illumination needs sufficient quantity of illumination necessary
for avoiding discomfort to the worker and undue strain on eyes-
The quantity or intensity of illumination is given by luminous flux, luminous intensity,
illuminance, luminance and reflection factor as explained in the foregoing part 3.1. Its
requirement varies from place to place, person to person and with the age of person also.
Therefore, by experiments, standards of illumination are recommended for a variety of places
and jobs to have sufficient quantity of light for better work performance. Such statutory
standards and Indian standards are separately given in part 4 of this Chapter.
Visual acuity (sharpness of vision) increases with light intensity and is about equal to
daylight acuity as 1000 lux is approached. However, this degree of acuity is seldom required
and it is apparent that the desired amount of lighting will vary with the amount of detail
required in the work. For example, for very fine work like distinguishing black thread on
black cloth, intensity of 2000 lux is required but for exit road, car parking, storage area 20 lux
is required.
Although individuals differ in amount of light they find most desirable, 65% of the subjects
of one study judged intensity between 10 to 30 foot-candles or 100 to 300 lux, the most
comfortable for reading.
The quality of illumination depends on three factors - diffusion, distribution and
colour value. Regardless of the quantity of illumination, its effects may be impaired because
of the unevenness, the glare or the faulty direction of the light.
Diffusion is the breaking up of a beam of light and the spreading of its rays in many
directions by a surface. It is the process of reflection of -light by a reflecting surface or of
transmission of light through a translucent material.
Thus, adequate illumination requires sufficient quantity and good
quality of light necessary for the work.
Glare:
Glare is the condition in which brightness or the contrast of
brightness interferes with vision. Glare is produced by excessive light
stimuli i.e. excessive luminance in the field of vision which disturbs
the adaptation process of retina. Sometimes glare impairs the visual
function, of the eye and reduces visual performance.
Glare causes discomfort, annoyance, eye fatigue and impairment of or interference with
vision. It is produced by excessive light stimuli i.e. too much light which affects the
adaptation process of the retina. It can be considered at three levels. (types)- (1) Direct or
disability glare (2) Discomfort glare and (3) Indirect or reflected glare.
Direct or disability glare comes directly from the light source to the eye and impairs the
ability to see clearly (e.g. dash on upward headlight of a car). This is due to excessive light
focused on the eye and scattering of light inside the eye. It depends for its effects upon the
position of the light source in the field of view and on the contrast in brightness between the
light source and its background. It can be avoided by:
1. Provide diffuser over the lamp or reflector (screen) with
minimum reflecting angle 20° below the horizontal, (dipper)
2. Reducing the brightness of the light source (e.g. by
enclosing the lamp in bowl reflector).
3. Reducing the area of high brightness (e.g. by installing
louvers below the light source).
4. Increasing the angle between the' source of glare and the
line of vision i.e. by increasing the mounting height.
5. Decreasing the source of glare so as to lessen the contrast.
Discomfort glare is due to liberal (less) or bright (more) light. It
causes visual discomfort without necessarily impairing the ability to see and may occur from
unscreened windows in bright sunlight or when over-bright or unshaded lamps in the
workroom are too strong in brightness for the workroom environment.
Reflected glare is glare that comes to the eyes as glint (flash) or reflection of the light source
from some polished or shining surface. It is caused by a mirror image of the bright light
sources reflected from shiny or wet workplaces such as glass or plated metal. These
reflections distract or distort attention, make important detail difficult to see and reduce
contrast or cause acute discomfort. It can be avoided by:
1. Changing the shining finish by matt finish.
2. Changing the task position or its surrounding.
3. Using light source of low brightness or providing lamp shade.
4. Arranging the geometry of the installation so that there is no glint at the particular
viewing direction, e.g. increasing the source height.
5. Providing supplementary lighting.
6. Painting walls and ceiling with light colour so that surrounding becomes bright.
Increasing brightness to reduce relative brightness of the glare.
Rule 32 of the Gujarat Factories Rules prescribes, for
the purpose of prevention of glare, that where any lighting
source is less than 5 mt above floor level, no part of that light
having brightness greater than 5 lamberts (1.5-foot candles=16
lux) shall be visible to persons normally working within 30 mt
from that source, except where the angle of elevation from the
eye to that source exceeds 20°. It is also suggested that local
light (lamp on the job) shall be provided with opaque shade or
effective screen to prevent glare in the eyes of workers working
nearby.
Values of limiting glare index along with average illumination
lux value are given in IS:6665 and Appendix D, Part 4 of National Electric Code.
Shadow:
Shadow affects the amount of illumination and is caused not by poor lighting but - by
fixing light sources too wide apart or in wrong positions so that light is obstructed by some
object. Light (faint) shadow may be allowed but dark (dense) shadow that conceals hazard or
indicates wrong thing is not desirable, as it may cause accident.
Shadow on staircase, near door for entry or exit, near tool rack or on the work (job) table is
not at all desirable and must be removed by providing extra or local light or shifting the light
source or the object causing shadow.
Harsh shadows should be avoided, but some shadow effect may be desirable from the general
lighting system to make more noticeable the depth and form o~ object. There are few specific
visual tasks where clearly defined shadows improve visibility and such effects should be
provided by supplementary lighting equipment arranged for the particular task.
Uniform Lighting:
The human eye can clearly perceive differences in luminance of over 50%. It takes time to
adopt sudden variation in the intensity of lighting, particularly from higher to lower intensity.
Uniform distribution of lighting is desirable. Distribution of light requires two problems to
solve (1) uniformity of
illimitations and (2) elimination of shadows.
In uniform lighting, the distribution of light with a maximum and minimum illumination at
any point should not be more than one-sixth above or below the average level in the area.
Indirect lighting is the best method for producing uniform illimitations. Here all the usable
light is reflected light, high points of light from the bulb striking the eye directly are out of
the visual field. The disadvantage of indirect light is its cost, since considerable light is lost
through absorption. However, its benefit is more worth than its extra cost.
Contrast:
The ability to see detail depends upon the contrast between the detail and its
background. The greater the contrast, difference in luminance, the more readily the seeing
task is performed. The eyes function most comfortably and efficiently when the luminance
within the remainder of the environment is relatively uniform. Therefore, all luminance in the
field of view should be carefully controlled. 15:3646 (Part I & II) provide details for this.
Reflectance should be maintained as near as practical to recommended values (For ceiling 80
to 90%, for walls 40 to 60%, for desks and bench tops, machine and equipment 25 to 45%
and for floors not less than 20%). High reflectance surfaces are desirable to provide the
recommended luminance relationship and high utilization of light. They improve the
appearance of the work place. It is also desirable that the background should be slightly
darker or paler than the seeing task. Too much contrast is not desirable.
The contrast recognizes the object easily and increases visual performance. If the
difference between the object (job or seeing task) and its background is not noticeable, it is
difficult to work. A black machine in black background (darkness) is difficult to notice. There
should be a minimum contrast between the visual target detail and its background.
The differences in luminance of visual task, its immediate background and
environment should not exceed certain maximum values i.e. a relationship of 10: 3:1 for
normal tasks and 10:5: I and 10:10: I for precision work.
3.2.6 Colour Contrast:
Eye sees an object by the light it reflects and distinguishes its details mainly by colour
contrast. Thus, in addition to luminance contrast, colour contrast may be influenced by the
choice of the colour of light. The choice of the correct colour of light depends on the task to
be performed and the requirements to be met by vision. It may be noted that there must not
only be adequate illumination to see an object clearly, but also the object must be visible in
its surroundings. It must have moderate colour contrast. The colour approximating to white
will give better colour rendering and light yield. The colour approximating to red will give
low Quality colour rendering but the light will create an emotional atmosphere.
A well painted machine inspires a feeling of personal pride and proper maintenance is
encouraged.
Colour Effect:
It refers to the appearance of colored objects when illuminated by a particular light source. It
is the property of light which facilitates the perception of surface colors and depends on the
spectral composition of the light. For example, red surface will appear red only, if the light
falling on it contains red, but it will appear brown under the yellow of sodium street lighting.
The maximum value of the index is 100 and at this value there is no shift, i.e. the colour
rendering is perfect. For example, an incandescent tungsten filament lamp has a colour
rendering index of 100, fluorescent tubes between 55 to 95, mercury Vapour lamps
approximately 45 and low-pressure sodium Vapour lamps less than 25. Where colour
discrimination and colour matching are a part of the work process, the light source selected
should have the desired colour rendering properties.
Flicker and Stroboscopic Effect:
All lamps working on alternating current give light which pulsates at twice the supply
frequency. This type of discontinuous light of almost all frequencies can produce (fleshing
rapidly to show moving object stationary) effect, in which a rotating or reciprocating object
can appear to be stationary, or moving slowly, or even appear to be rotating in the opposite
direction etc. This false belief can cause accidents in the industrial situation. It is a real hazard
in the presence of moving machinery. High intensity discharge lamps and fluorescent tubes
have some 'flicker content in their light output at twice the mains frequency. The steps to
diminish the stroboscopic effect are:
1. Light the moving object with lamps fed from two different out of phase a.c. supplies,
or from two or three phases of a three-phase supply or lead lag luminaries.
2. Select a lamp with a low flicker characteristic, e.g. a fluorescent coated high-intensity
discharge tungsten filament (GLS) lamp or ordinary filament lamp.
3. Add a local GLS lamp to augment the general lighting.
4. Use GLS or tungsten halogen lamps fed from a direct current (d.c.) supply.
5. Use the common twin-tube circuit.
RECOMMENDED STANDARDS OF ILLUMINATION
It is not a simple matter to specify suitable intensity levels based upon sound
reasoning. As there is no fixed threshold level of illumination below which a visual task is
greatly impeded, some compromise has to be made between an ideal level and adequate level.
Generally, a recommended level is arrived at after careful consideration of eyesight, the
visual task, the environment and the economy involved. Any specification is therefore, opens
to controversy, the recommended level, however, serves chiefly as a guide to good practices.
Standard illumination benefits people with normal sight and helps to faulty vision. It can be
achieved through a combined usage of day lighting and artificial lighting and maintained by
proper cleaning and re-lamping etc.
Importance of illumination level:
Illumination, noise, temperature and other environmental conditions such as chemical
exposure and vibration play an important role in the ability of humans to interact effectively
with equipment or a system.
Lighting is an important element in the design of any system as improper lighting
levels may cause system elements to be seen incorrectly or not seen at all. Improper-
illumination level may result in the eye strain, muscle fatigue, headache or accidents.
The adequacy of lighting depends upon the type of lighting provided, its quality and
quantity, the age of the worker and visual requirements of the task or system.
Illuminance ranges
Circumstances may be significantly different for difficult interiors used for the same
application or different conditions for the same kind of activity. A range of illuminance is
recommended for each type of interior or activity. Each range consists of three successive
steps of the recommended scale of illuminance. Middle value of each range, represents the
recommended service illuminance that would be used unless one or more of the factors
mentioned below apply.
Higher value of the range should be used when:
1. Unusually low reflectance or contrasts are present in the task.
2. Errors are costly to rectify.
3. Visual work is critical.
4. Accuracy or higher productivity is of great importance.
5. The visual capacity of the worker makes it necessary.
The lower value of the range should be used when:
1. Reflectance or contrasts are unusually high.
2. Speed and accuracy are not important.
3. The task is executed only occasionally.
Depending upon importance of the work, illumination level must be according to the
standards mentioned below.
Statutory Provisions:
Section-17 of the Factories Act requires sufficient and suitable lighting, natural,
artificial or both and prevention of direct or reflected glare and shadows causing eye strain or
risk of accident. Rules 30 to 34 of the Gujarat Factories Rules prescribe further details.
General level of 30 meters candles (30 lux) or more at the horizontal level of 91.4 cm (3 feet)
above the floor is prescribed. Where the light source is above 7.6-meter height from the floor,
at least 10 meters candle minimum illumination should be available. It should be at least 30
meters-candles (30 lux) where the work is actually going on. Walkways require at least 5-
meter candles (5 lux) at floor level. Rule 32 describes details to prevent glare, (see Part 3.2.2)
Minimum illumination levels prescribed by Rule 35 of the Maharashtra Factories
Rules is given in Table Minimum Illumination Levels u/r 35 MFR
S. No. Area / Workroom Minimum Intensity
of Illumination in
Lux
 Stock-yards: main entrance and exit roads, cat-walks of
1 20
outdoor plants, coal unloading and storage areas.

Passage-ways, corridors and stairways, warehouses,

2 stock' rooms for large & bulky materials, platforms of 50
outdoor plants, basements.

Engine and boiler rooms, passengers and

freight elevators, conveyor crating & boxing
3 100
departments, storerooms for medium and fine materials,
locker rooms, toilet and wash-rooms.

Where discrimination of detail is not essential (e.g.

4 handling of material of coarse nature, rough sorting, 50
handling coal or ashes etc.)

Where slight discrimination of detail is essential [e.g.

production of semi-finished iron and steel products,
5 100
rough; assembling, opening, carding drawing, spinning
(ordinary) counts of cotton].

Where moderate discrimination of details is essential

(e.g. medium assembling, rough bench work and
machine work, inspection and testing of products,
6 200
canning, sawing, sewing of light colored textiles and
leather products, weaving light thread, warping,
spinning fine counts).

Where close discrimination of S detail is essential (e.g.

medium bench and machine work, fine testing, flour
7 grading, leather finishing, weaving cotton goods or 300
light-coloredwoolen goods, welding sub-assembly,
drilling, riveting, book-binding and folding ).

Where discrimination of fine detail is involved under a

fair degree of contrast for long periods of time (e.g. fine
8 assembling, fine bench and machine work, fine 500
inspection, fine polishing and beveling of glass, fine
wood working, weaving dark coloredwoolen goods).

Where discrimination of extremely fine detail is

involved under conditions of extremely poor contrast
9 for long periods of time. (e.g. extra fine assembling, 1000
extra fine inspection, jeweler and watch manufacturing,
grading and working of tobacco products, dark cloth
hand tailoring, final perching in dye works, make-up
 and proof-reading in printing plants).

Indian Lighting Standards:

SP 32 a Handbook on functional requirements of industrial buildings (lighting &
ventilation) may be referred.
Indian Standards on Lighting
S. Area / Workroom Minimum Intensity
No. of Illumination in
Lux

1 Industrial lighting 6665

2 Day lighting of factory buildings 6060

3 Day lighting of buildings 2440

4 Principles of good lighting and aspects of design (Part I) 3646

5 Schedule for values of illumination and glare index (Part II) 3646

6 Calculation of coefficient of utilization by the BZ method 3646

(Part III)

7 Electro technical vocabulary Part 16 1885

8 Flameproof electric lighting fittings 2206

9 Dust – proof electric lighting fittings 4012

10 Dust-tight electric lighting fittings 4013

11 Miners’ Cap-lamps 2596

Out of 63 types of industrial buildings and processes, only 15 are selected from Table-
2 of 15:6665 and given in Table 9.4 as a sample recommendation.

Table: Recommended Values of Illumination (IS: 6665)

S. Industrial buildings and processes Average Illumination
No. Lux

1 General Factory Areas:

a Canteens 150

b Cloakrooms, Entrances, Corridors & Stairs 100

2 Factory Outdoor Areas:

Stockyards, main entrances, exit roads, car parking, internal 20

factory roads

3 Assembly Shops:

a Rough, work, for example, frame assembly, assembly 150

of heavy machinery

b Medium work, forexample, machined-part, engine 300

assembly, vehicle body assembly

c Fine work, for example, radio and telephone 700

equipment, typewriter and office machinery
assembly.

d Very fine work, for example/assembly of very small 1500

precision mechanism, instruments

4 Boot and Shoe Factories:

A Sorting and grading, cutting table and presses 1000

stitching

B Clicking and closing, preparatory operations, 700

bottom stock preparation, lasting and bottoming,
finishing and shoe rooms

5 Canning and Preserving Factories:

a Inspection of beans, rice, barley etc. 450

b Preparation: kettle areas, mechanical cleaning, 300

dicing, trimming, high speed labelling lines

c Cam-led and bottled goods: Rotors. 200

d Can inspection 450

6 Chemical Works:

a Hand furnaces, boilingtanks, stationery dryers, 150

stationery crystallizers, dryers, filtration
unmechanical bleaching, percolators, or gravity
mechanical evaporators, plants, crystallizing,
extractors, nitrators, electrolytic cells.

b Controls, gauges, valves, etc. 100

 c Control rooms: Vertical control panels & Control 200 to 300
desks

7 Die Sinking:

a General 300

b Fine 1000

8 Engraving:

a Hand 1000

b Machine (see Die Sinking) -

9 Foundries

a Charging floors, tumbling, cleaning, pouring, shaking 150

out, rough molding and rough core making.

b Fine molding and making inspection. 300

10 Inspection Shops (Engineering):

a Rough work, for example, counting, rough checking 150

of stock parts etc.

b Medium work, for example, 'Go' and 'No-Go' 300

gauges, sub-assemblies.

c Fine work, for example, radio and telecommunication 700

equipment, calibratedscales, precision mechanisms,
instruments.

d Very fine work, for example, gauging and inspection 1500

of small intricate parts.

e Minute work for example, very small- instruments 3000

11 Iron and Steel Works:

a Marshalling and outdoor stockyards 10 to 20

b Stairs, gangways, basements, quarries, loading docks, 100

slab yards, melting shops, ingot stripping pits, blast
furnace working areas, picking and cleaning lines
mechanical plants, pump houses.

c Mould preparation, rolling and wise mills, mill motor 150

 rooms, power and blower houses.

d Slab inspection and conditioning, cold strip mills, 200

sheet and plate finishing, tinning, galvanizing,
machine and roll shops.

e Plate inspection 300

f Tinplate inspection Special Lighting

12 Laboratories and Test Rooms:

a General laboratories, balance rooms 300

b Electrical and instrument laboratories 450

13 Machine and Fitting Shops:

a Rough bench and machine work. 150

b Medium bench and machine work, ordinary 300

automatic machines, rough grinding, medium buffing
and polishing.

c Fine bench and machine work, fine automatic 700

machines, medium grinding, fine buffing and
polishing.

14 Paint shops and Spraying Booths:

a Dipping, firing, rough spraying. 150

b Rubbing, ordinary painting, spraying and finishing. 300

c Fine painting, spraying and finishing. 450

d Retouching and matching. 700

15 Sheet Metal Works:

a Benchwork, scribing, pressing, punching, shearing, 200

stamping, spinning, folding.

b Sheet inspection. Special Lighting

ILO Recommendation:
As given by ILO Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety, some
recommended illuminance is given in Table.
Table: ILO Recommendation
Class of Visual Recommended
Typical Examples
Task Illuminance (Lux)

1. Exceptionally Inspection of minute work, jeweler, watch-

2400 or more
difficult tasks making, hosiery, knitwear.

Extra-fine bench and machine work, tool & die

b. Very difficult making examining of dark goods, dye works - 1600
final perching.

Clothing trade-inspection, hand tailoring,

grading and matching dark leather, dye-works- 1200
colour matching.

Fine bench and machine work, extra fine

3. Difficult painting, spraying, matching, dye works- 800
reception, grey perching.

4. Normal range
Office work with poor contrast, drawing office,
of task and work- 600
fine painting, proof-reading, computer rooms.
places

Medium bench and machine work, typing,

5. Moderately
filing, reading, writing, wood working, steel 400
difficult
fabrication.

Chalkboards & charts, pharma-stores, bottling

6. Ordinary & canning plants, book binding, food 300
preparation, cooking, canteens

7. Simple Rough bench and machine work, counting, 200

checking, halls, waiting rooms, warehouses,
stores, parking, dispatch.

8. Rough Live storage, rough bulky material, loading 100

intermittent tasks bays, change / locker rooms.

9. Movement & Corridors with heavy traffic, walkways, stairs, 50

Orientation. rest-rooms, lanes.

Corridors with light traffic 20

CHAPTER-3
WHO definition of Occupational Health
 About occupational health the main functions of WHO (occupational health)
mandated in article 2 of its Constitution include promoting the improvement of working
conditions and other aspects of environmental hygiene. Recognizing that occupational health
is closely linked to public health and health systems development, WHO is addressing all
determinants of workers' health, including risks for disease and injury in the occupational
environment, social and individual factors, and access to health services. WHO is
implementing a Global Plan of Action on Workers’ health 2008-2017 endorsed by the World.
Health Assembly in 2007 with the following objectives:
 devising and implementing policy instruments on workers' health;
 protecting and promoting health at the workplace;
 improving the performance of and access to occupational health services;
 providing and communicating evidence for action and practice; and
 incorporating workers' health into other policies.

5.1 Occupational Health Hazards:

5.1.1 Adverse effect of Noise & Vibration
Adverse Health Effects and Controls:
Noise &Vibration:
Noise - too low or too high cause ear strain or pain. Auditory effects are temporary or
permanent hearing loss. Non-auditory effects cause nervousness, fatigue, difficulty in
conversation, decreased efficiency, annoyance and psychological and systemic effects. The
degree of injury depends on intensity and frequency of noise, exposure time (duration) and
individual susceptibility.
EFFECTS AND HAZARDS OF NOISE
Moderate sound (F < 4000 Hz) is good but high sound or noise is hazardous.
The harmful effects of noise depend upon a number of factors:
1. Noise frequency and intensity.
2. Total length of exposure.
3. Length of exposure at a time.
4. Distance from the noise source.
5. Whether noise is continuous, interrupted, sudden or impulsive.
6 Whether ear protector is worn or not and
7. Individual susceptibility depending on age, health etc.
Excessive noise harms overall health and may contribute to -
1. Mental stress
2. Physical stress
3. Certain illness
4. Hearing Loss or deafness
5. Accidents and
6. Labor productivity.
Labor productivity is declined when workers are exposed to high noise level.
The harmful effects of excessive noise have been well recognized and it has been
shown that such noise produces physiological and psychological effects on industrial
workers, such as hearing loss, deafness, fatigue, irritation, annoyance, distraction, masking.
Such effects are due to sound intensity.
J.L. McCartney’s report 'Noise drives us crazy' shows that the work of assembling
temperature regulators increased more than 37% and errors fell to one-eighth of their former
number when the work was moved from the proximity of a boiler shop to a quiet area. Office
work increased 8.8% and typists' errors fell 24% with a noise reduction of 14.5%. The noise
reduction also decreased turnover or workers by 47% and absenteeism by 37.5%.
In factory where audible warning signals are to be heard or where an operator has to
follow the operation of his machine by ear, the background noise should not be so loud as to
mask (suppress) the signal or desired sound i.e. information sound too he heard.
Another noise criterion, known as Damage-Risk Criteria specify the maximum levels
and duration of noise exposure that can be considered safe.
Whenever the noise intensity at the workers position exceeds the levels and duration
suggested by the criterion curves, ear protection is recommended, since such exposure may
cause permanent auditory damage.
Noise induced hearing loss is not ameliorated by the use of hearing aid. It may rather
accentuate the frequency distortion.
Auditory ill-effects are of two types - temporary (threshold) hearing loss and
permanent hearing loss including physical damage (ruptured eardrums). For details see Part
2.1.
Non-auditory ill effects are vibration or change in blood pressure or/and respiration or
digestive system, dilatation of pupils and diseases like peripheral vascular disturbance IDH,
vascular neuropathy, myopathy etc. Impulsive noise disrupts work performance. Continuous
noise may have subtle psychological and psychomotor effects.
 Speech or hearing interference (masking), annoyance, distraction, fatigue (mental and
physical both), muscle tension, headache, nausea, tiredness, nervousness and contribution to
other disorders are also reported. For details see Part 2.
If noise cannot be reduced at source, or its transmission to the environment cannot be
prevented, use ear protection.
Exposure to excessive noise raises our hearing threshold i.e. the degree of loudness at
which we first begin to hear.
Some health effects are discussed in details below:
Auditory Effects (Hearing Loss):
These are serious health hazards resulting in hearing loss or deafness.
Hearing Loss:
Hearing ability can be greatly reduced by repeated or long exposure to high noise and
this permanent effect is known as noise induced hearing loss.
It is impairment in ear that obstructs receipt of sound and understanding of speech in a
sentence form (not in the form of test words). It is deafness. It is irreversible and incurable
disease and can be corrected partly by hearing aids. Early audiometric examination can
prevent further damage.
A young person with normal hearing can easily detects sounds in 6 to 20000 Hz
frequency range. Important frequency range to understand speech is between 500 to 2000 Hz.
Generally hearing losses in this frequency range which are compensable under Workmen's
Compensation Laws.
Old definition of 'hearing impairment (loss)' means to begin to hear (threshold level)
at 25 decibels more at 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz.
Ability to hear less than normal speech indicates degradation. It can result from
ageing, long-term exposure to high noise (more than 90 dBA) or from a sudden, very high
intensity noise (more than 160 dBA). Much of this degradation with age may be due to
continuous exposure to environmental noise of modern society rather than to simple ageing.
It is possible therefore that even where a factory complies with standards (say 90 dBA),
workers will suffer hearing loss (due to exposure outside) and be eligible for benefits under
Workmen's Compensation Laws. Therefore, it is advisable to avoid loss claims, all attempts
should be made to reduce noise to the lowest possible level and not to be higher than 80 db.
One of the more extensive studies involving 400 men, 90 women and a period up to
40 years has been reported by LL Beranek and LN Miller, in 'The Anatomy of Noise',
Machine Design, 14-9-1967. The group was regularly exposed to noise of 90 dB in each of
the six octave frequency bands between 150 and 9600 Hz.
The study found that appreciable hearing losses at 3000, 4000 and 6000 Hz occurred
in the first 15 years. At 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz, hearing losses increased less rapidly, as
linear functions of exposure time. Some of the men tested, even at 30 years young, found it
difficult to understand speech after about 10 years of exposure.
Men showed greater hearing loss than women because the women had regular work
breaks during each shift while the men did not.
The ear's greatest sensitivity is in the 30005000 Hz range and hearing loss almost
always occurs first at about 4000 Hz. With time and continued exposure, the loss extends to a
range of 3000 to 6000 HZ. This diminishes hearer's ability to follow conversation. The most
important frequencies for speech comprehension are at 500, 1000 and 2000 Hz. Therefore,
tests for hearing losses are made at these frequencies for compensability. The lowest level at
which a person (under test) can detect sound is called hearing threshold. A loss is considered
compensable if the degradation in hearing is 15 dB or more in speech frequencies. 'This
means that the hearing threshold has been increased by at least that amount.
Effects of Chemicals on Hearing loss are also reported. Exposure to certain
chemicals, along with noise, can also cause hearing loss. Toluene, lead, mercury, arsenic, CS,
manganese, n-butyl alcohol, trichloroethylene, styrene is reported for such effect.
It is also reported that noise above 115 dB (i.e. ceiling level) as 8-hour TWA and 155
dB as peak exposure (impulsive or impact noise) to the abdomen of pregnant workers,
beyond the fifth month of pregnancy may cause hearing loss in the fetus.
In such combined effect of noise and chemicals, periodic audiograms and their careful
review are necessary.
A very loud impulsive noise can cause ringing in the ears (tinnitus) and immediate
loss of hearing sensitivity. It can disappear if there is no further exposure to high noise levels.
The impulsive or impact level should not exceed a ceiling limit of 140 dB (OSHA).
The ear can protect itself to some extent from noise by means of the reflex contraction
of certain muscles in the middle ear which tries to limit the energy being transmitted inside.
This protection is of little use when sudden very loud noise strikes the ear causing the muscle
fatigue.
Factors affecting degree and extent of hearing loss are as under:
1. The intensity of the noise (sound pressure level).
2. The type of noise (frequency spectrum).
3. The period of exposure each day (duty cycle per day).
4. The total work duration (years of employment).
5. Individual's susceptibility.
6. Age and health of the worker.
7. Co-existing hearing loss and ear disease.
8. Character of the surroundings in which the noise is produced.
9. Distance from the source, and
10. Position of the ears with respect to sound waves and wearing ear protection or not.
The first four factors are called noise exposure factors and are more important.
Because of so many factors i.e. possible contributory causes and complex relationship
of noise and exposure time to threshold shift (reduction in hearing level), time required to
establish criteria t (protect workers against hearing loss may last many years.
The signs and symptoms of hearing loss are
1. Ringing in the ear at the end of the work shift slight headache, tiredness, dizziness.
2. Intermittent ringing in ears.
3. Normal hearing is affected - if background noise is present, incapability of picking up
conversation, cannot hear ticking clock etc.
4. Feeling of hearing insufficiency is manifest.
Reduction in hearing capacity is not on) quantitative but also qualitative, that is,
sounds a; perceived in an abnormal manner.
Diagnosis and special tests include audiometric examination and monitoring noise
levels at the work place.
Hearing loss is of two types - temporary and permanent. They are also classified as
conductive sensorineural and mixed hearing loss.
Temporary hearing loss can be caused by exposure to loud noise for up to a few
hours, which numbs the hair cells. Fortunately, hearing is usually restored after a period away
from noise.
Permanent hearing loss occurs when exposure to loud noise permanently damages or
destroys the hair cells. Hearing cannot be restored. Signs of permanent hearing loss include -
1. Inability to hear pitched or soft sounds.
2. Trouble in understanding conversation, or speech heard over the telephone.
3. Ringing or roaring m the ears (tinnitus).
Any condition interfering with transmission of sound to the cochlea (inner ear part) is
classified as conductive hearing loss'. It can be due to wax in auditory canal holes in eardrum,
blockage of Eustachian tube, fluid in the middle ear secondary to infection. This type of loss
is also due to medical or surgical treatment.
Sensorineural hearing loss is mostly irreversible. It involves the organ of corgi and
degeneration of the natural elements of the auditory nerve. It indicates sever injury to the hair
cells. This type of loss occurs due to various causes including presbycusis, viruses (e.g.
mumps), some congenital defects and drug toxicity (e.g. streptomycin).
Mixed hearing loss occurs when above both the types of losses are found in the same
ear.
Central hearing loss means person's difficulty to interpret when he hears. The
abnormality is localized in the brain between the auditory nuclei and the cortex.
Psychogenic hearing loss indicates nonorganic basis for threshold elevation. It may
be due to malingering and hysteria.
No cure exists for hearing loss caused by noise. Hearing aids do not restore noise
damaged hearing, although they help some people if such aids are properly selected.
Exposure to intense noise creates a temporary threshold shift (TSS) first. This is
greatest from 1 to 24 hours after the exposure and reduces gradually if the noise has not been
too loud. or has not been too long. This condition is also known as auditory fatigue. This
effect is transitory i.e. removable. It is of two types TTS, and TTS,the later persists beyond
16 hours.

Repeated exposures produce a permanent threshold shift (PTS). If no recovery is

noticed within a week (i.e. no hearing improvement by then), a return to the level before
exposure is improbable. It is a noise induced hearing loss.
While deciding whether a certain noise is a hazard, the important factors are both the
sound level and the number of hours of exposure per day. Table 12.4 and 12.5 given in Part 4
must be followed for that.
Hearing loss is a notifiable Disease under the Factories Act 1948:
Noise induced hearing loss (exposure to high noise levels) is a notifiable disease
under the Third Schedule of the Factories Act and duty is cast upon both the manager of the
factory and the medical practitioner attending the person affected, to report to the Chief
Inspector of Factories without delay (Sections 89 & 90).

Non-auditory Effects:
 These are the effects other than the hearing loss and mostly temporary in nature. They
may be disappeared if their causative factors are removed.
Speech or Hearing Interference andMasking:
Oral communication is interfered by a noisy environment and misunderstanding may
be created about information being transmitted. It can lead to accidents. Such sound effect is
called masking.
Masking is a level in decibels, by which a sound must be increased to be understood
in the presence of another, interfering sound.
Tests were conducted of reception of pure tone (single frequencies) communications,
where masking was also provided by pure tones. It was found that the intensity of the
message to be communicated had to be increased 15 to 30 decibels to become
understandable.
Various methods to measure the effects of noise levels on speech communications are
based on relationships among noise levels, voice (speech) levels and distance between
speaker and listener.
Annoyance:
Normally people are annoyed by noise. However, types and levels differ from person
to person. Rock music annoys people who like classical music and vice-versa.
Acclimatization or tolerance to certain level is an important factor. People who have been
exposed to certain noises over a long period develop a tolerance to that level. The same
noises may annoy other persons who have not developed the tolerance and to such a degree
their efficiency is degraded. They may become more prone to errors or accidents.
Normally louder noise or unexpected impulsive -noise can be more annoying. High
frequencies are more annoying than low frequencies.
Distraction:
It is another noise effect that diverts attention of a person. For example, /passengers
talking with a driver of a bus can distract his attention which may lead to an accident. Persons
talking in the vicinity can distract the attention of other persons even if it does not annoy
them. The sudden ringing of a telephone or any audio signal can distract attention and
disturbs concentration.
Physiological Effects:
Sleep disturbance (WHO report, even at less than 35 dBA) and stress reaction (e.g. jet
aircraft personnel exposed to 120 dBA or more) have been noticed.
 Cancer: A case study was published in 'Current Science' weekly. 40 female rats were
kept under the effect of 25 kHz ultrasound waves daily for one minute and for a period of six
months. In 70% of these test-rates, cancer tumors were observed, skin wrinkles were seen and
their hairs fell off. They were feeling difficulty in movement and died earlier than normal
rates. Dr. S.N. Chatterjee of Nuclear Physics in Saha Institute and Dr. Pratima Sur of Indian
Institute of Chemical Biology carried out this experiment and warned against this ultrasound
hazard mostly found in equipment used for biological and medical diagnosis. (News 10-8-
98).
Adverse effects on work output, efficiency and morale are another non-auditory effect
of noise. Fatigue and mental health' effect may also occur. However, such effects are varying
and many a times human adaptability nullifies such effects.
Behavioral Effects:
Adverse effects on work output, efficiency and morale are other non-auditory effects
of noise. Fatigue and mental health effect may also occur. However, such effects are varying
and many a times human adaptability nullifies such effects.
Vibration of 10 to 500 Hz frequency range as normally found with pneumatic drills,
hammers and grinders affects the hands and arms. After exposure of months or years, fingers
become sensitive to spasm known as white fingers. Vibrations also produce injuries to joints,
elbows and shoulders.
Sick or Tight Building Syndrome is a health effect on workers, mostly IT personnel
due to heat or cold stress, poor ventilation, poor lighting, or monotonous work in fixed type
of environment for a longer period. Sickness is resulted in health effects like indigestion,
psychosis (mental fatigue), visual problem, mental feeling of impotency, headache, backache,
uneasiness, obesity, acidity etc. Remedial measures include-change in working environment,
new and attractive atmosphere, good lighting and ventilation, good housekeeping, rotation of
persons, recreation facility and staggered working hours instead of continuous eight or more
working hours.
Adverse effect of Cold, Heat Stress, & Illumination
(1) Adverse effect of Cold, Heat Stress
a) The cold causes chilblains, shivering, frostbite, trench foot, vasoconstriction,
hypothermia and erythromyeloid.
The control measures include (1) sufficient intake of water and salt (2) cotton and protective
clothing (3) break in exposure time and more rest intervals (4) engineering controls (5)
medical control and (6) acclimatization of the workers.
 b) Heat causes burns, exhaustion, stroke, cramps, fatigue, decreased efficiency, pain,
discomfort, heal collapse, systemic disorders, skin disorders, psychoneurotic disorders and
tendency to cause accident. Acclimatization to high temperature requires reduction in heart
rate and internal body temperature at the expense of increased sweating. Radiant heat (e.g.
ovens, furnaces), stagnant heat (e.g. textile mills), and high temperature (e.g. mines, glass
furnaces) create stress and impair health.
The amendment (1995) in Gujarat Factories Rules has prescribed certain limits -
Room temperature < 30 °C (80 °F), Air movement > 30 mt/ min. Ventilation openings > 15%
of the floor area and in summer when temperature exceeds 35 °C and humidity 50%, air
cooling is required. For humidity control dry and wet bulb temperatures are also prescribed
u/r ISA.
One UK Standard suggests the following criteria
Environmental Factor Standard
Air temperature 21 oC
Mean radiant temperature > 21oC
Relative humidity 30-70%
Air movement 30-60 mt / min
Temperature gradient (foot to head) < 2.5 oC

Microwaves (heating sources)

Uses of microwave radiation are heating sources like microwave ovens, dryers for
food products and plywood, pasteurization, ceramics, telecommunications like radio and TV
and medical applications (diathermy devices). Microwave ovens for heating or cooking food
are clean, flexible and instantly controllable. The heating rate is very high and use of any fuel
or pollution due to it should be avoided.
The primary effect of microwave energy is thermal. The higher frequency cause lower
hazard and vice versa. Frequencies less than 3000 MHz can cause serious damage. At 70
MHz, maximum SAR (specific absorption ratio) in human takes place. Exposure of high
intensity and more time can cause localized damage by skin burning, tissue burns, cataracts,
adverse effect on reproduction and even death.
The basic safety measures include restricting energy (power density in microwatts/
m2 and frequency) below the safe level, reducing time of exposure, shielding and enclosing
microwave source, reorienting antenna or emitting device, use of PPE and controlling at
source.
(3) Adverse effect of Illumination (i.e. Visible Light (Energy):
This portion lies in the range of 400 to 750 nm. The danger of retinal injury lies
between 425 to 450 nm due to peak brightness. Eye response to excessive brightness i.e.
partial or full lid closure and shading of the eyes, is a protective human mechanism.
Main sources of visible light are sun, laser beams, arc welding, highly incandescent or
hot bodies and artificial light sources such as pulsating light, high-intensity lamps, spotlights,
projector bulbs, neon tubes, fluorescent tubes, flash tubes and plasma torch sources.
The visible light is of three types: incident, reflected and transmitted light. Incident
light is that light which strikes the work surface. Reflected light is that light which bounces
off surfaces and reflected onto work surfaces by walls and ceiling. It is measured to
determine glare and shadows. Transmitted light pen
Vision is a photochemical and physiological phenomenon. Exposure to glare can
cause fatigue of eyes, iritis and Blepharisma. But these effects cannot cause pathological
changes.
Poor illumination can cause industrial accidents. Direct glare, reflected glare from the
work and dark shadows lead to visual fatigue. Better lighting provides safe working
environment, better vision and reduces losses in visual performance.
Factors of good lighting are its quantity and quality. The Quantity is the amount of
illumination that produces brightness on the task and surroundings. The Quality refers to
distribution of brightness in environment and includes the colour of light, its diffusion,
direction, degree of glare etc.
Light &Colour:
Improper and insufficient illumination causes eye strain, eye fatigue, headache,
lachrymation, congestion around cornea and miner's nystagmus (chronic effect). Glare or
excessive brightness causes visual discomfort and fatigue, tiredness and irritability.
There should be sufficient and suitable lighting natural or artificial in all work areas.

Adverse health effects of thermal radiation, ionizing and non-ionizing radiations.

Ionizing& Non-ionizingRadiation:
 Electromagnetic radiation consists of varying electric and magnetic fields, operating
at right angles to each other. It has both particulate and wavelike aspects. Following table
shows the wavelength and frequency for various electromagnetic radiation. Longwave have
low energy, short-waves have high. The higher energy wavelengths (short-waves) are more
penetrating i.e. more damaging. X-rays, Gamma rays and cosmic rays have short
wavelengths, 10" cm and less, and high frequency, 10'6 c/s and above and cause ionizing
radiation.
Others i.e. electric waves, radio waves, micro waves, visible light, IR, UV and lasers
have longer wavelength and less frequency and cause non-ionizing radiation. Lasers are
involved in visible light, IR and UV regions of the spectrum given below:
The Electromagnetic Spectrum
Energy Form Frequency c/s Wavelength, cms
Non-ionizingradiation:
Electric waves 102 to 104 1012 to 106
Radio waves 104 to 1011 106 to 10-1
Infrared (IR) 1011 to 1014 10-1 to 10-4
Visible light 1015 7x10-5 to 4x10-5
Ultraviolet (UV) 1015 to 1016 10-5 to 10-6
Ionizingradiation:
X-rays 1016 to 1018 10-6 to 10-9
Gamma rays 1018 to 1021 10-10
Cosmic rays 1021 on 10-11 on

Types and Limits of Radiation:

(A) Ionizing Radiation:

Ionizing radiation means electromagnetic or corpuscular radiation capable of
producing ions directly or indirectly in its passage through matter. It is not visible by normal
eyes. X-rays, Alpha, Beta, Gamma, fast neutrons, thermal neutrons and radionuclides are
ionizing radiation. Radioactive substance (chemical) must be firmly sealed within metal
container to prevent dispersion to active material into surrounding. Radiation hazard means
the danger to health arising from exposure to ionizing radiation which may be external or
internal.
Animal and human studies have shown that exposure to ionizing radiation can cause
carcinogenic, teratogenic or mutagenic effects, as well as other sequelae. The NCRP has
formulated exposure limits. Some such limits are given below:
Exposure limits given in rems per year are as under:
Whole body exposure Long term 5 (Age in year – 18) x 5
accumulation
Testicles, Ovaries and Red bone marrow 5
Skin, Thyroid, Bone 15 to 30
Hands, Feet and Ankles 75
Forearms 30
All other organs 15
Pregnant woman, total during pregnancy, 1
0.5 in gestation period
Population
1 Individual 0.5 whole-body
2 Average 5 gonads
International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) has prescribed a dose-
equivalent limit of 0.5 SV (50 rem) to prevent non-stochastic effects.
Radiation dosimetry in health physics tries to know whether individual radiation
exposures are within permissible dose. Various fixed and portable monitors (detectors and
survey instruments) are used for radiation exposure measurement. Some fixed monitors are
as under: Type of Detector For type of Radiation.
Type of Detector For type of Radiation.

Proportional or scintillation
1 Alpha
counter surface barrier diode

Geiger-Mueller tube or
2 Beta
proportional counter

Ionization chamber, scintillation

3 X and Gamma
counter

Proportional counter, insertion

4 Fast neutrons
chamber.

5 Proportional counter. Thermal neutrons

Fixed monitors are either area monitoring instruments or contamination monitoring

instruments. Area monitors are used for measurement of air, gamma radiation, neutron
radiation and radioactive effluents. The contamination monitoring instruments include hand
and shoe monitors, portal monitors, clothing monitors and monitors for contaminated
wounds. The dosimeters are to be calibrated for proper use.
Protection Techniques include:
1. Control of exposure time and distance.
2. Shielding.
3. Wearing a film badge to check dose limit.
 4. Pre and post-employment medical test.
5. Prevention of radiation disease such as skin cancer, ulceration, dermatitis,
cataract, damage to bones and blood etc.
6. Use of remote controlled containers.
7. Continuous monitoring and maintaining safe limits by engineering controls
and PPE.
8. The sealed container should be leakproof.
Health Physics is a branch of science dealing with improvement of protection against
exposure to ionizing radiation (IR). The main principles of health physics were defined in
1977 by the ICRP. Three general principles of radiation protection are - (1) justification (2)
optimization and (3) limitation of worker's exposure to radiation.
Medical radiation (x-rays) and nuclear radiation to generate electric power are
justified but nuclear weapons for war are not justified.
Optimization means to keep the exposure as low as achievable
Limitation means to limit the exposure entering a human body by protecting
individual or society by devices and observing prescribed safe dose limits.
A record for more than 30 years must be maintained even after completion of job on
ionizing radiation, of (1) doses absorbed by individual and (2) exposure measurement.
In our present-day industry, radiation generating machines and radioactive materials
for testing of materials, process control and research have found wide-spread use. X-ray
machines are widely used in industry, medicine, commerce and research. Industrial X-ray
devices include radiographic and fluoroscopic units used for the determination of defects in
materials in packaged food etc. All such uses are potential sources of exposure. The most
widely used naturally occurring radio-nuclide is Ra. 226 which is used in medicine and
industry. In its use in the medical field, many individuals, besides the patient are potentially
exposed to radiation. In industry, the principle uses of radium are for radiography in
luminous compound and in making static eliminators. Textile and paper trades, printing,
photographic processing and telephone and telegraph companies are the typical industries
where the static eliminator may be found. The use of artificially produced radio-nuclides
(radio-isotopes) in medical, biological, agricultural fields, and scientific research has been
increased. Possible exposure from such radio nuclides is involved with their preparation,
handling, application and transportation. Exposures, internal or external, might also arise
through contamination of the environment by wastes originating from 'the use of these
materials.
 Applications of ionizing radiation in industry are many. It is used mostly in
biological and chemical research, chemical pilot plants and production. It is used for curing,
grafting, testing & evaluation, free radicals, cross. linking, polymerization, disinfection,
sterilization, pasteurization etc. Product wise it is used in semi-conductors, rubber, adhesives,
spices, paints and coatings, membranes, fuels, lubricants, plastic piping, enzymes, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, medical supplies, foods, flooring, furniture, textile, medical uses,
agricultural uses etc.
Biological Effects and Controls of radiation:Occasional small dose (e.g. X-ray
photograph) does not affect much but small doses for a longer time or more frequent dose or
higher dose may cause biological damage to a human body. Radiation energy passes through
a body. The energy absorbed in a body is called dose. The time between the exposure and the
first symptom of radiation damage is called latent period. The larger the dose or the residence
time, the shorter the latent period.
Human body always generates new cells replacing dead or damaged cells. But when
ionizing radiation causes more damage than the body's repair capacity, biological damage
takes place. Injury to individual .is called somatic effect and that being passed into future
generations is called genetic effect. The. biological effect is the destruction of reproduction
capacity of a cell or carcinogenic effect (cancer) which is difficult to cure.
Biological effect of radiation can be reduced by -
1.Shielding the body portion (especially blood forming tissues and intestine).
2.Shielding by a portion between the source and the human body by a high-density
material such as lead or concrete wall. Thickness should be increased depending on
intensity of radiation.
3.Less dense (less hazardous) radiation (electromagnetic instead of charged particles).
4.Low dose rate or fractionation of the dose and decreasing the dose level.
5.Diminishing O2 concentration in the tissues.
6.Reducing the exposure time.
7.Increasing the distance from source.
8.Using sealed source of radiation.
Monitoring the environmental exposures by various instruments such as film badge,
thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLD), pocket dosimeter, Geiger-MuUer tubes (having
automatic audible. alarm), monism chambers, neutron and proton monitors and keeping
them below the permissible threshold limits. Calibration techniques for instruments is most
important.
 10. Decontamination facilities.
11. Safe disposal of radioactive wastes.
Medical Surveillance:Exposure to radiation workers may not give any clinical signs.
Therefore, according to ICRP, the medical surveillance of radiation workers should aim at-
1. To assess the health of the workers.
2. To preserve good general health standards by monitoring the work conditions,
exposure levels and the health of the workers and
3. To provide baseline information in case of accidental exposure or occupational
disease.
Functions of such medical service include--
1. Scheduling of medical and radiotoxicological examinations. Pre-employment and
during and after (post) employment examinations are necessary.
2. Evaluating the fitness of individual workers for specific tasks.
3. Medical examinations and first-aid after radiation accidents, irradiation or
contamination accidents.
4. Keeping of adequate medical records for quite a long time (30 years).
5. Contributing to safety and health training and
6. Helping to solve safety problems in the plant.
Large nuclear installations should have full time and fully equipped medical and
health physics services and facilities - including decontamination facilities and ablutions very
near the workplace. Small units should obtain part-time facilities.
Personal decontamination facilities include a separate ambulance port, monitoring
devices, sink, showers, a disrobing room, clean clothing and pharmaceutical supplies.
Plant medical service should remain in touch with local and other hospitals where
irradiated or contaminated persons can be treated.
Radiological Accidents and Controls: When radioactive irradiation or/and
contamination is likely to exceed the maximum permissible levels, such overexposure is
termed as radiation accidents.
Accidental external irradiation depends on nature of radiation, its distribution in
space (exposed area), its penetration in body (dose level) and its duration. In the exposed area
irradiation may be of whole-body or partial type. Dose level may be massive, substantial or
slight. The biological effect may be irreversible tissue damage, severe but reversible changes
or purely temporary disorders. Kind of radiation may be photon irradiation (x or y- rays),
particle irradiation by electrons, neutrons and protons or mixed photon and particle
irradiation.
Accidental radioactive contamination depends on the nature of the radionuclide (its
physical, chemical and radioactive characteristics), local distribution in the body (path of
entry through skin, wounds or inhalation), duration (initial and secondary impact following
bodily intake) and level of contamination (massive, substantial or slight).
Control Measures necessary are -
1. In case of external irradiation, measurement of exposure in the body and the space,
should soon be carried out to decide a course of action.
Urgent treatment is not essential.
2. In case of radioactive contamination, urgent treatment is essential. Therapy should first
be followed instead of measurement of radioactivity and clinical and biological
examinations, though they should be followed subsequently to assess the level of
contamination.
3. If the whole-body irradiation is more than 100 rems, the person should immediately
be transferred to a specialized hospital.
4. Cases of massive whole-body irradiation are difficult to survive, but, they are mostly
rare.
5. No immediate treatment is required for slight or partial irradiation. Persons should be
observed for some weeks for subsequent development if any.
6. Therapeutic measures are as under:
1. Cleaning and washing of skin and wounds.
2. Decontamination by surgical excision, but before that a strong chelating agent
must be applied locally as soon as possible.
3. In case of inhalation, emergency medical treatment becomes necessary if the
internal contamination exceeds the maximum 3monthly intake or exceeds (500
x Maximum permissible atmospheric contamination per hour). The person
should be transferred to a specialized hospital. In serious accidents, the
stomach must be washed out and the contaminant at the intestine should be
rendered insoluble.
4. Biological examinations and samplings are necessary. Blood samples must be
@ 20 cm3 by volume and raw i.e. without any additive. The first urine sample
and next 24-hr samples are necessary. Samples of the first three stools and one
72-hr after the accident are also necessary.
 5. To check respiratory contamination, the person's handkerchief or nasal
samplings by blowing nose into a paper tissue are useful.
6. Decontamination of substances, objects and persons.
A card containing information of possible contaminants, the time of sampling and any
treatment given before the sampling, must be sent along with the samples to the
radiotoxicological laboratory as quickly as possible.
Decontamination:The ionizing radiation cannot be neutralized or interrupted.
Therefore, rapid decontamination is one of the best safety measures to protect man against
possible or actual hazards of direct or indirect radiation. The purpose of decontamination is to
reduce its level below the safe level. Following methods of decontamination are used:
1. Mechanical decontamination i.e.removal of radioactive layer by scrubbing, shot
blasting, washing by water etc.
2. Physical decontamination i.e. evaporation, dilution, filtration, ultrasonic techniques,
or allowing the half-life time if it is in hours or up to 3 days.
3. Chemical decontamination i.e.treating with acid, alkali, chelating compounds, ion-
exchange resins etc.
4. Biological decontamination of sewage.
5. Decontamination of water, surface and clothing by selecting appropriate material, e.g.
10% solution of citric acid followed by 0.5% solution of nitric acid to clean stainless-steel
surface, mineral acids to clean glass and porcelain vessels, replacement of concrete blocks
etc. 6. Decontamination of persons by scrubbing the skin with warm water and soap and
followed by use of surfactants and absorbents. I to 3% solution of hydrochloric and citric acid
are also useful. Use of organic solvent is inadvisable. Cleaning for more than 10 min. is also
not advisable, as further cleaning cannot remove contaminant and may damage the
epithelium.
Removal of radionuclides from the human body is much more difficult and needs
experienced medical treatment. The choice of a method and reagent depends on the type and
character of the contaminant, path of penetration and time elapsed after contamination.
Surgery is the best method to decontaminate wound. Complexing reagents (viz. DTPA) are
generally effective to decontaminate blood, internal organs and tissues. To decontaminate
upper respiratory system, expectorants and vasoconstrictive preparations are prescribed.
(B) Non-IonizingRadiation:
The main difference between ionizing and nonionizing radiation is that the former is
more hazardous because of its higher frequency range and shorter wavelength comparing
with the later which has lower frequency range and longer wavelength. More safety measures
- Decontamination, medical and others- are required to prevent and control the ionizing
radiation and its damage.
Non-ionizing Radiation refers to those regions of the electromagnetic spectrum where
the energies of the emitted photons are insufficient, under ordinary circumstances, to produce
ionization in the atoms of absorbing molecules. Its lower wave length limit is 100 nm
(arbitrary). It includes ultraviolet, visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, radio waves,
lasers, power frequencies and radar waves.
The Spectrum Phenomenon:The sun's energy is transmitted by electromagnetic
waves. If a narrow beam of sunlight is passed through a prism and then projected upon a
surface, colorful 'spectrum' is visible from red at one end through orange, yellow, green, blue,
and indigo to violet at the other end. If a thermometer is moved slowly from violet to red
portion, it shows a rise in temperature. Beyond red (in dark space) it shows a still higher
temperature. This dark portion (beyond the red) is called infrared (IR), and the dark portion at
the other end (beyond the violet) is called the ultraviolet (UV).
There is no sharp dividing line between IR, visible and UV regions. They differ from
each other in frequency, wavelength or energy level. See the table of spectrum in foregoing
para. The common factor among them is that all electromagnetic waves travel with the same
speed and are originated from moving electric charges.
Physical & Biological Units: The entire electromagnetic spectrum is roughly divided
and studied in two parts:
1. The upper region of shorter wavelength is of more concern to physicists and physical
scientists who describe radiation in terms of wavelength.
2. The lower region of longer wavelength is of more concern to communication
scientists and engineers who describe radiation in terms of frequency.
Both these units are given in the following table

Physical Units of NI Radiation

Unit Symbol Equivalent
Wavelength
angstrom A 10-8 cm
centimeter Cm 1 cm
micrometer m 10-4 cm
nanometer Nm 10-7 cm
Frequency
hertz Hz 1 c/s
kilocycle Kc 1000 c/s
megacycle Mc 106 c/s
Gigacycle Gc 109 c/s

Biological effects of the UV, visible, IR, radio frequency and the extremely low
frequency of power transmission, have been studied. Visible light and heat waves can be
easily perceived and dark goggles can reduce their intensity to a comfortable level. The UV,
IR, microwave and lower frequency radiations cannot be perceived by eyes, but have
biological penetration as shown in the following table -
Thermal effects are produced in the skin due to exposure in IR and FM-TV-radio
region. Photochemical effects can be produced in the UV and visible regions.
Now, main divisions of non-ionizing radiation are explained below in brief.
(1) Infrared (IR) Radiation:
The IR region extends from 750 nm to 0.3 cm wavelength of microwaves.
Exposure to infrared radiation is very common in glass industry and near cupolas and
furnaces. Since long-wave infrared radiation is readily absorbed by the surface tissues of the
body, it cannot inflict deep injuries in the 'human body. Over exposure produces some
discomfort which generally gives adequate warning. However, the eyes may suffer injuries
or general discomfort to other parts of the body, there is some evidence that this may result in
cataract.
The protective measures against this radiation include the placement of reflective
screens of polished aluminium shield near the source. Those screens will direct the. rays
away from the personnel into unoccupied space or return them to the heat source. They have
been found very effective in many industrial situations. Eyes of the exposed personnel
should always be protected, by suitable glasses, from direct radiation arising from areas that
given off intense heat, even though the temperature is not necessarily high. Infrared radiation
be measured by the black-bulb thermometer and radiometers.
Main industrial IR exposures are from hot furnaces, molten metal or glass and from
arc processes. Use of enclosures, shielding, eye protection and safe distance are main safety
measures.
(2) Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation:
The UV region is subdivided as Near - 400 to 300 nm. Far - 300 to 200 nm and vacuum -200
to 4 nm.
 The effects of ultraviolet radiation are similar to sunburn. Since there is a
considerable time gap between exposure and development of injury, deep burns, may be
endured without immediate discomfort. This radiation is readily absorbed in human tissue. As
a result, superficial injuries are produced chiefly to the skin and eyes. Higher exposure can
cause skin or eye damage. The skin effect is called dermatological and the eye effect is called
ocular.
Some industrial processes, such as welding, produce considerable amount of
ultraviolet radiation. In areas where ultraviolet radiation is quite intense, potentially
hazardous chemical contaminants, such as ozone and oxides of nitrogen, are also produced
due to action of this radiation on air. In the zone where arc-welding is carried out, very high
concentrations of ozone and oxides of nitrogen have been found.
All personnel engaged in welding should invariably wear goggles and face shields.
Besides these, the use of gloves, leggings, overalls and boots is an essential necessity for the
personnel engaged in welding. Furthermore, opaque shielding should be used around welding
areas to protect other persons. Local exhaust ventilation may also be used as an effective
means for the removal of chemical contaminants produced during the arc welding.
Ultraviolet meters can be used for the measurement of. this radiation. It has been
suggested that 0.5 microwatt per square centimeter be the permissible limit of ultraviolet
radiation for a 7 hours continuous exposure.
The most common exposure to UV radiation is from direct sunlight. Solar irradiation
exhibits intense UV radiation but due to the atmosphere (ozone) shielding of the earth (God's
gift), we are not exposed to the lethal doses. Long time exposure to hottest sunlight
(afternoon) may cause skin cancer. This must be avoided.
Some commercial application of UV radiation are fluorescent lamps, mercury Vapour
lamps, germicidal lamps, electric arc welding, chemical processing, etched circuit board
production and UV lasers.
Wavelengths below 320 nm cause skin reddening and skin-burn (erythema effect).
Solar or UV radiation from artificial sources may cause skin pigmentation (tanning).
Wavelengths between 320 and 230 nm can cause carcinogenic effects.
Main safety measures are shielding of UVR source, use of eye goggles, protective
clothing and absorbing or reflecting skin creams.
(3) Visible Light (Energy):
 This portion lies in the range of 400 to 750 nm. The danger of retinal injury lies
between 425 to 450 nm due to peak brightness. Eye response to excessive brightness i.e.
partial or full lid closure and shading of the eyes, is a protective human mechanism.

Main sources of visible light are sun, laser beams, arc welding, highly incandescent or
hot bodies and artificial light sources such as pulsating light, high-intensity lamps, spotlights,
projector bulbs, neon tubes, fluorescent tubes, flash tubes and plasma torch sources.

The visible light is of three types: incident, reflected and transmitted light. Incident
light is that light which strikes the work surface. Reflected light is that light which bounces
off surfaces and reflected onto work surfaces by walls and ceiling. It is measured to
determine glare and shadows. Transmitted light penetrates a transparent or translucent
material.

Vision is a photochemical and physiological phenomenon. Exposure to glare can

cause fatigue of eyes, iritis and Blepharisma. But these effects cannot cause pathological
changes.
Poor illumination can cause industrial accidents. Direct glare, reflected glare from the
work and dark shadows lead to visual fatigue. Better lighting provides safe working
environment, better vision and reduces losses in visual performance.
Factors of good lighting are its quantity and quality. The Quantity is the amount of
illumination that produces brightness on the task and surroundings. The Quality refers to
distribution of brightness in environment and includes the colour of light, its diffusion,
direction, degree of glare etc.
(4) Radio and Microwaves:
Within the broad spectrum of radio frequencies, the microwave. region is between 10
to 3 x 105 MHz (megahertz). This form of radiation is propagated from antennas associated
with TV transmitters, FM transmitters and radar transmitters.
Uses of microwave radiation are heating sources like microwave ovens, dryers for
food products and plywood, pasteurization, ceramics, telecommunications like radio and TV
and medical applications (diathermy devices). Microwave ovens for heating or cooking food
are clean, flexible and instantly controllable. The heating rate is very high and use of any fuel
or pollution due to it should be avoided.
 Radio or high frequency electrical heaters are used in metalworking plants for
hardening cutting tools, gear-teeth and bearing surfaces and for annealing, soldering and
brazing. Use in food industry is for sterilizing vessels and killing bacteria in foods.
In woodworking plants, high frequency heating is used for bonding plywood,
laminating and general gluing. Other uses include molding plastics, curing and vulcanizing
rubber, thermocycling and setting twist in textile materials.
Induction heaters are used for annealing, forging, brazing or soldering conductive
materials. Induction furnaces are used in foundries to melt metal. Dielectric heaters are used
for non-conducting, dielectric materials like rubber, plastics, leather and wood.

The primary effect of microwave energy is thermal. The higher frequency cause lower
hazard and vice versa. Frequencies less than 3000 MHz can cause serious damage. At 70
MHz, maximum SAR (specific absorption ratio) in human takes place. Exposure of high
intensity and more time can cause localized damage by skin burning, tissue burns, cataracts,
adverse effect on reproduction and even death.

The basic safety measures include restricting energy (power density in microwatts/
m2 and frequency) below the safe level, reducing time of exposure, shielding and enclosing
microwave source, reorienting antenna or emitting device, use of PPE and controlling at
source.
Power Frequencies:
The main hazards from high voltage lines and equipment (low frequency) are shocks
and current. Extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation produces electric field and magnetic
field. An external electric field induces electric current in the body.
Protection from ELF is possible by shielding of electric field by any conducting
surface. Persons working in high field strength regions (e.g. high voltage lines) should wear
electrically conductive clothing. Avoiding entry in such region is also advisable.

ELF magnetic field cannot be shielded. Therefore, the only remedy is to keep the
magnetic field below safe levels or to restrict entry of personnel into the magnetic fields.

5.2 Permissible threshold exposure limits - short term and long-term effects of
exposures – Preventive and control measures

Threshold Limit Value is abbreviated as TLV. Threshold Limit Value is the maximum
concentration of Toxic material which the workmen can tolerate or withstand for 8 hours in a
day while working in the atmosphere charged with the contaminant.
Short term exposure limit (STEL): It is a concentration of substances which can be tolerated
by workmen for 15 minutes without causing any adverse effect.
Maximum allowable concentration (MAC): It is a concentration which must not be exceeded
even for the short period of time.
Effects of exposures of TLV, STEL & MAC:
Factors influencing the effects of Toxic materials:
1. Absorption-the effects are dependent upon the rate of absorption of toxic substances
in the human body. quicker the absorption, more is the risk to the workmen.
2. Concentration and time of exposure –more the concentration and time of exposure,
more is the amount of toxic substances getting entry into the human body.
3. Personal tolerance level –certain persons can tolerate a particular toxic substance
while others cannot.
4. Susceptibility – susceptibility to toxic substances may vary from person to person.
5. Personal hygiene and behavior- personal hygiene and behavior including proper
maintenance of clothing, cleanliness, tidy habits, etc. plays an important role.
6. The state of matter – the state of the matter of toxic substances (whether solid, liquids,
or gases) plays an important role in connection with the effects of toxic substances on
the human system. As, for example, hydrochloric acid HCl as(liquid)
Harmful effect:
1. Chemicals can cause asphyxia or suffocation.
2. It causes irritation to respiratory tract or other vital organs like liver, kidney, etc.
3. Some chemicals cause coconsciousness or unconsciousness.
4. Anesthetics These are either primary or secondary

Control Measures:

1) Storage – proper storage and handling specially that of materials in bulk or in large
quantity need special care and attention. haphazard storage and handling of hazardous
material can trigger off accidents.
2) Temperature and pressure – many processes or operation in industrial plants are associated
with high temperature and pressure. In many such processes. In many such processes the
reactions being exothermic in nature in which unusual heat is unleashed. This may cause
damage to equipment’s system and can trigger off fire hazards. Hence thorough control of
temperature to permissible limits is one of the prime considerations. Unusual rise in
 pressure much above the stipulated or permissible limit may cause bursting of pipelines,
failure of valves associated with leakage of hazardous substances selection of suitable
safety valves, a proper design of all assemblies, pipeline system, pressure vessel etc. can
check these maladies.
3) Operation and processes –Any defect in design or any deviation from the design with
respect to the various operations and processes may lead to serious consequences. Hence a
proper design of the whole operational and process systems coupled with suitable follow
up in the actual practice/ working is warranted. This implies that everything involved
(notable equipment, workmen, measuring instrument, work procedures, the managers and
the supervisors) must be functional. The failure of any one of the above components or
units associated with the operations of process may lead to accident.
4) Education and training –all the personnel involved in the industrial operations
(speciallythe novices and new entrants) must be imbued with a sense of safety
consciousness. This needs formal and informal education and training. in industries
associated with hazardous chemicals, proper education and training must be imparted to
the personnel regarding use of proper label, warning signs and colour codes, proper
methods of storage and handling etc. a harmonious relation between the workmen and the
manager is necessary to synchronies the various activities of the person concerned. Clear
instructions, manuals or booklets for each hazardous job have to be supplied to the
concerned workmen etc.
5) Information, data collection and monitoring - information and data collection and their
subsequent analysis play an important role. The identification of hazardous substances or
them
Toxicity, the emergency requirements therein as well as proper handling and storage of these
materials etc. are some of the information to be recorded in the safety data sheets. Suitable
monitoring of hazardous substances can further bolster the safety measures and control.
6) Repair and maintenance –regular repair and maintenance as for example in the pipeline
system, valves, pressure gauges etc. helps to minimize accidents. Extreme precautions are
to be taken while repair and maintenance operation are being carried out,e.g., shutdown
during repairs etc. any laxity, inadvertence or carelessness during repairs may create have.
7) Personal protective equipment’s- all persons exposed to hazardous substances during
manufacturing, storage, handling etc. must be provided with personal protective equipment
the use of personal protective equipment’s.
Common Occupational Diseases as per the Sch. III of the Factory Act.

(1) Occupational Lung Diseases:

Normally dusts cause lung diseases and therefore the types of dusts and their effects
are
discussed below.
(A) Types of Dusts and their Effects:
Dust is a disperse system (aerosol) of solid small particles in air or gas whose size
distribution is like a colloid. It originates from mechanical communication of coarser
material. Mining, breaking, crushing, grinding, mixing, polishing and handling are the main
dust generating processes.
Small particles of O.I to 5 u.m size (respirable dust) can remain in the alveolar
passages of which smaller particles (O.I r-lm) behave as colloids or smoke, deposit in lungs
or other part and cause health effect. Particles of larger size (>5 (im) are driven back by the
clearance mechanism. Asbestos fiber of 3 (urn or less in diameter and up to 100 (im length
can reach the alveoli, while the smallest fibers can reach up to pleura and pleural space.
2nd Schedule of the Factories Act prescribes TLV (permissible time-weighted average
i.e. TWA concentration per 8 hours) of cotton, asbestos, coal, cement and silica dusts.
Types of dusts can be classified as under:
1. Quartz and mixtures containing quarts: Coal dust, mineral ores, sand, rock, fluorspar,
quartzite etc. They are found in mining, ceramic industries, refractories, pestering,
mixing and insulating materials. They cause nodular fibrosis and silicosis.

2. Asbestos and mixtures containing asbestos:

3. Metals and metal compounds: Metals like iron, nickel, lead, manganese, aluminium,
beryllium, chromium, cadmium, vanadium and their oxides are extensively used in
metallurgy, metal working, welding, electroplating, furnaces, sintering etc. They can
cause irritation, diffuse fibrosis and different types of lung diseases known as
synderesis, bronchial carcinoma or asthma, tracheobronchitis, aluminium lung etc.
4. Plant and Animal (organic) dust: Wood, animal hides, skins, hair, feathers, scales,
cotton flax, hemp, sisal, jute, mould hay, straw, cereals, bagasse, crushed grain and
bran, enzymes etc. They are found at wood working, agriculture, poultry, textile, grain
or sugar mill etc. and cause irritation, immune reaction, carcinoma, allergic rhinitis,
bronchial asthma, farmer’s lung, bagasse’s, byssinosis etc.
5. Other dusts: These are chemical dust like carbon dust, soot, graphite, phthalic and
maleic anhydride and arsenic dust etc. and found in mining, metallurgy, rubber,
plastic and chemical industry. They can cause irritation, carcinoma, systemic effect,
ulceration, conjunctivitis, graphite pneumoconiosis etc. Inert dusts are also hazardous.
Following table shows some dusts and lung diseases that may be caused by them.
Dusts Lung Diseases
Quartz (Silica) Silicosis.
Asbestos Asbestosis
Talc Talco is, mesothelioma, bronchial carcinoma, carcinoma of upper
respiratory tract.
Aluminium and its oxides Aluminum lung, bauxite smelter’s lung, CNSLD
Beryllium & its oxides Tracheobronchitis, pneumonitis, berylliosis
Cadmium and its oxides Tracheobronchitis, bronchopneumonia, emphysema of the lung.
Chromium, Chromate, Chromatid Ulceration and perforating of nasal sputum, bronchial asthma,
carcinoma of nasal cavity, CNSLD.
Hard metals “Fibrosis, immune reaction.
Iron, Iron oxide Siderosis.
Manganese, Manganic pneumonia, CNSLD.
Manganese oxide
Nickel, Nickel oxide, Nickel salts,Bronchial carcinoma, carcinoma of nasal cavity,
Platinum compounds (salts) Allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma.
Vanadium pentoxide Tracheobronchitis, bronchial asthma, CNSLD.
Milled or crushed grain and bran Allergic rhinitis, chronic rhinitis, bronchial asthma CNSLD.
Wood (exotic types) Allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma, carcinoma of the nose and nasal
cavity, CNSLD.
Animal hides, skin, hair, leather Allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma.
and scales.
Mould hay, straw, cereal, and Farmer’s lung, bagassosis.
bagassse
Enzymes Allergic rhinitis, bronchial asthma
Cotton, flax, hemp sisal, jute. Byssinosis, CNSLD.
Arsenic, arsenic trioxide, arsenic Ulceration and perforation of nasal septum, tracheobronchitis,
salts. carcinoma of nasal cavity.

chronic non-specific lung disease. The types of effects are fibro genic, carcinogenic,
systemic, toxic, allergic, irritant and skin effects.

(B) Dust Control Methods:

To prevent lung diseases, some control measures areas under
1. Know the exposure limits of dusts. Dust below 5 microns size is invisible. Depending on
toxicity, exposure limits vary from 0.1 to 10 mg/ m3 See also 2nd Schedule under the
Factories Act (Table 15 of Chapter-32). Employ effective measures based on this safe
limit and nature of the dust.
2. Elimination ofdusty process e.g. improved casting technique to eliminate dusty
fettling process.
3. Substitution by a less toxic or non-toxic dust, e.g. shot-blasting in place of sand
blasting, metal mould in place of sand mould and glass fiber or slag wool in place of
asbestos insulation.
4. Segregation and enclosure of the process if dust generation cannot be prevented.
Dusty process should be enclosed in a room and be connected with effective exhaust
and dust collector. - Complete enclosure is the best segregation, e.g. blasting cabinet,
fuming cupboard.
5. Wet methods prevent particles becoming airborne. Powdered material is suspended
or dissolved in a liquid. The correct degree of wetting should be maintained and it
should not be allowed to dry out.
6. Local exhaust ventilation should be applied to collect the dust from the nearest
possible distance. The smaller enclosure gap requires smaller exhaust rate. Suction
flow should be away from the worker's breathing zone. Dust collection, filtration and
disposal are the subsequent steps. Various kinds of air cleaning devices are also
available.

(2) Occupational Dermatitis:

An inflammation of the skin produces dermatitis which is the most common skin
disease. The part of body most exposed is affected first, so it starts on hands. With some
dusts and fumes, the first signs may appear around the eyes, neck and face also. The disease
can be caused by many chemicals and apparently harmless substances including all forms of
mineral oils (including diesel, lubricating and fuel oil); chemicals (alkalis, chromate,
dichromate and synthetic resin), solvents (thinners and degreasers such as white spirit,
paraffin, trichloroethylene, turpentine, and petroleum product); tar pitch and other coal
products including chemicals in the phenol and cresol family; soot; radiation including X-
rays and radiant heat; friction particularly when dust or grit gets between clothing and skin.
 Chromate and dichromate used in chromium
plating, dyeing and tanning produces chrome ulcers or
holes as well as dermatitis. In one chemical factory at
Vadodara (Gujarat), 43 workers with holes in nasal
diaphragm, 3 workers with chrome ulcer and 23 workers
with dermatitis were detected. They were working with
sodium and potassium dichromate. The liquid or dust from
the process gets into cracks or cuts in skin and forms deep holes. Chromic acid, concentrated
potassium dichromate, arsenic trioxide, calcium oxide, calcium nitrate and calcium carbide
are well known ulcerogenic chemicals. Chemical or thermal burns, blunt injury or infections
resulting from bacteria and fungi may result in ulcerous excavations on the part affected.
Occupationally induced changes in skin colour can be caused by dyes, heavy metals,
explosives, certain chlorinated hydrocarbons, tars and sunlight. The change in skin colour
may be simply a chemical fixation within keratin.
Primary Skin Irritants in industry are organic and inorganic acids and alkalis, some
metal salts, nickel, phenol, trichloroethylene, solvents and acne producers.
Primary Skin Sensitizers are dyes and dye intermediates, photographic developers,
rubber accelerators and anti-oxidants, insecticides, oils, natural and synthetic resins, coal-tar
and its derivatives, explosives, plasticizers and others.
Skin cancer is caused by long periods of contact with a variety of substances
including mineral oils, paraffin, tars, arsenic and several kinds of radiation including X-rays
and ultra violet light. The cancer will usually develop in direct contact with the above
substances. Other parts can be affected. Ifthe substance penetrates the clothing.
Dermatitis is a skin disease caused by primary irritants like acids and alkalis, organic
solvents, soaps, detergents, lime, cement, turpentine, synthetic coolants, abrasives, nitro
paints, hardeners, dyes, peroxides, pesticides, weedicides, gum, inks, chlorinated diphenyl’s,
disinfectants etc. and by sensitizers like formaldehyde, fungicides, azo dyes, chromium,
nickel, mercury and cobalt salts.
Dermatitis can also be caused by physical agents (e.g. heat, cold, moisture, radiation,
friction, pressure etc.) or biological agents (e.g. bacteria, fungus, virus etc.)
Occupations involved are leather, metal, paint, printing, plastic, rubber, textile,
electroplating, engineering, construction, cleaners, chemical, bakers etc.
For diagnosis it is useful to know the occupational history and to observe many
workers, in identical situations, who develop cutaneous changes. Patch tests are indicative.
Occupational dermatitis is preventable if timely diagnosed and controlled. Preventive
measures are:
1. Engineering measures to control the harmful agents by various methods.
2. Pre-employment or pre-placement medical examination and sorting out the workers
having suspected dermatitis or pre-disposition to skin diseases and keeping them
away from the jobs having skin hazards.
3. Use of. necessary PPE and barrier creams.
4. Personal hygiene. Adequate washing and bathing facility with warm water, soap, nail
cutter and clean towels.
5. Periodical medical examinations of workers and transferring the job of the affected
workers.
(3) Occupational Cancer:
Occupational cancer is a form of delayed toxicity, serious in clinical course and
outcome, due to exposure to chemical or physical agents (carcinogens) in the workplace.
Yearly Figures of ESIC indicate incidence of cancer in our workers:
Carcinogenic substance means a substance or preparation which by inhalation,
ingestion or coetaneous penetration can induce cancer or increase its frequency. It causes an
increased incidence of benign and/or malignant neoplasm, or a substantial decrease in the
latency period between exposure and onset of neoplasm in human or in experimental specie;
as a result of any exposure which induce tumors at a site other than the site of administration.

It is unknown that how many chemicals are actually carcinogenic to humans and how
many human cancers could be prevented by improving working conditions. There may be
mixed reasons occupational and non- occupational also.
The ACGIH has classified carcinogens in five categories depending on the TLVs of chemical
sub in contact:
1. Confirmed Human Carcinogen
2. Suspected Human Carcinogen
3. Animal Carcinogen
4. Unclassified Human Carcinogen.
5. Unsuspected Human Carcinogen
Courtesy: 2007 TLVs and BEIs, ACGIH.
Some tables are also given below to understand occupation or substance and body
part (site) being affected by cancer.

Occupation, Substance and Site of Cancer:

Occupation Substance (carcinogen) Site (body part)

Asbestos & products Asbestos Lung, pleura
Metal and Mining Arsenic, Chromium, Lung, skin
 Uranium, Benzo (a) pyrene Lung
(BAP), Nickel Lung
Lung
Lung, nasal sinuses
Chemical industry Vinyl chloride Liver
BCME, CMME Lung
Dyes-benzidine, Bladder
s-naphthylamine, Bladder
4-aminodiphenyl Paranasal sinuses
Auramine, other aromatic
amines Isopropyl alcohol
Petroleum industry Polycyclic hydrocarbons Scrotum
Insecticide, Pesticide Arsenic Lung
Gas industry Benzo (a) pyrene (BAP) Lung
Coal carbonization products, Lung, Bladder
-naphthylamine Scrotum
Gas industry Benzo (a) pyrene (BAP) Coal Lung
carbonization products, Lung, Bladder Scrotum
-naphthylamine
Rubber industry Benzene Lymphatic and Leukemia
Aromatic amines Bladder
Leather industry Leather dust, benzene Nose, bone marrow
Wood pulp and paper Wood dust Nose (adenocarcinoma)
industry
Roofing, asphalt work, steel BAP Lung
prod.
Others – Diethyls Diethylstilbestrol Female genital tract, breast
Melphalan Hematomaphotobiotic system
Mustard gas Lung, pharynx
Soot’s, tars and mineral oils Skin, lung, bladder, GIT
Conjugated estrogen Uterus
Cyclophosphamide Bladder

Body part and Substance having risk of Cancer:

Body part Substances (carcinogen)

Bone Beryllium (benzene – bone marrow)
Brain Vinyl chloride
Gastrointestinal tract Asbestos
(GIT)
Hematomaphotobiotic Benzene, styrene, butadiene and other synthetic rubber, alkylating
tissue (leukemia) agent, cyclophosmamide, melphalan, bushman, vinyl chloride
Kidney Lead, coke oven gas, finasetin
Liver Alcohol, vinyl chloride, steroids, aflatoxin, DDT, PCB, trichloro
ethylene, chloroform, aldrin, dieldrin heptachlor, chlordecone,
murex, CCl4
Liver Alcohol, vinyl chloride, steroids, aflatoxin, DDT, PCB, trichloro
ethylene, chloroform, aldrin, dieldrin heptachlor, chlordecone,
murex, CCl4
Larynx Tobacco smoking, alcohol, asbestos, chromium, mustard gas.
Lung Tobacco smoking, arsenic, asbestos, iron, chromium, nickel, vinyl
chloride, cadmium, uranium, biocalorimetry ether (BCME),
chloromethyl methyl ether (CMME), benzo(a) pyrene (BAP),
coke oven gas, mustard gas, tar, polyclinic hydrocarbons (PCH)
Lymphatic tissue Arsenic, benzene
Mouth Alcohol, pan, lime, tobacco, Gurkha, textile fiber
Nose Chromium, nickel, wood dust, leather dust, tanning, formaldehyde,
IPA, benzene
Pancreases Benzidine, PBC
Peritoneum Asbestos
Pharynx Tobacco smoking, alcohol, mustard as, textile fibers
Plural cavity Asbestos
Prostate Cadmium
Scrotum Soots, tar –naphthylamine, chloroprin, polyclinic hydrocarbons
(PCH)
Skin Arsenic, cutting oil, mineral oil, sots, tar, cock oven as, PCH
Bladder Tobacco smoking,  or -naphthylamine, benzene, benzidine, 4-
aminodiphenyl, alkylating agent, chlorpromazine,
auramine, 4-nitrodiphenyl, aromatic amines
Vagina Estrogen
Female genital tract, Diethylstilbestrol
breast
Central nervous system Vinyl chloride
(CNS)
Uterus Conjugated estrogen
Buccal cavity Oil mist, solvents, dyes, cadmium, lead
Multiple myeloma Solvents
Diagnostic methods for assessing cancer should consider detailed occupational history
to know whether in past the worker was exposed to any carcinogen. If worker does not know
it, factory records should be gone through or interrogated with his supervisors. A
questionnaire may be useful in 'collecting such past information. Screening may be useful to
some extent.
Preventive measures are
1. Not to use carcinogenic. substances or processes.
2. Research to find safe substitutes should be developed.
3. To eliminate contact of workers from carcinogenic substances by
(1) Employing closed system of work (i.e. no manual handling or direct
exposure).
(2) Work environment monitoring, biological monitoring and keeping the
exposure far below the permissible limits.
(3) Using personal protective equipment.
(4) Following safe waste disposal methods.
4. Avoiding personally susceptible workers at the time of recruitment.
5. Rotating workers exposed to risks and thus reducing their exposure time.
6. Advising to stop smoking and to improve personal hygiene.
7. Referring serious cases to a cancer hospital or onco-surgeon.

6.2 Pre-employment, periodic medical examination of workers

73-V. MEDICAL EXAMINATION: -
All the workers in the Factory shall be medically examined once in a year by Certifying
Surgeon appointed or recognized by the Govt.
1). workers employed in a “hazardous process “shall be medically examined by a qualified
medical practitioner hereinafter to as factory medical officer in the following manner,
namely: -
(a) Once before employed to ascertain fitness of the person to do the particular job.
(b) Once in a period of 6 months, to ascertain the health status of all the workers in respect of
occupational health hazard to which they are exposed, and in cases where in the opinion of
the factory medical officer it is necessary to do so at a shorter interval in respect of any
worker.
(c) The details of pre-employment and periodical medical examination carried out as
aforesaid shall be recorded in the health register in form 7.
2). No person shall be employed for the first time without a certificate of fitness in form 6
granted by the factory medical officer. If the factory medical officer declares a person unfit
for being employed in any process covered under sub-rule (1), such a person shall have the
right to the appeal to the certifying surgeon whose opinion shall be final in this regard.
(3). Any finding of the factory medical officer revealing any abnormality or unsuitability of
any person employed in the process shall immediately be reported to the certifying surgeon
who shall in turn, examined the concerned worker and communicate his finding to the
occupier within 30 days. If the certifying surgeon is of the opinion that the worker so
examine is required to the surgeon is of the opinion that the same process. However, the
worker so taken away shall be provided with alternate placement unless he is fully in
incapacitate in the opinion of the certifying surgeon in which case the worker affected shall
be suitably rehabilitated.
(4). The worker taken away from employment in any process under sub-rule (2) may be
employed again in the same process under sub-rule (2) may be employed again in the same
process only after obtaining the fitness certificate from the certifying surgeon and making
entries to that effect in the health register.
(5). An inspector may, if he deems it necessary to do so, refer a worker to the certifying
surgeon for medical examination as required under sub-rule (1). the opinion of the certifying
surgeon in such a case shall be final. The fee require for this medical examination shall be
paid by the occupier.
(6). The worker required to undergo medical examination under these rules and for any
medical survey conducted by or on behalf of the central or the state government shall not
refuse to undergo such medical examination.

CHAPTER 5:FIRST AID

4.1First aid and Ambulance aid

Prevention is better that cure but when prevention is not possible and an injury does take
place, cure is the only prevention of further injury and this cure is primarily to be provided by
the First Aid.
First aid can be defined as an immediate treatment given to the victim of an accident or
sudden illness, before medical help is obtained. It is a combination of simple but quite
expedient, active measures to save the victim’s life and prevent possible complications. It
needs to be immediate in severe accidents complicated by bleeding, shock and loss of
consciousness.
Ambulance Aid-
The ambulance room shall be in charge of a qualified medical practitioner assisted by at least
one qualified nurse and such subordinate staff as the chief inspector may direct.
There shall be display in the ambulance room a notice giving the name, address and
telephone number of the medical practitioner in charge. The name of the nearest hospital and
its telephone number.
The ambulance room shall be used only for the purpose of first-aid treatment. It shall have a
floor area of at least 24 square meters and smooth, walls as per F.A and shall be adequately
ventilation and light, drinking water, room shall contain at least: -

Sink,table,stretcher, buckets, hot water bags, wooden splints, woolen blankets, forceps,
bottle of spirit, sponges, towels, trays, toilet, thermometers, teaspoon, measuring glasses,
wash bottle, chairs, electric hand torch, one cupboard with require first aid medicine and
instruments.

4.2 fire incidents and range of casualties

Year
Plant & Place Death Serious Injuries

Coal dust explosion,

1942 1572 -
china

Ship explosion,
1944 231 476
Bombay

Ship fire/ explosion,

1947 576 2000
Texas, USA

Truck explosion,
1956 1100 -
Columbia

Mine explosion,
1975 431 -
Chasmal, India

1984 Petrol line fire, Brazil 500 -

1984 LPG fire, Mexico 500 7000

Fire in a toy factory,

1993 211 -
Thailand

Huge fire in oil

1994 132 -
refinery, Cairo, Egypt

Fire in a dance hall,

1994 233 16
Beijing, China
 Fire in a moving train,
1995 375 -
Moscow, Russia

Fire due to short

1995 368 -
circuit, Sirsa, Haryana

A leaking gas pipeline

1995 exploded, Taegu, 109 160
South Korea

Gas fire in pilgrims’

1997 tents, Mecca, Saudi 343 -
Arabia

Fire following
explosion in a
1997 60 -
refinery,
Vishakhapatnam, AP

Fire while mopping up

petrol spillage from a
1997 burst pipeline in 500 -
southern Nigeria
Egypt.

Gas explosion in a
1999 coal mine, Beijing, 35 8
China

Fire Christmas party

2000 (discotheque) in city in 309 -
China on 26-12-2000

4.3Wounds-

A wound is an injury or an abnormal break in the continuity of the skin or other tissues. In
an external wound there is a danger that germs will enter the wound and cause an infection. If
the wound is deep severe bleeding may occur or there may be serious damage to the
structures within the body such as heart, lungs or brain.
 Types of wounds -
Wounds may be open or closed in the opened or closed. In the open wound skin is
broken and blood escapes out in a closed wounds skin is not broken.
 Other types of wounds
1) Arabism /Graze –
Cause – friction or pressure of rough object.
 Features – A superficial injury involving the other layers of the skin.
It is painful but bleeds slightly or oozing.
2) Bruise – cause- blunt force e.g. stonestick etc. features- It is red due to
infiltration of blood in to tissues skin over it in intact. It becomes blue, black,
green, yellow and finally disappears with time.
3) Lacerations – cause – blunt force e.g. Fall from roof, fall in house, fall on rough
surface or rough spicks.
They are much have difficult to treat and need medical attention stop
bleeding by applying pressure only remove large and loose pieces of it to the
experts. This sort of injury particularly calls for tetanus protection
Features- The skin and underlying tissues are torn. It has irregular and abrasions.
4) In used wounds – cause – A weapon with sharp cutting edge e.g. knife razor,
glass, etc. features - The edges of the wound are clean cut. It bleeds more than
laceration. If less than one cm long will probably heal well. If you stop bleeding
pull edges together and apply adhesive dressing. Do not fiddle about with design
reactant wash your hands clean the area around the wound ensuring that no
water enters into the open wound. Dry it carefully then apply the dressing
 Wounds on first aid –
1) Place the victim in a sloping position.
2) Apply pressure to control bleeding
3) Treat shock
 How to manage an infected wound
Any wound that has begun to heal after 24 hours, it gets infected. It contains
bacteria, dirt and may contain a florin body. The infection may spread elsewhere in
the body and cause further damage.
Feature of an infected wounds are as follows.
1) Pain and soreness in the wound
2) Swelling and redness around the wound clean the wound with sterile swabs
soaked in an antiseptic solution.
 Bleeding –
Introduction-
The human body contains approximately 5 lit of blood. A healthy adult can lose
up to half a liter of blood without any ill effect is loss of more than this can be
threating to life.
Bleeding is an escape of blood from in other words vessels bleeding is a flow of
blood from an artery vein or a capillary.
Effect of bleeding or hemorrhage-
There are four different types of hemorrhage of bleeding
1. Arterial bleeding –
i. The bleed is bright red in color
ii. It spurts at each contraction of heart
iii. Flow is pulse tile
2. Venous bleeding –
Bleeding from the veins which carries blood to heart
 (i) Bleed is dark red in color
(ii) If close not spurt
(iii)Stray how of blood.
2) Capillary bleeding – i) blood is red in color
ii) If dose no spurt
iii) Slow but even how
3) External and Internal bleeding –
Bleeding may occur externally due to an injury to the body or internally from
an Injury in which blood escape in tissue spacesor.
 The body cavity
First aid management
Aim- 1) control of bleeding as soon as possible
2) Keep the wound clean and dress it to minimum blood loss to prevent infection.
 Management – i) control the bleeding ii) place the person in such a position that
he/she will be least affected by the loss of bleeding due to gravity. Iii) maintain
airway clear iv) prevent the loss of body heat by belting blanket unclear and over
the person. V) keep him /her at rest as movement will increase the heart action
which will cause the blood to flow faster and will interfere clot formation.
 Burns –
Burns is defined as tissue damage caused by burn of open flame not object molten
metal or electricity Injury or mark, cause by fire heat or acid, small steam is called
burn.
 Burns are classified according to the area and depth of the injury as follows.
i) First degree- The outer skin is reddened and welted or slightly swollen.
ii) Second degree- The under skin is affected and blisters are formed.
iii) Third degree- The skin is destroyed and tissues underneath are damaged.
The objective in the treatment of burns and scalds are to relieve pain by excluding
air, prevent contamination and treed for shock.
 Scald we heat such as steam hot water hot. Oil etc. produces scalds. The scald is
superficial but often extensive. Blisters and red areas on the surface.
Assessment of burns: The dangers from burn depend upon the area of burn rather
than the degree. Superficial burns over large area is more dangerous than the
complete charging of a part any burn more than 30% should be hospitalized,
calculation for the percentage of the burn is to be done in following manner – The
skin area involved in burn case is more important than the depth. Even a superficial
burn involving more than 5% of the body surface is serious. It more than 15% the
patient may suffer from shock.
By following the rule of nine the percentage of skin area is to be calculated.
Rule of nine – 1) head and neck -9%
2)check -9% 3) Abdomen- 9% 4) Genital area -1% 5) front of each leg 9% 6) back of
each leg 9% 7) each hand 9 % 8) Back – 18 %
* General action –
1) Remove the source or burning or scalding
2) Cool the affected area at once
3) Treat shock if present.
4) Get medical help if the person is severely ill.
Do not -1) Do not put cotton wool or any other fluty dressing on the burn.
2) put, grease oily creams or butter on the wound
Lear blisters airline as if bursts then you what to do-
1) Place the part under running cold water for several minutes or until pain is
released.
2) Do not pull off any clothing around the burnt area unless the burn has affected only
a small confined area never palmary adherent charred cloth from this is an expert
job
3) Once the area has been cooled you can gently remove clothing from the affected
area around the scald this can be done for chemical burns also with excess of case
so that you will not get any harm from the chemical-soaked cloths.
4) Decides whether the person needs medical attention.
5) If you cannot put the burnt area under water from a container and apply soaking to
wets.
It the scald or burn is small i.e.- less than 2.5cm across shallow, easily
covered by – dressing and the person is well then there is no need of medical
attention.
 The medical attention is needed if –
1) The victim is a child
2) The burn is large and specially it involves the areas of the body that more affect
face eye palm or fingers or such parts which can’t be easily covered by dressings
3) Caused by a chemical, electricity or molten metal.
Be prepared to treat shock and call an ambulance or doctor it the victim has 10%
more burns or scalds of his body.
 First aid treatment for burns that you can treat.
1) Dry the area carefully
2) Remove burning or burnt cloths
3) Bandage the area lightly to hold the dressing in place.
4) Apply a dry dressing (can’t of cotton wool) preferably no adhesive burns
dressing from your first aid box.
5) If burn is of chemical nature due to acid naturalize the part with mild alkaline
(preferably 2% soda bicarb solution) and if it is due to alkaline neutralism the
part with mild acid 2% boric acid solution.
 Burns scalds and accident caused by electricity-
Burns scalds are dangers Rous because not only they can cause death but
delayed effects like scarring or deformities can quite dressing hence promit and
corvette treatment of burns and scolds are essential.
 Burns –
 Burns are injuries that result from dry heat like fire contact with hot metals
chemicals electricity and redaction.
 Scalds –
 Scalds are the injuries that results from most heat like boiling hot water steam,
oil hot tar and hot liquids.
The injuries in both burns and scalds are the same.

 Aims: - The aims of first aid are as follows.

1) To save life by removing any danger immediately treating life.
2) To prevent further injury and deterioration of patient’s condition.
3) To release pain.
4) To make medical case available at the earliest.
The Steps to be taken as ----
1) Assessment of the situation observes what has happened quickly and calmly.
Look danger to yourself and the victim never put yourself at higher risk.
2) One should inform the sinuousness of the problem to the relatives of the
victim.
3) One should inform police about the serious accident.
4) Loosen clothing around the neck and waist to aid breathing
5) Treat shock.
6) Release pain
7) Avoid handling the casualty (victim) unnecessarily.
8) Arrange for safe removed of the casualty (victim) to the hospital.
 Qualities of a person giving first aid
1) One should be a good observe and should be able to note the cause and effect of the
injury
2) She/he should be able to act quickly.
3) In case these are multiple injuries one should have for ability to judge the injuries to
be managed first.
4) Self-confident and able to judge which injuries need to be taken first.
5) Able to reassure the apprehensive victim and his/her anxious or nervous relative by
demonstrating competence sympathy and providing reassurance.
6) Able to lead and control the crowd and take help from on lookers.
Structure and function of human body
The human body is an amazing combination of different systems which are well coordinated
for smooth functioning as a unit
All the systems are equally important for health and no particular system can be called as
more important than other system.
A first aider needs to have knowledge of structure and function of various systems so as to
be able to clearly understand sickness and efficiency of injury on the body.
The human body can be comparing to well-oiled machine which is required to perform
various functions as essential. Every first aider should be familiar with the various systems of
body and their functioning so that they can understand and treat any type of abnormality in
emergency.
Human body is made up of bones muscles, blood and every part and organs of the body is
performing similar functioning forms a system of the body. So, the function of human body is
carried out by different system the body.
THE BASIC STRUCTURE OF HUMAN BODY

We all know that the smallest functioning unit of every human being is cell. A group of cells
together forms tissue various tissues together form organ. There may be a number of organs
in a system for a specific purpose

Part of organs involved in different system, some of the system are as follows-

Term Meaning

Midline ---------- It divides the body into right and left halves with

A vertical line.

Lateral ------------- Anything away from the middle is said to be

Lateral.

Superior ---------------- Towards the head end

Inferior ---------------- Towards the foot end

Posterior --------------- Back of the body

Anterior ------------ front of the body

Proximal ------------- To words the root of the limb

Disted ------------ To words the end of the limb

1) Skeletal system – It deals with bones and their functions

2) Circulatory System – It deals with circulation of blood in the body with different type
of blood vessels.
3) Respiratory system – It deals with breathing and function of the respiratory organs
4) Urinary system – It deals with formation of urine and removed from body
5) Digestive system – It deals with digestion of food
6) Muscular system – It deals with different type of muscles of the body
 Skeletal system
The skeletal system consists of 206 bones joined together by ligaments and cartilage
and muscles. The various parts are as follows –
The human body consists of head trunk and limbs. The frame work of the body is as
follows—
The human bodies consist of head trunk and limbs. The frame work of the body is as follows
– All bones like long bones, short bones, irregular shaped bones and bone marrow.

I) Skull- A bony frame work of the head under the skin. The seven bones of the skill
and14 bones of the face are firmly united and incapable of movement. The bones of
lover jaw mandible however can be moved up and down as well as side to side.
 Skull is made up of many that bones joined together so that no movement is allowed in
between the bones. It holds the brain. Eyes are located in bony cavities on the front of the
skull.
The nose is made up of small bones attached to the skull.
II) Spine – Back bone or the vertebral column. It consists of 33 small bones called as
vertebrae there are 7 vertebrae, in the neck are called cervical vertebrae 12 in back are
called as thoracic vertebrae, and 5 vertebrae joined together in the lumber region 5 in
sacrum and 4 in the coy.
These are small bones with central cavities and joined end to end forming a central
canal that- contains the spinal cord.
iii) Thorax – it is made up of the thoracic vertebrae behind, sternum in front and12
ribs on the side’s. It pockets the hard and lungs. There are twelve ribs on each side
attached to the thoracic vertebrae at back- except the lowest four the ribs are
attached to breast bone in a front.
iv) Scapulae or breast bone also known as sternum – It is a flat bone of the thoracic
sternum there are two flat triangular bones on the back that connect the upper limbs
to the thorax. Upper limbs – hands each upper limb consist of 19 bones long bone in
the arm called as hummer us two long bones called radius ulna in the forearm and
small bones in the wrist and remaining small bones in the hand (paw).
v) Lower limbs – (legs)
Each lower limb consists of a long bone called femur in thigh, two
long bone called tibia and fibula in the leg and many small bones in the ankle and
foot.

vi) Collar bone or clavicle – It extends from sternum i.e.-breast bone to the shoulder

vii) Shoulder blade or scapula –It is a thin flat bone forming the part of shoulder
girdler.

viii) Hip bone or in nominate bone –there are two Hip bone attached to the sacrum
each hip bone is made up of three (3) bones ilium ischium and pelvic bone.

The main functions of the skeleton system are: -

1) Supporting frame work for soft tissue of the body.

2) Protecting vital, organs like brain, heart lungs and abdominal organs.
3) Permitting movement by functioning as levels at the joints.
4) Formation of blood cells.

4.4 Unconsciousness-
 Any disturbance with the normal functioning of the brain and nerves is called
unconsciousness. It may be not only due to some disease or injury to the brain but
also of other organs in the body.
Various types of unconsciousness are as follows: -
1) Stupor – It is a state of semi consciousness in which person response only two
external stimuli or loud noise, pupils of the eyes contract in respect of light.
2) Coma- It is a state of complete loss of consciousness the person doesn’t respond
to even painful steal eye movements are absent of
Causes of unconsciousness
1) Acute fever
2) Diabetes or overdose of insulin
3) Heat stroke or exhaustion
4) Sever loss of body fluids.
No breathing
Ventilate two times (pinch nostrils and feel for movement of air, take adequate breath and
place your mouth around the casually to make a light seal and blow in to his lungs.
1) Check for pulselessness- Feel for neck pulse present – continue to ventilate once in every
5 seconds. No pulse – locate the lower margin of the rib cage. Run the fingers up to the
notch where the ribs meet the breast bone.
Place the middle finger on this notch with index finger next to it.
Place the heed of the other hand next of the index finger on the long axis of the breast
bone.
Remove the first hand from the notch and place on top of the other hand with fingers
interfaced with elbows locked arms straightened position your shoulders directly over your
hands and perform external chest compression. Depress 4 to 5 cm for adults 2.5 to 4 cm for
children from 1 to 14 years old check carotid pulse after 4 cycles and every five minutes then
on.
 First aid against electric shock
Remove of contact with live conductor. The first action to be taken during electric
shock is to remove the contact between the person and live conductor without
touching the person/conductor with bare hands. Rubber glows/rope/walking
stick/Dry cloth /dry paper/insulating rod/Bamboo pole/Rubber soled shoes any
available insulating rods may be used for pushing the person away from away
conductor.
Simultaneously nearest circuit breakers should be opened from local control to with off the
supply to the particular conductor. These actions must be taken with a fraction of second. For
this the personnel should be trained and rehearsals should be conducted at site.
 First principles of action after electric shock -
Assume that the person is alive and will regain normal state with your fast aid.
Have confidence in yourself and in God.
If breathing is weak or breathing has stopped, try to restore it by artificial respiration and or
external cardiac massage promptly

- Stop bleeding it any.

- Lower the head of the person under physical
- Keep crowd, keep the area well ventilated.
- Avoid rapid movement of patient, movement should be slow.
- Loosen the light cloths of the patient and keep him warm with cloth sheet /worm cover
particularly in winter.
- Do not give water to drink to an unconscious patient.
- Arrange medical help at the earliest
- Assure the patient that he will regain normal state.
- Avoid excitement panic, commotion
- Keep calm and alert
- Get ambulance and take the patient to hospital while conducting artificial respiration and
or heart massage.
 Secondary actions - Notify about the accident to the head of the organization, head
of the safety department, police, insurance companies and relatives of the patient.
 Dressings and bandages
The first rule in any treatment majority for the wounds is cleanliness prevention
of infection is the only assurance that the wound will heal well. In wounds caused
by accident where dirt and dust are spread around for example –road accidents,
earthquakes, tricolons etc. there are greater chances of infection wounds caused by
metals, burns or heat inside. Cuts acquired through glass, such injuries are generally
clean wounds.
 Dressings-
A dressing is a material or fabric piece, applied to a wound or to injured part
and primarily used for three purpose –
1) To control bleeding.
2) To protect a wound from further infection.
3) To prevent or less infection.
 Types of dressing –
1) Prepared sterile dressing-

This is the ideal for all wounds and consists of sterilized piece gauze or lint to which
sometimes a pad or roller band age is stitched. This dressing is enclosing and sealed in a
protective covering. Before using a sterile dressing, hands must be thoroughly washed with a
disinfectantpreferablychlorohexidine 7.5% or with soap water.

2) Gauge or lint – It a sterile dressing is not available cover the wound with piece of
clean gauze
3) Emergency dressing – It a prepared sterile dressing is not immediately available soft
sav material, cotton, bed sheet, table cover, sanitary pads, the inside folding of clean
handkerchief or freshly laundries towel.

The great care that must be taken in handling and applying dressing is to avoid touching
with the naked fingers any part of the wound or any part of dressing which will be in contact
with the wounds.
 Dressings must be covered with an adequate pad of cotton wool which must extend well
beyond the dressing and kept in place with a bandage.
Note - A bleeding wound needs a pressure pad dressing.
 Bandages
Objectives of bandaging
1) To retain or fix dressings and splints in position and to immobilize fractures knots
should never be tied over feature.
2) To afford support to an injured part or form slings.

*To prevent infection

* To control bleeding
* To reduce or prevent swelling.
* To assist in lifting and carrying casualties’signs and symptoms of tight
bandages.
*Skin distal to bandaging may become bluish.
*Numbness and tingling.
Treatment immediate loosening of the bandage.

1.5 Heat and cold injuries and its first aid

HEAT STROKE AND HEAT EXHAUSTION/ HEAT INJURIES
Heat stroke proper is an entirely different reaction in the human body than Heat
Exhaustion. It is serious and often fatal condition. Hot, still, humid atmosphere and
inadequate drinking of water favor’s development of Heat Stroke. Alcohol
consumption and constipation also favors its onset.
Casualty shows mental excitement, restlessness, vomiting muscular cramps and
high temperature in the range of 104 ºf or above. If temperature reaches 106 º f
patients may become unconscious.
HEAT EXHAUSTION

Heat exhaustion occurs among the workers in stuffy atmosphere or in overheated,

poorly ventilated room. There may be feeling of giddiness or fainting. Prevention by wearing
loose clothing, drinking large quantities or water is possible.
Heatstroke and heat exhaustion can occur when the body becomes overheated. Heatstroke
is the more serious of the two conditions. A person suffering heatstroke feels hot but cannot
sweat. The skin becomes hot, dry, and red. The body temperature rises so high that it can
cause brain damage if not lowered quickly. Undress the victim, and apply cold, wet towels to
the entire body. Fanning also helps cool the body. Get medical attention as quickly as
possible.
A person suffering heat exhaustion also called heat prostration, displays many of the
symptoms of shock. Such symptoms include headache, nausea, and feeling faint. The skin is
cold, grey, and wet with perspiration. In most cases, the body temperature remains about
normal. Treat the victim as if he or she were in shock. Place the victim on his or her back,
with the legs raised slightly. If the victim has trouble breathing in the position, place the
person in a half-sitting, half-lying position. Take the victim to a hospital, keeping him or her
as cool as possible.
First aid treatment of heat stroke

- call a doctor.
- Commence active treatment before temperature reaches 104º F.
- Strip the patient naked and wrap him up completely in cold water socked bed sheet.
- Fan vigorously and when temperature of body comes down to 102ºF cooling process
should be stopped.
- Later on, patient should be dried and covered with light blanket.
- Water can be given to drink to gain normal condition.

FROSTBITE/COLD INJURIES
Frostbite may occur when the skin is exposed to extreme cold. It most frequently
affects the skin of the cheeks, chin, ear, fingers, nose, or toes.
Frostbitten skin appears whitish and feels numb. It should be handled gently.
First Aid
1) Warm the affected area with the heat of your hand or cover it with a heavy cloth until
you can get the victim indoors.
2) If warm water is not available, wrap the frostbitten area in blankets. Obtain medical
assistance as quickly as possible.
3) If a victim of frostbite must be moved, protect the person from additional exposure.

6.3 Fundamentals of First-Aid-Burns, Fractures, Suffocation, Toxic Ingestion - Bleeding

Wounds and Bandaging, Artificial Respiratory Techniques.
Burns:
1. Act quickly.
2. Put the affected part in cold water.
3. Pour water on burns that cannot be immersed (Cold water relieves pain, reduces fluid
loss).
4. Cover with a sterilized dressing.
BURNS AND SCALDS
Causes of Burns and Scalds:
1. Burns are injuries that result from dry heat like fire, flame, a piece of hot metal, the
sun, contact with wire carrying high tension electric current or by lightning or friction.
Scalds are caused by moist heat due to boiling water, steam, oil, hot tar etc.
2. Chemical burns are caused by strong acids (Sulphur acid. Nitric acid etc.) or by strong
Alkalis (Caustic Soda, Caustic Potash, quick lime or strong Ammonia).
3. A nuclear burn is caused by the instantaneous flash of intense heat given off by a
nuclear explosion. It is capable of causing superficial burns on the exposed skin of
persons several miles away.
Degrees or Depth of Burns:

The degrees of burns indicate the degree of damage to the tissues. There are five degrees of
burns:
First Degree:When the skin is reddened
Second Degree:When there are blisters on the skin, and
Third Degree:When there is destruction of deeper tissues and of charring.
Fourth Degree:Steam blebs
Fifth Degree:Carbonization

Percentage of Burn:
The danger from burns depends on the area i.e. percentage of the body part of the burns
rather than the degree. Superficial burns over a large area of the body are more dangerous
than the complete carrying of a part of the limb. It must be noted that in the same person,
different parts of the body may show different degrees of burns. Any burn of over 30%
irrespective of deep degree - should be hospitalized as priority. More than 50% burns are
more serious.
Above figure shows the percentage (extent) of burns. It follows the rule of 9. For
more area, add the percentage appropriately. For example, burns of both hands and both legs
indicate 9+18 = 27% burns.
Helping a person whose clothes have caught fire:
The First Aider should know how to deal with a person whose clothes have caught
fire.
1. Put out the flames by whatever means available. Most of the causes of burns occur in
homes and drinking water is readily available to quench the flames, water also cool
the burnt area causing less damage to occur.
2. Do not allow the person to run about. This only fan the fire and makes the flames
spread.
3. Hold a rug, blanket, coat or table cover in
front of you, while approaching a man
whose clothing have caught fire.
4. Lay him down quickly on the ground and
wrap tightly with any thick piece of cloth,
rug or coat. Smother the flame by gently
rolling the causality or by gentle pats over
the covering.
5. If the clothes in front of the body have
caught fire, lay him on his back and vice
versa, till suitable material is brought to
smother the flame.
Rescuing Persons from Fire:
5. When there is fire in a room in which the doors and windows are closed, do not open
the windows and door to let in air. The rush of air will increase the fire and it will
burn more intensely.
First Aid of minor Burns and Scalds:
In the case of minor burns:
1. Clean the area gently with clean water.
2. Submerge the burned area in cold water.
3. Apply a solution of salt and water (one teaspoonful to a pint of water) in out of the
way places.
4. Cover with dry dressing.
5. Do not apply cotton wool direct to the burnt.
6. Do not apply any greasy substance.
7. Give warm drinks for example sweetened tea or coffee.
First Aid of Serious Burns and Scalds:
Immediate attention that required in serious burns are:
First Aid of Chemical Burns:
1. Wash off the chemical with a large quantity of water for 15 minutes by using a
shower or hose if available as quickly as possible. This flooding with water will wash
away most of the irritant.
2. Cut out contaminated clothing.
3. Do not touch.
4. Treat as for burns.
Burns of the Eye:

Acid Burns:

1. First aid for acid burns of the eye should be given as quickly
as possible by thoroughly washing the face, eyelids and the
eye for at least fifteen minutes by water.
2. If the casualty is lying down, turn his head to the side, hold the
eyelids open and pour water from the inner corner of the eye
outward. Make sure that the chemical does not enter into the
other eye. Cover the eye with a dry, clean protective dressing
(do not use cotton) and bandage.
3. Neutralizing agents or ointments should not be used.
4. Caution the victim against rubbing his eye.
5. Get medical help immediately (preferably an eye specialist).

Alkali Burns:
Alkali burns of the eye can be caused by drain cleaner or other cleaning solution. An
eye that first appears to have only a slight surface injury may develop deep inflammation and
tissue destruction and the sight may be lost.
1. Flood the eye thoroughly with water for 15 minutes.
2. If the casualty is lying down, turn his head to the side. Hold the lids open and pour
water from the inner corner outward. Remove any loose particles of dry chemicals
floating on the eye by lifting them off gently with a sterile gauze or a clean
handkerchief.
3. Do not irritate with soda solution.
4. Mobilize the eye by covering with a dry pad or protective clothing. Seek immediate
medical aid.
Fractures:
It may be open or closed. Open fractures in which not only the bone but also the skin
is damaged are most dangerous. Germs can get into die wound formed by the break in the
skin and cause suppuration gas gangrene or tetanus. In closed fractures the outer coverings
(skin and mucous membranes) are intact and prevent the entry of germs.
The signs of fractures of the long tubular bones include pain, hemorrhage, distortion
of the injured part of the arm or leg, abnormal mobility in a place where there should be none,
crackling, swelling, deformity and inability to make any movement.
The fragments of the bone may be displaced to a varying degree in length, width, or at an
angle to each other causing some deformation of the limb.
First Aid; The limb affected must be immobilized. This is especially important
during transportation of the patient. The bone fragments should be tied so that they cannot
move. The rules for immobilizing fractures should be observed. If they are not observed,
grave complications can develop menacing the patient's life.
Treatment:
1. Immobilize the fractured limb with splint like wooden stick, hardboard or
umbrella
2. Make a padding of cotton or hanky on the splints.
3. Do not tighten the splint too tight or loose
4. Elevate the injured limb.
5. Use natural splints, like if a leg is fractured the other leg can be used as natural
splint.
Spine Fracture:
Falling from height can cause spine fracture
Treatment:
Move the patient on a hard surface like table or bench etc.
1. Do not allow to sit, stand or walk
2. Tarn the patient by log rolling
3. Shift the patient to hospital.
Backbone (Spinal) Fracture:
1. Transport on a rigid frame. This frame may be improvised by using available boards
or a door.
2. The rigid frame may be placed on a stretcher for transportation.
3. If a firm frame cannot be improvised, transport patient on abdomen on a stretcher
made of canvas or blanket.
4. In neck fracture cases it is much better to get a doctor to the scene because danger to
the life is great.
5. Immediate hospitalization is necessary.
Suffocation:
1. Remove the patient from the source of danger.

2. Make a rapid examination to ensure that the air passages are free and to clean them if
necessary.

3. Restore natural breathing by artificial respiration, if breathing has ceased.

Toxic Ingestion:
Poisoning by Swallowing (Mouth route):

Sometimes acids, alkalis, disinfectants etc., are swallowed by mistake. They burn the
lips, tongue, throat, food passage and stomach and cause great pain. Other swallowed
poisons cause vomiting, pain and later on diarrhea. Poisonous fungi, berries,' metallic
poisons and stale food belong to the latter group. Some swallowed poisons affect the nervous
system. To this group belong (a) alcoholic drink (methylated spirit, wine, whisky etc.) when
taken in large quantities, and (b) tablets for sleeping, tranquillizers and pain killing drugs
(Aspirin or Largectil). All these victims must be considered as seriously ill. The symptoms
are either delirium or fits or coma (unconsciousness). Some poisons act on nervous system
(belladonna, strychnine).

Poisoning by Gases (Nose route):

Fumes or gases from charcoal, stoves, household gas, motor exhausts, chemicals and
smoke from explosions etc.; cause choking (asphyxia) which may result in unconsciousness
in addition to difficulty in breathing.
Poisoning by Injection (Skin route):
Poisons get into the body through injection, bites of poisonous snakes and rabid dogs
or stings by scorpions and insects. Danger to life is again by choking and coma.
General First Aid in Poisoning:

1. Poisoning is a serious matter. Patient must be removed to a hospital/or a doctor be

sent for, at once with a note of the findings and, if possible, the name of the poison.
2. Preserve packets or bottles which you suspect contained the poison and also any
vomits, sputum etc., for the doctor to deal with.
3. If poison is' not known:
 Make a quick assessment of the likely route of exposure by examining the eyes,
mouth, nose and skin of the victim for signs of the chemical itself or damage it has
caused such as swelling, redness, bleeding, burns, discharge of fluid or mucous or
pallor. Drooling, difficulty in swallowing, a distended, painful, hard, or rigid abdomen
all indicates possible ingestion of a corrosive or caustic substance. If respiration is
rapid, shallow, noisy or labored, suspect inhalation. If the face has been splashed with
chemical, eye contact is likely.
4. Poisoning by inhalation:
Remove victim from exposure while protecting yourself from exposure.
If breathing has stopped, administer artificial respiration using a bag-valve mask. Do
not use mouth to mouth resuscitation. Instead, use chest pressure-arm lift technique.
Maintain an open airway.
Arrange for transport of the victim to a medical facility.
5. Poisoning by Ingestion
Do not induce vomiting if he has abdominal pain or burns in mouth. If no such
problem, then induce vomiting by syrup of ipecac. Lastly give I or 2 cups of water to
drink.
6. Poisoning by skin contact:
Remove the victim from the contaminated area: Be careful to protect your lungs, skin
and eyes while doing so. Remove the victim's clothing, shoes and jewelry from the
affected areas, cutting them off if necessary. Do this under a shower or while flushing
with water. Continue to flush with water until all traces of the chemical are gone and
any feeling of soapiness has disappeared also. Rinse for at least 15 minutes cover the
victim with a blanket or dry clothing. Inform and refer the victim immediately to. a
physician for his advice.
In case of inflammation, burns, blisters or pain-
Loosely apply a dry sterile dressing if available or use a clean dry cloth for it. Inform
and refer the victim immediately to a physician for his advice.

If the victim is in a state of shock -

Lay him down on his side and cover him with a blanket. Elevate his feet. Inform and
refer the victim immediately to a physician for his advice. Do not break open blisters
or remove skin. If clothing is stuck to the skin after flushing with water, do not
remove it.
 Do not rub or apply pressure to the affected skin

Do not apply any oily substance to the affected skin.

Do not use hot water.

7. Poisoning by eye contact:

Remove the victim from the contaminated area. Be careful to protect your lungs, skin
and eves while doing so. Act quickly. Flush the victim's eyes with clean tepid water
for at least 15 minutes. Has the victim lie or sit down and tilt his head back Hold his
eyelids open and pour water slowly over the eyeballs starting at the inner corners by
the nose and letting the water run out of the corners.
The victim may be in great pain and want to keep his eyes closed or rub them but you
must rinse the chemical out of the eyes in order to prevent possible damage.
Ask victim to look up, down and side to side as you rinse.
Transport victim to the medical facility as soon as possible. Even if there is no pain
and vision is good, a physician should examine the eyes since delayed damage may
occur.

If eyes are painful,

1. Cover loosely with gauze or a clean, dry cloth.

2. Maintain verbal and physical contact with the victim.
8. If unconscious - (a) Do not induce vomiting (b) Make the casualty lie on his back on
a hard, flat bed without any pillow and turn the head to one side. As there is no
pressure on the stomach and the gullet is horizontal the vomited matter will not get
into the voice box and the tongue will not close the air passage. This is also the best
posture for giving artificial respiration, if needed (c) Sometimes when there is excess
of vomiting the three-quarter prone posture (i.e. the casualty is made to lie on his side
with one leg stretched, the other bent at knee and thigh) will make things easier for
the casualty (d) If breathing is very slow or stopped, start artificial respiration and
keep it up till the doctor comes, (e) Maintain open airways (f) Do not use mouth to
mouth resuscitation (g) Do not give any thing by mouth (h) In case of signs of shock,
 elevate-his feet, 20-30 cm and cover him with a blanket (i) Arrange for sending to
medical facility.
9. If conscious - (a) Aid vomiting by tickling the back of throat or make him drink tepid
water mixed with 2 tablespoons of common salt for a tumbler of water (b) Even if
conscious, when the poison is a corrosive do not induce vomiting. Signs of corrosives:
Lips, mouth and skin show grey white or yellow, patches which are to be looked for:
acids, alkalis etc., cause such burns.
First Aid: Factories which use certain poisons shall have the respective antidotes
ready and displayed in an easily available place. The personnel should be taught
about the use of antidotes - so that anyone can render assistance in case of emergency.
For antidotes see Part-10.6.

The poison must be diluted by giving large quantities of cold water (chilled, if possible) This
will dilute the irritant and delay absorption and will replace fluid lost by vomiting.
Tender coconut water will be even better as this will be a food and also a diuretic.

Soothing drinks should be given. Milk, egg beaten and mixed with water or
some congee are good for the purpose.

Alcohol Poisoning:
Alcohol taken in considerable (toxic) quantities may cause fatal poisoning, A fatal
dose of ethyl alcohol is 8 g per I kg body weight. Alcohol affects the heart, blood vessels,
gastro intestinal tract, liver, kidneys and mainly the brain. In a case of severe intoxication,
sleep is followed by unconscious state. • Vomiting and involuntary urination are frequent
symptoms. The respiratory center is drastically inhibited, which is manifested by irregular
breathing. Death ensues when the respiratory center becomes paralyzed.
First aid:Fresh air should be provided (a window open or the victim taken outside)
and vomiting induced by 'minor lavages'. If the patient is still conscious, he should be given
hot strong coffee. A respiratory arrest is managed by artificial respiration.
Poisoning with Acids and Alkalis:
In poisoning with concentrated acids and alkalis, a grave condition rapidly develops,
in the first place, to extensive burns in the mouth, throat, esophagus, stomach and often the
larynx. Later, the absorbed toxins affect the vital organs (e.g. liver, kidneys, lungs, or heart).
Concentrated acids and alkalis are able to destroy. tissues. The mucous membranes, being
less resistant than the skin, are destroyed and necrosis occurs more rapidly involving deeper
layers.
Burns and scabs form on the mucous membrane of the mouth and lips. In a bum due
to Sulphur acid, the scabs are black, in a burn due to nitric acid they are greyish-yellow, in
one due to hydrochloric acid they are yellowish-green and in one due to acetic acid greyish-
white.
Alkalis more easily penetrate the skin and affect deeper layers. The burnt surface is
loose, decomposed and whitish in colour.
As soon as an acid or alkali is swallowed the patient feels strong pain in the mouth,
behind the breast bone and in the epigastrium. When laid down he tosses in bed from
unbearable pain. There is almost always tormenting vomiting often with admixtures of blood.
Painful shock rapidly develops. The larynx may swell and asphyxia develops. When an acid
or alkali is taken in great amount, cardiac weakness and collapse rapidly develop.
Poisoning with ammonium hydroxide takes a grave course. The pain syndromes are
attended by asphyxia because the airways are also affected.
The person -who is rendering first aid must find out at once which chemical caused
the poisoning because the treatment varies according to the type of poison.

If the poisoning was caused by concentrated acids and the symptoms of esophageal or
gastric perforation are absent, the stomach should be leveraged through a thick stomach tube
using for it 610 liters of warm water mixed with magnesium oxide (20 g per litter of liquid)
or lime water. Sodium carbonate is contraindicated for a gastric lavage. "Minor lavage " i.e.
drinking 4-5 glasses of water and then inducing vomiting, will not alleviate the patient's
condition and sometimes may even promote absorption of the poison.

If a stomach tube is unavailable, the patient may be given milk, oil, egg, white,
mucilaginous decoctions, or smoothing substances. In poisoning with carbolic acid (Phenol,
Lysol) milk, oil or fat should not be taken. Magnesium oxide mixed with water or lime water
should be given in this case, as in poisoning by all other acids. Cold compresses or ice
should be put on the epigastric region to lessen pain.

When the poisoning is due to concentrated alkalis, the stomach should be immediately
lavage with 6 10 liters of tepid water or a I per cent citric or acetic acid solution within four
hours of the poisoning. When a stomach tube is unavailable and the patient's grave condition
(swelling of the larynx) prevents a stomach lavage, mucilaginous solutions are given, 23 per
cent citric or acetic acid solution (I tablespoonful every 5 minutes), or lemon juice. Rinsing of
the mouth or administration of sodium hydrochloride solution is contraindicated.

The patient should be immediately admitted to a medical institution where he will be

given the necessary urgent medical help.

It should be kept in mind that when a perforation of the esophagus or stomach is

suspected, they being manifested by severe pain in the stomach and unbearable pain behind
the breast bone, drinking and moreover, lavage of the stomach is not permitted.
Poisoning with Toxic Chemicals:
The latent course of the disease is 15-60 minutes, after which the symptoms of the
affection of the nervous system appear (e.g. enhanced salivation, discharge of sputum and
perspiration). Breathing accelerates and becomes noisy, as rail heard at a distance. The
patient becomes restless and excited. Cramp appears in the legs and the intestine undergoes
increased peristalsis which is followed by muscular paralysis and paralysis of the respiratory
muscles. The respiratory arrest that follows, causes asphyxia and death.
In accidents connected with the inhalation of the toxic chemicals the victim must be
immediately hospitalized. If possible, he should be given 6-8 drops of a 0.1 per cent atropine
solution or 1-2 tablets of belladonna. When respiration is arrested, artificial respiration
should be carried out. When the poisoning is caused by toxins getting into the gastro-
intestinal tract, the stomach should be washed with water mixed with suspension of activated
carbon Saline purgatives should also be prescribed. The toxic substances should be removed
from the skin and mucous membranes with running water.

Carbon Monoxide Poisoning:

Carbon monoxide poisoning may occur in the chemical industry where it is used for
synthesizing certain organic compounds (acetone, methyl
alcohol, phenol etc.), in poorly ventilated garages, in
furnaces or in stuffy, freshly painted premises. It may
also happen in households when the stove shutters are
closed too early in premises with stove heating.
The early symptoms are headache, heaviness in
the head, nausea, dizziness, noise in the ears and
palpitation. Later muscular weakness and vomiting
occur. If the victim remains in the poisonous
atmosphere, the weakness intensifies, somnolence, clouding of consciousness and dyspnea
develop. The skin turns pale and sometimes bright red spots appear on the body. In further
exposure to carbon monoxide the patient's respiration becomes shallow, convulsions develop
and paralysis of the respiratory center terminates in death.
First Aid: The victim must be immediately removed from the poisonous surrounding,
better into the open air in warm weather. If his breathing is weak and shallow or arrested,
artificial respiration should be continued until adequate natural breathing or the true signs of
biological death appear. Rubbing should be carried out and hot water bottles applied to the
legs. A brief whiff of ammonium hydroxide is beneficial A patient with severe carbon
monoxide poisoning must be immediately hospitalized in order to prevent possible grave
complications in the lungs and nervous system which may develop later.
Antidotes for some commonChemicals:
Antidotes are therapeutic agents used to counteract the toxic effects of specific
xenobiotics. These are heterogenous group of substances consisting of pharmaceuticals,
biological agents and immunoglobulin fragments. Different mechanisms of action are
involved Some specifically act at the receptor sites while others exert their effect by changing
the metabolism of the poison counteracting the toxic injury or just forming the inert complex
with the poison.
Antidotes acting at receptor sites: Drug intoxications are mostly treated with these
antidotes. However, Atropine is a specific antidote for organophosphate or carbamate
pesticide poisoning. Similarly, physostigmine for Datura and neostigmine for Curare
poisonings are useful. Others include, naloxone for opioid, flumazenil for benzodiazepines
and physostigmine for atropine poisoning.
Antidotes changing the metabolism of the poison: These antidotes either interfere
with the metabolism of the toxic agent thereby reducing the toxicity or strengthen the
detoxifying capacity of the body. Antidotes included in this group are ethanol, 4-methyl
pyrazolo, acetylcysteine, sodium thiosulphate, fulminic acid and pyridoxine.
Antidotes binding with the poison and forming fewer toxic complexes: In this
category, poison may be adsorbed or chelated by the antidote. Activated charcoal effectively
adsorbs a large variety of drugs and toxins, thereby decreasing their bioavailability and
enhancing elimination. Role of multiple doses of activated charcoal as gastrointestinal
dialyzer is being recognized in the treatment of poisoning, due to drugs. On the other hand,
chelating agents like BAL, penicillamine and DMSA form complexes with heavy metals,
thereby preventing or reversing the binding of metallic cations to body ligands.
 Antidotes counteracting the toxic injury: The agents in this group reverse a chemically
induced damage or functional disturbance and restore physiological conditions. Amyl nitrite,
sodium nitrite, sodium thiosulphate, methylene blue, dantrolene, benzyl penicillin, glucagon,
oximes, etc. are common examples.
In general, antidotes should be given in adequate doses as early as possible in cases of
poisoning. Some antidotes cause serious adverse reactions. Hence, both the risk and the
benefits of the antidotal therapy must, therefore, be carefully evaluated and the patient must
be monitored regularly. At times the half-life of some antidotes like naloxone, atropine is
much shorter than the toxin, in which cases the antidotal therapy must be continued till the
symptoms of the poisoning subside.

Bleeding Wounds and Bandaging

Wounds:

1. Stop the bleeding by any one of the following methods:

(1) Direct pressure.

(2) Direct finger pressure into the wound in case of larger bleeding wound.

(3) Tourniquet (seldom needed) use only as a last resort.

2. Avoid touching the wound with hands or unsterile material.

3. Clear the wound with running water and surrounding area with soap or spirit
with clear gauze washing away from the wound. Apply ready-made adhesive gauze bandage
or sterile gauze and roller bandage as needed.

4. Keep the patient quiet; raising the extremity if it is the bleeding part. Give no
stimulants.

5. Never apply antiseptic ointment, lotion or iodine or germicide to the wound.

6. Elevate injured part above the patient's heart level.

7. Try and use rubber gloves.

Abdominal wounds:

1. No time must be lost in sending the patient, to the hospital.

 2. Keep the patient flat.

3. Give nothing by mouth.

4. Maintain warmth.

5. If. intestines protrude from the wound do not attempt to touch or replace them.

6. Apply sterile dressing and binder as for wounds.

7. Provide careful and immediate transportation to the hospital.

Eye-Wounds:

1. Removal may be attempted if foreign body is not embedded.

2. Do not apply- oil or ointment.

3. If there is a foreign body embedded in the eye ball, send the patient
immediately to the doctor after applying pad and loose bandage.

ARTIFICIAL RESPIRATION

Treatment when not breathing:

1. Loosen all clothing at waist, chest and neck.

2. Tilt the head backwards, while supporting the back of neck with your palm. This will
lift the tongue to its normal position. Thus, the air passage will be cleared and the
casualty may begin to breath after a gasp.

3. If breathing does not begin after the above treatment, help movements of chest and
lungs four or five times. This will be usually enough to start breathing. If breathing
does not start even now, mouth to mouth (-to-nose) breathing should be begun.

Mouth-to-Mouth breathing:

1. Place the casualty on his back. Hold his head tilted back.

2. Take a deep breath with mouth open widely.

3. Keep nostrils of casually pinched.

4. Cover the mouth of the casualty with your mouth smugly.

5. Watching the chest, blow into his lungs, until the chest bellows up. Withdraw your
mouth. Note the chest falls back (It is hygienic to cover the mouth of casualty with
your handkerchief or some clean cloth).

6. Repeat the above 15 to 20 times a minute.

7. If casualty is young (baby or child) the operations are as above, but your open mouth
should cover both the mouth and nose of the casualty and blow gently.

8. If the chest does not rise (as in 5 above) look for an obstruction.

- Turn the casualty to a side and thump his back. This will make the obstructing
material come to the front of throat. Open the mouth and remove it with your
finger covered with a piece of the cloth.

- If a child, hold it up by the feet and thump the back.

9. Use mouth-to-nose respiration if mouth to-mouth is not possible, but now the
casualty's mouth should be closed by the First Aider's thumb.

10. If heart is working, continue artificial respiration until normal breathing occurs. Send
for Ambulance.

11. If the heart is not working, you will notice:

- The face is blue or pale.

- Pupils are dilated.
- Heart beats and pulse at the root of neck (carotid) are not felt.
Then treat as follows: (a) Place the casualty flat on his back on a hard surface (bench,
table etc.) (b) Give a smart hit with the edge of your hand on the lower and left angle of the
sternum. This usually stimulates the heart to work. (c) In case the heart does not work,
persist the striking for 10-15 seconds at the rate of one stroke a second. Feel for the pulse at
the root of neck all the time. If the pulse becomes regular and continuous, stop beating, all the
while artificial respiration has to go on.
Even if the casualty is breathing, but the breathing is not normal, it is wise to start
artificial respiration. Do not begin thumping the heart or compression until you are sure that
the heart has stopped beating.
External Heart Compression:
(If there are two trained persons):
1. This should go on along with artificial respiration. Therefore, ask the First Aider
giving mouth-to-mouth breathing to sit to the right of the casualty and place yourself
on the left side.
2. Feel and mark the lower part of the sternum.
3. Place the heel of your hand on the marked part (make sure that the palm and fingers
are not in contact with the chest).
4. Place the heel of the other hand over it.
5. With your right arm, press the sternum backwards, towards the spine. (It can be
pressed back 1 to 1.5 inches in adults).
6. Adults should be given about 60 pressures a minute. For children from two to ten
years 3 pressures with one hand (heel) will be enough, but pressure should be 80 to 90
times a minute. For babies up to two years, 2 pressures with two fingers is good
enough if applied 100 times per " minute.
7. Press firmly but carefully. Carelessness (over pressure) may cause injury to ribs and
deeper tissues.
8. If the treatment is effective (a) Colour will become normal (b) Pupil will contract as
improvement beings; and (c) Carotid pulse begins with each pressure.
9. When pulse is not restored, continue compression till the patient reaches
hospital.
10. Inflation of lungs to heart pressure should be as 2.15. If there is only one First Aider,
he has to be very smart and active. Finish 15 heart compression, rush to head-side,
give two inflation to the lungs, and get back to the heart and give 15 compression.
Repeat these. If there are two First Aiders, No. 1 makes 5 heart compression and then
No. 2 gives two lungs inflation. These are repeated. At the same time No. 1 can
watch the pupils and No. 2 can feel the carotid pulse.

Fractures and joint Injuries –

Bone injuries are the injuries which are resected of fractured directly at the point a blow is
applied, an indirect force may cause the bone to break away from the spot of application of
force.(transmission of force from one part to another) e.g. fracture of clavicle after a fall on
the out stretched hand violent contraction of a group of muscles may pull pieces of bone
away from the point where the muscles are attached e.g. fracture of patella by powerful
contraction of quadriceps muscles wrenching of a joint can cause its ligament to pull so hard
at the bones forming the joint that one of the bone may fracture e.g. fracture of lower leg
bone at the ankle after stumbling. Pathological fractures are called when the bone may be the
seat of number of diseases which weaken it and make it liable to break even with very minor
injuries.

 How to distinguish whether there is a fracture

i. There may is usually pain over the fractured bone.
ii. There may be swelling or brushing
iii. There is loss or severe restrictions of use of the affected area.
iv. Bones may pace through the skin.

Types of fractures
1) Simple (closed) fractures – In this type the skin surface is infect.
2) Compound (open) fracture- In this type this skin surface over the fracture is
broken and fracture communicates with outside. There is a risk extensive blood
loss and infection.
3) Complicated closed or open fracture – In this type there is injury to never and
blood vessels in addition to fracture.
 Fracture of skull –
The skull is a closed box made up of many bones which are united immovable
joints. It protests the brain it can be fractured by a direct blow e.g. falling from a
height instead of landing on feet direct blow usually fracture the skull and also cause
injury to the vertebral column.
Fracture of skull is a serious injury because it may be associated with brain
damage. The brain can be bruised or there may be bleeding outside the brain and
hematoma compresses the brain. The fracture may be line or depressed or
complicated.
 Fracture of arms –
It is caused by a direct blow but it is much more common especially in elderly
persons. It is a stable injury hence the victim may walk around for same time before
reporting to a doctor for treatment. It is difficult fracture to treat as the muscles
produce overlapping of ends that are broken and angulations.
 Fracture of hand and fingers –
The hand is made up of many small bones with movable joints which may be
injured by direct or indirect trauma. Crash injuries because multiple fractures are
hand fracture of the knuckle between the little fingers and the hand may occur due
to misplaced punch. There may be server bleeding and swelling sprains and
dislocation may affect any fingers. The thumb is particularly prom to dislocation
caused by fall on to the hand.
 Fracture of bones of the foot –
This is due to direct crashing by heavy objects. The condition is diagnosed by
following features -1) there is pain in the foot increasing by movement
2) Loss of movement
 3) There is an inability to walk properly.
4) Swelling and brushing are seen at the site of the fracture.
5) Deformity may present e.g. irregularity or bony crash of that foot.
 Fracture of leg bone-
One of the leg bones (tibia) is quite sturdy and usually requires a heavy blow to
fracture it. The other (fibula) in thinner and can be broken by twisting force as
during twisting of ankle. Since the weight bearing is done by tibia a fracture of
fibula does not cause much problems the victim. The condition is diagnosed by
following fractures-
1) There is pain in leg.
2) Swelling and brushing have been at the site of fracture.
3) Angulations or twisting of leg may be present at the site of fracture.

 Injuries to muscles and joints-

Muscles are of two types voluntary and involuntary Injury occurs to the voluntary
or skeletal muscles. These may be due to overstitching or tearing due to violent and
sudden movements. Muscle injuries are of following types: -
1) Strain- There is partial tearing or the muscles often and the junction of the
muscles and its tandem.
2) Rupture – There is complete tearing of the muscles in it fleshy by or taken.
3) Deep bruising – It occurs when there is serve injury to a large bulk of muscles.
 The condition is diagnosed by the following features-
1) There is severe and sharp pain over the site of injury to the muscle.
2) The victim is unable to move the part on trying of moving it there is sharp pain
locally.
3) The muscles may be swollen and stiff.
 Types of joints-
A joint is a junction of two or more bones
1) Movable joints – Two or more bones are held together by means of ligament
muscles and tendons. The movement is possible both the bones. There are
different kinds of moveable joint as follows- I) ball and socket joint
ii) Tilling joint and joint with limited movements.

 Sprain – Sprain is an injury to the regiments and joints capsule, it is due to a sudden
movement or twisting of the part involving joint. Ankle is the most commonly
sprained joint.
 Dislocation – This is more severe injury than sprain, this occurs when the strong
force act directly on a joint pulling a bone into and abnormal position, it can occur
as result of sudden muscular contraction too.
 Strain – strain involving muscles are common in a back first aid calls for rest and
milled head to relive pain. Seek medical attention is needed.
 First aid for fractures or broken bones, general principles of treatment of fractures: -
 1) Careless handling will increase the pain and shock. It may increase the bone
displacement and turn simple fracture to a more serious compound one, hence
the victim should be handled very carefully.
2) If fracture is compound and severe, bleeding must be controlled at once. Don’t
attempt of replace the protruded bone. Cover the bone wound with a large sterile
dressing and handset firmly.
 The fracture may then be splinted. Splinting of fractures-
I) always the splint the fracture before moving the patient. Select sprints that are
long enough wide enough and strong enough to hold the fracture and to firmly
immobilize the joints.
ii) Improvise splints from material at hand strips of wood straight branches of
trees, shovels, trap iron called up magazines etc. Remember, you can always
splint a broken leg to the sound leg or an arm to the side of the body.
iii) Pad the splints wherever necessary, using cotton wool, old wags or even grass
or moss.
iv) Tie the splints firmly using folded triangular bandage roller bandages or strips of
sheeting or rope.
There must be no movement.
 Poisoning- Anything which when taken into the body affects it adversely is called
poisoning. Poison can be tablets taken in excess, of which the commonest are pain
killers, sleeping tablets, fruits and plants e.g. mush rooms and berries, chemicals e.g.
Weed killer, domestic cleaning fluids and turpentine taken in excess cause
poisoning bites such as snake bite, dog bite also cause poisoning. Gases like coal
gas, or industrial waste gas which can be absorbed by the lungs through breathing
and cause poisoning. Agricultural pesticidal can be absorbed through skin as well as
mouth and breath also because poisoning. Everybody in fire service should have the
knowledge of poisoning as with knowledge we can save the person affected with
poison.
For necessary treatment as can send that person in hospital.
Poisoning is of various types, so it is elder classified in main two types.
1) Accident of poisoning
2) Suicide poisoning – In suicide-
Poisoning there is a sub type – homicide poisoning
Poison contained material entered in the body through by smelling or though
mouth, it mixes in blood and this blood get circulated to the whole body and the
person suffers with poisoning. In this case the brain systems i.e., the nervous
system gets failure and the person become – uneasy unconscious with adverse
effects like vomiting and drowsiness.
1) Accidental poisoning –
Toxic gas leakage in the factory /industry, Gas container leakage on road, snake bite,
dog bite etc. is accidental poisoning.
2) Suicide poisoning –
In this case a person commits to take poisonous material to end up his /her own
life, and suffer from all adverse effects of poisoning.
 * swallowed poisoning –
Usually for a child it is difficult to know how much to swallowed to unless you
know how much the contains was filled with when it was placed. Any swallowed
poison must be treated seriously. Get medical help as soon as possible. Ask
someone to help hone a doctors /ambulance for take the person to hospital by car or
other means at once.
 Do not delay because children can go down very quickly even though they see all
right at first.
 While awaiting medical help –
I) Remove excess poison from mouth, keeping pills, hems of container for
the doctor.
* If the person is conscious and has swallowed a corrosive substance gets him to drink
water or milk to preserve the lining of mouth and to dilute the stomach contents. Remove any
soaked clothing you will know if the poison is corrosive by chemical burning and white
discoloration it leaves on the mouth lips and clothes.

* Never make a person vomit if he has taken petrol, turpentine or any corrosive chemical
such as strong acids and alkalis.The substance will already have done plenty of damage while
going down to stomach and can only do more on its way up. Give this people milk or water to
drink as this help to protect the stomach lining and to some extend prevent absorption of the
chemical.

Drugs are among the commonest causes of accidental poisoning in children. Aspirin and
other painkiller iron tablets anti-depressant sleeping are the drugs which it is taken in excess,
lead to serious illness all even death in children. The drugs should be kept preferably in a
proper medicine cabinet. Many medicines come in foil strips with each tablet sealed
safety away from children.

 Agricultural poisons absolved through skin. There are so many chemicals used
today in Agricultural that is difficult to generalize about them. The disturbing thing
is that many of them are not available for domestic market and so can present as
hazardous even if you live in city as the symptoms are so variable, it does not make
scene to say. If you ever get any strange feelings after using pesticides, weed killers
or fertilizers, do not neglect them.
Early stage the symptoms can quickly change to serious once so do not delay to visit
a doctor.
Some of these poisons affects breathing, some other nerve conduction and many
are absorbed through the skin or lungs through breathing.
*what to do?
1) Stop the person using the chemical
2) Remove him gently from the area.
3) Remove contaminated clothing.
4) Take him to hospital if these are adverse effects.
 Poisoning by gas or smoke (fumes)
 Although the industrial gases and vapours of various kinds are encountered by
those working with them. The gases most of us come across are domestic gas,
carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. It possible to be killed by gas because if a
person is trapped in air tight room the gas displaces the oxygen and the person
suffocates.
If an appliance is burning improperly poisonous carbon mono oxide may
be produced which is harmful for human being.
Something happens with smoke also but smoke has the additional disadvantage
of actually damaging of the lungs.
If you find someone in gas and smoke-filled room -1) Go quickly holding
your breath and lift the victim to self-safer place. Ii) If the person is over coming by
exhaust fumes in a closed rage open door, switch of the engine and proceed as
above.
A house contains many substances such as belch insecticide paint, strippers
that are highly dangerous to children. If a child or anybody swallows one of the
above substances, get medical help quickly. The rocctes through with the substances
inter in the body are swallowing breathing and injection.
 First aid management –A-if the person is unconscious –do not induce vomiting
*lie him on his back on hard and flat bed.
*Turn the head to one side
*No pillow
*If excessive, vomiting put to lie on his side one leg stretched and another bent at
knee on thigh
*If breathing is slow or stopped, give artificial respiration.
B- If the person conscious –
* Include vomiting
*Plenty of cold water to drink which will delay the absorption and replace the fluid
loss.
*milk is also good for the purpose
* Common poisons are –
1) Aspirin- first aid – Induce vomiting-adding sodium-bi-carbonate one table spoon to a
tumbler of water strong tea, or coffee.
2) Mercury – first aid – give white of the egg in water then milk then induce vomiting.
3) phosphorus- first aid – Induce vomiting then large quantity of water tender coconut do not
give oils as the dissolves phosphorus.
4) Acids – first aid –do not induce vomiting give cautery or soeto bicaeb to drink.
5) Petrol, phenol and other disinfectants- first aid- do not induce vomiting mug sap 4 tea
spurn in a lite of water.
* Alcohol poisoning –
The alcohol poisoning the casually will have the following signs: -
1) Breath will smell alcohol.
2) Vomiting
3) Eyes blood red.
4) Partly conscious or already unconscious.
First aid –maintain the open airway take to hospital.
 Industrial poisoning –
In industry some people may come in contact with dangerous chemicals or gases at
their work places, those are grouped as
a) Irritants- e.g. Ammonia, nitrous fumes etc.
b) Asphyxiates- e.g. carbon dioxide
c) Toxic gases- carbon monoxide hydrosensitive
d) Toxic vapours- Those given off volatile chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride
or trichloroethylene.
If the casualty is trapped in an enclosed space never attempt to reissue, unless
you are fully equipped with a practiced in using of breathing apparatus and life
lines.
First aid- Take the patient to open air.

*Transport to hospital /medical center

* If required start ABC resuscitation.

* Bite –

*Frost bite-

Frost bite may occur when the skin is exposed to extreme cold. It most frequently affects
the skin of cheeks, chin, ear, fingers nose and toes.

Frost bitten skin appears whitish and feds numb it should be handled gently, never massage
frost bitten skin and do not rub with it in cold water. Warm the affected area with the help of
your hand or cover it with a heavy cloth until you can get the victim incurs. Treat the effected
skin by soaking it in lake warm water. The temperatures of this water should be between 39
ºCand 41º C,keep the temperature in this range by adding more warm water as needed never
use water later them 40-degree C. If warm water is not available wrap the frost-bitten area
with blankets, obtain the medical assistance as quickly as possible. If a victim of frost bite
must be moved protect the person from additional exposure.

Never treat frost bite with heat from a fire or stove or with heating pad, Hot water bottle or
heat lump. Such treatment may produce temperature that can damage frost bitten tissue. If
frost bite blisters occur do not break them bandage them to prevent infection.

4.7Snake bite-

The treatment of snake bite depends on whether or not the snake is poisonous. If the snake is
nonpoisonous the bite should be washed thoroughly with soap and water. A person bitten by
a poisonous snake, bite cause deep during pain along with swelling and discoloration within
minutes the victim may begin to feel numb and have difficulty in breathing, call doctor, take
the victim to hospital if the possible, kill the snake and bring it along for identification.
Keep the victim still and quite because activity increase spread of poison, place the victim so
that the bite is below the level of the heart, if the bite is on an arm or leg tie the band above
the wound between it and the heart. The band should be loose enough for you to slip your
figure under it. Rebase the band go seconds every 10 minutes to prevent damage from lack of
circulation. Treatment of snake bite should always help prompt
 Arrange for medical help immediately in the meanwhile arrest blood circulation in
the snake bitten limb by using constrictive bandage between shoulder and elbow
between hip and knee joint as the case may be till the pulse is not felt beyond the
constrictive bandage. The constrictive bandage should be kept for 20 minutes then
release for one minute for or until skin become pink and again tightened. Repeat the
procedure till the arrival of doctor
 Immediately after the constrictive bandage is applied, wash the wound with the
solution of potassium permanganate in order to remove the venom which may have
dried on the skin.
 Make a deep cut with sharp knife or razor blade at the bitten site in order to bleed
the bitten site.
 Assure the patient and keep him warm by means of blanket, patient should be
absolutely still If he able to swallow, give him to strong coffee or tea heating stops
give the artificial respiration by mouth to mouth method, or Nelson method.
4.10 Stretcher and casualty handling –
Shifting and carrying victim -
After accidental injury victim needs to be shifted and carried to first aid and to hospital.
While shifting the victim care should be taken to see that pains to victim should be bearable
and wound is not getting aggravated. Other considerations are available equipment and
manpower how much long is to be shifted and probable obstacles on the route, considering
such problems some of the method to shift victim are as follows-
1) When assistance is not available and victim can’t not stand on his legs, let the victim lie
on floor, lift it heat little about the floor and insert both of your hand through his armpits,
lift his shoulder along with head of the floor and pull him outside, put his hands on his
chest while pulling out, so that they will not be dragged on floor.
2) When the victim is conscious and can stand you as a first aider should stand closely,
decide the victim put his arm on your shoulders for support, hold his free hand and allow
him to take support of your and allow him to take support of your body while walking. If
one of leg is injured them you may tie his injured leg to your leg, this will reduce stress
on his injured leg if travelling distance is long walking, stick may be provided to victim
as support
3) If helper is available and victim can stand, let victim stand between you and helper hold
your right-hand left hand, let the helper also do likewise your and helper right hand will
be free now, hold each other wrists with free hands this will make a seat allow the victim
to rest on this seat putting his arm around your shoulders as support.
4) If helper is available but victim can’t stand or victim is unable to assist while carrying –
let the victim on floor between you and helper, sit on your knees beside the victim and
taking victim in between while taking seating position, see that you both can stand easily,
insert you lift hand and allow the helper his right hand below the victim near to his
 shoulders If possible, try to hold each other’s wrist now, insert your free hand below
victim’s knees grip firmly in wrist and lift above marginally taking support of victims
thighs and wresting his back on other hands, lift him gently the position A victim will be
like seating on the chair while walking on the route, use outer soles.
5) To shift outside the factory premises requires stretcher and ambulance. In case ambulance
is not available private vehicle is necessary to carrying in private vehicle may cause pains
to victim and complicate injury if it is from the bone fracture. It is convenient to shift
victim from factory to hospital on stretcher by ambulance, victim can be easily shifted to
ambulance and hospital bed without causing pain to him.
6) More persons are regarding to shift and carry victim via stretcher this is specific method
to lift and place victim from to strand stretcher. Keep stretcher on the floor beside the
victim with help of four persons gently lift the victim marginally above the floor taking
care that his hand or legs are closed to the body and not hanging. Then one person should
slide stretcher below victim over it place victim gently.
7) Prior to shift victim difficulties and obstacles on journey from accident place to
ambulance or other destination should be considered, this can be many such as distance
may long equipment stair cases on the routs, narrow lanes etc. It will be convenient to
have more helpers on journey avoid haste. If someone from group fells tired over
strained, he should inform other to keep operation in a control.
8) While climbing up the staircase victims head should be at front and at back while coming
down. However, if the victim is very seriously injured. His head should be at front so that
all members caring him can watch the face watch his face.
9) So far as possible it necessary that the stretcher should be parallel to the ground for this,
while coming down the stair case stretcher needs to be raised from victim head side.
10) In many instance victims trapped at accident place is unconscious, in such occasions
atmosphere around like to be hazards contaminated by smoke obnoxious gases etc. person
attempting rescue operation likely to be get affected personal protective equipment’s such
self-contained breathing apparatus is needed to rescue the victim, if such apparatus is not
available special care needs to be taken by rescue team or otherwise there can be danger
to their life.
 Insect bite and stings –
Insect bite and stings can cause an immediate skin reaction. The bite from fire ants
and the stings from bees and other bomets are usually painful, bites caused by
mosquito’s flies and mites are likely to cause itching than pain symptoms – The
nonemergency symptoms very according to the type of insect and the individual.
Most people have localized pain redness swelling or itching you may feel burning
numbers and tingling.
 First aid –
For emergencies (severereaction)
1) Check the persons air way and breathing. If necessary call 911 and begin rescue
breathing.
2) Reassure the person Try to keep him/her calm.
3) Remove nearby rings and constructing items because affected area may swell.
4) Use the person emergency kit if they have it.
 5) If appropriate treat the person for of signs seek remain with the person until
medical help arrives.
 General steps for most bites and stings –
1) Remove the stinger if still present by scraping the back of a credit card or other
straight edged object across the stinger. Do not use tweezers- These may squeeze
the renon sac and increase the amount of venom released.
2) Wash the site toughly with soap and water
3) Place ice wrapped in a wash cloth on the site of the sting for 10 minutes. Repeat
those processes.
4) If necessary take an antihistamine, or apply creams that reduce itching.
5) Over the next several days. Watch for signs of infection.
6)
4.11Types of bandages –
i. Triangular bandage
ii. Roller bandage
iii. Adhesive bandage and dressing
I. Triangular Bandage -
This is most useful multipurpose bandage for first aider. It is made by cutting a piece of
linen of fiber not less than 38 inches square, diagonally in to two pieces. The bandage may be
applied.
 As a whole cloth – This can be spread out to its full extent e.g. Chest bandage.
 As a board bandage – This can be done by bringing the point down to the center of
the base and then folding the bandage again in the same devotion.
 A triangular bandage secures dressings or pads in place.
 A narrow bandage – This is made by folding the broad bandage one again the same
direction.
To secure the ends of the bandage a reef knot must be used.
To make a reef knot, take the ends of the bandage one in each hand.
II. Roller bandage-
Roller bandages are made up of various materials like canton or leman with loose
mash and are of various lengths and widths according to the use which they are put.
They are used in hospitals and first aid boxes use of roller bandage.
1) To keep dressing in position.
2) To apply pressure to control bleeding.
3) To support a painful part.

Part bandaged width of bandage

Fingers 1’’ (2.5 cm)

Hand 2’’ (5 cm)

Hand and arm 2’’ to 21/2’’

Leg 3’’ to 3 ½
Trunk 4 ‘’to 6’’

Basic of application
1) Face the casualty.
2) Apply each layer of the bandage so that it covers two third of the preceding one.
3) Secure the bandage by a safety pin or other suitable method such as adhesion
Strapping.
Methods of application
1) Simple spiral
2) Figure of eight
3) Spice

Bandaging special body parts

i. Hand bandage
ii. Elbow bandage
iii. Finger bandage
iv. Shoulder etc.

4.9The respiratory System

The respiratory is concerned with breathing for exchange of carbon dioxide from the body
with the oxygen in the air. Air is a mixture of gases containing 21% oxygen. The aim of
breathing is to transfer oxygen from the air to the lungs where it is exchanged for carbon
dioxide is in blood, oxygen is essential for liften.
The oxygen is circulated to body while the carbon dioxide is expelled out by expiration
breathing is an automatic function.
1) Inspiration - breathing in
2) Expiration – breathing out
The respiratory system is composed of the parts – lungs, respiratory track which consist of
nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea or windpipe, bronchi and bronchioles. The bronchioles finally
break in to small sac alveoli which are surrounded by pulmonary capillaries, Gaseous
exchange between inspired air in the alvidi and the impure blood in the capillaries occurred at
this level the hangs are covered by a sea called pleura’s. Inside the sac is smooth and filled
with a thin layer of fluid to allow.
Expansion of lungs without friction when the thorax expands the lungs expands and air is
drawn into alveoli which is known as inspiration with collapsing of thorax to the original size
the air is thrown out is called as expiration. The normal respiratory rate is 16-20 per min. in
adult. It is more rapid children being 40 per min. in a new born baby and30 to 32 per min. at
the age of 5 years. The ratio of respiratory system is
A) Take or inhale air atmosphere to the body
B) Take or observed oxygen from normal air
C) Remove CO2 from the body.
 Method of artificial respiration
The important methods of artificial respiration are –
1) Schafer’s prone pressure method
 2) Silvestre’s method (Arm lift, chest pressure method)
3) Nielson’s Arm- lift back pressure method
4) Mouth to mouth method.
Duration of these processes is 12 to 15 minutes. When the patent begins to
breathe on his own then operation should be synchronized with natural breathing
and continued till be breath strongly on his own.
 Schafer’s method is recommended also for fractures and drowning cases.
 Silvestre’s method is recommended when person cannot be laid on stomach with
chest touching the ground due to burn injury.
1) Schafer’s prone method – lay the victim on his belly kneed over the victim’s back
and place the palms of your hand on victim’s thin portion of the back with fingers
spreading on the ribs and the two thumbs parallel to the spine and almost touching
each other. You should assure with arms held.
Straight lean forward and apply pressure on the body of the victim for about three
seconds. Now reduce the pressure gradually and come back to original position
for about two seconds repeat this process for about 12 to 15 times till such times the
victim starts breathing this method of respiration expands and contracts the lungs of
the victim so as to help him to starts normal breathing this great patient on the part
of the person helping the victim.
2) Silvestre’s method –
This method is used when the patient has gotten burns or injuries on the chest or
on from side so that he cannot be laid with his chest down the victim is laid on
his back with a pillow or rolled coat under his shoulders. His cloths are loosened
his arms are grasped above the wrist and drown first upward and then taken over
his head until they are horizontal as position I and II. Remain in position II for
about 2to 3 seconds. The patients’ hands are then brought back to the chest and
pressure is applied in the downward direction by kneeling over the victim hands.
The cycle is repeated after about two Seconds.
3) Nielson’s Arm lifts back pressure method –
The subjects lie prom with both arms folded and hands resting one on another
under his head. The arms are grasped above the elbow and lifted until firm
resistance is made. This induces active inspiration. Then they are let down and
pressure applied on the back to cause active expiration. The movement in this
method follows the sequence given below.
*Position I- place the victim prone i.e.- face down with his arm folded with one
palm on the other and head resting on a cheek over the palms kneel on one or
both knee at victim’s head. place four hand on victims back beyond the line of
armpit with your fingers spread of up words and down words the thumbs just
touching one other.
*Position II- Then gently rock forward keeping arms straight until they are
nearly vertical the thus steadily pressing the victim’s back. This complete
expiration.
 *Position III – Synchronizing the above movement rock backwards releasing
pressure and slide your hands downwards along victims’ arms and group his
upper arms just above the elbows continue to rock backwards.
*Position IV - As you rock back gently raise and pull victim arms towards you
until you feel tension in his shoulders. This expands his chest as results in
respiration to complete the cycle lowers the victim’s arms and move your hand’s
up for initial position.
This method is considered to be the best being most effective easy to teach
and perform.
*Holger - Nelson method of artificial respiration.
i) place the victim face down prone position, bend his elbow and place the hands
one upon the other turn his face to one side placing the check upon the hand.
ii) knee on either the right or left knee at the head of victim facing him place the
knee at the side of victim head close to the forearm place the opposite foot near the
elbow. It is more comfortable, kneel on both knees, one on either side of the
victim’s head place your hands that upon the victims back in such a way that the
heels of the hands lie just below a line running between armpits with the tips of the
thumbs just touching spread the fingers downwards and outwards.
iii)Rock forward until the arm are – approximately vertical and allow the weight of
upper part of your body to exert slow steady even pressure downwards upon the
hands. This force air out of the lungs your elbow should be kept straight and the
pressure exerted almost directly down-wards on the back.
iv) Release the pressure avoiding a final thrust and commence to rock slowly
backwards place your hands upon the victim’s arms just about above his elbows.

v) Draw his arms upwards and towards you apply just enough lift to feel resistance
and tension at victim’s shoulders. Do not bend your elbows and as you rock
backward the victim’s arms will be drown towards you. Then drop the arms to the
ground. This completes the full cycle the arm lift expands the chest by pulling on
the chest muscles arching the back and releasing the weight on the chest.
vi) The cycle should be repeated 12 times per minutes at steady and uniform rate
the compression and expansion phase should occupy about equal time the release
period being of minimum duration.
vii) Relief operator- In changing operator the relief operator kneels beside the
operator as indicated by the feet and knee position and takes over so as not to
interrupt the rhythm of pressure and release.
4) Mouth to Mouth method-
In this method the patient is laid on his back with his head slightly sloping
down. A pillow or rolled coat under his shoulders will help to maintain proper
position. The head is tilled look. So that the lower jaw as shown in position I.
Open the mouth of the patient take a deep breath and place your mouth
making air tight contact. Pinch the patient nose with thumb and four fingers and
blow into patient mouth until his chest rises remove your mouth to enable him to
exhale. The first 8 to 10 breath should be as rapid as victim will respond they’re
 after rate should be slowed down to about 12 to 15 times a minute. Sometime air
is trapped in patients’ stomach which can be released by applying pressure
gently on the stomach when the victim is exhaling.
5) Silvestre – broach method –
a) If there is abstraction to breathing remove it with your finger or with a cloth
wrapped round your fingers, if it is in mouth.
b) Lay casually on his back, put something under his shoulder to raise them and
allow his head to tall backwards. The head should be it possible be a little
lower than the trunk remember that speed is essential.
c) Kneel at the casualty’s head and grasp his arms at the wrist. Then cross them
firmly over the lower chest this movement should force air out of is a lung. Press with the
hands cross on the lower part of chest and maintain pressure for two seconds.
d) Release the pressure and pull his arms with a sweeping movement upwards and
down words about his head and backwards as for as possible. This movement should
cause air to be drawn into his lungs. Retain the arms in this position for three seconds.
This will keep an equal amount of time at every cycle. Repeat this movement
rhythmically about twelve times per minute checking the mouth frequently for
obstruction. Each cycle three for takes five seconds chest pressure and 3 seconds for arm
lift.
e) With the casually on his back there is a danger A aspiration vomit mucus or
blood re-entering the system. This risk can be reduced by keeping the head extended and
little lower than the trunk
f) If on assistant is available he can press the casualty’s lower jaw so that the chin is
jutting out. The assistant should also ensure that the mouth is kept as clean as possible
turning the head to one side if necessary.
g) When natural breathing begins your movement should be adopted to correspond
to it.
*If burns are present cover with dry sterile dressing
* handle the casually gently do not allow people to crowd around and block fresh air.
*Arrange to remove the injured to care of a doctor or hospital as early as possible.
Even after apparent recovery the casually should be seen by a doctor to ensure that all is
well as casualty suffering from electrical injuries are liable to reoccur even when effect
have seemed to be mild.
Use of artificial resuscitator –
Mechanical means of artificial respiration have been developed and
recommended for use. Artificial resuscitator (unbag) consist of a rubber balloon a special
value and a mouth piece and a tabbing. The mouth piece is capped on the mouth of the
patient for artificial respiration. The balloon is deflated to pump air in chest of the patient
during in handling. There after the balloon is released to get in handling. There after the
balloon is released to get inflow. The atmospheric air entering via the value. The patient
exhales through his nose, the balloon is deflated again. The process is repeated till normal
breathing is restored.
*Cardio pulmonary resuscitation-
It both respiration and circulation have stopped then
 1)First give 5 to 6 quick breath by mouth to mouth method and check carotid pulse. If
pulse is left continue mouth to mouth respiration only.
2) If carotid pulse is not felt after 5 to 6 mouth to mouth breaths compress chest 15
times as described in external cardiac massage and then give quick mouth to mouth
breaths till medical help is available. If any assistance is available, one person should give
one quick mouth to mouth breath while other 5 chest compressions immediately after it
maintain these 1 to 5 rhythms till medical assistance is available.

*Take the following actions for cardio pulmonary resuscitation-

Assessment- Check surrounding beware of danger e.g. - electricity, fire, smoke etc. check for
unresponsiveness. Top, gently shake shoulders and shout is you ok.
A) Action – Remove casualty from danger and ensure your personal safety.
B) Conscious- checks injuries.
C) Unresponsive- call out “Help “position the victim open air way by lifting chin and
placing other hand on for head.
2) Check for breathing-
Look listen and fell for sign of breathing look for chest movement listen and feel the
movement of air through mouth and nose
Digestive system
The system is concerned with digestion of food. Parts of digestive system are mouth,
esophagus. (Food pipe) stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, spleen and gall bladder
tongue.
Our digestive systems consist of the digestive track and various glands that secrete digestive
juices in to the track. The track includes now pharynx, esophagus stomach, small intestine,
large intestine rectum and anus.
There accessory glands include culinary glands gallbladder and pancreas.
Teeth are used to tear the food into pieces and chew it, at the same time saliva is produced
from the salivary glands dry food is mixed with the saliva to moisten it. Plena in the saliva
digest carbohydrates in mouth itself, the food. The food reaches the stomach through the
esophagus. There it mixes rennin, pepsin and hydrochloric acid which are the digestive juices
then it passes in to small intestine time where mixes pancreatic juice and bile which digest the
food further
Product if digestions are absorbed in small intestine time and undigested and waste products
passes to the large intestine. Water is absorbed from it and the rescue thrown out through the
rectum and anus.
The muscular system
It consists of different types of muscles of the body. All muscles of the body. All muscles of
the body. All muscles are divided into three types.
1) Structed or skeletal muscles- These are attached some part of skeleton across the joints
between bones. Their contraction and relaxation produce voluntary movements.
2) Smooth muscles- These are small and delicate. They are found in walls of bows,
respiratory ‘track and blood vessels. They are known as involuntary because one does not
have direct control over their activity.
3) Cardiac muscles- These muscles are soft and its fibers show some striations under a
microscope but it is involuntary in nature. These muscles forms heart.
Urinary system
It consists of two kidneys, two ureters a urinary bladder and urethra. It involved in
removal of chemical liquid waste from the blood and helps to balance water and
self-level s of the blood by excreting urine.
When it fills to about 200 to 250 ml. one gets a sensation of full bladder of then
expels the urine by voluntary contraction of the bladder muscles.
 The Joints-
Various part of human body is joined to one another by ligaments. The joints may be
movable or immovable. The movement between the bones may be only in one place as in
hinge joints at knees and elbow in all places as in the ball and socket joint at the shoulder or
there may be a small degree of movements in the wrist joint.
Nervous System
The brain is the master organ, it receives information from organs of special sense such
as eyes, ears, nose, tongue, skin. It controls movement interprets sensation regulate body
activities and generate memory and thoughts central nervous system consist brain and spinal
cord along with nerves. It is divided in to central and peripheral. The brain is situated in the
hallow cavity of the cranial bones. It comprises of two hemispheres. Each hemisphere has
gray matter side it and white matter in side.
Circulatory System
It consists of heart arteries, veins and blood. The hart is hallowing muscular organs made of
special type of muscles. It is situated between the two lungs in the thoracic cavity more
towards left side of the chest. It measures 12cm in length and9 cm in health and 6cm in
thickness. It weighs about 280 gm. It has four chambers upper two are known as right and left
auricles and lower two are known as eight and lift ventricles.
The heart contracts and relaxes continuously to work as a pump.
Its primary function is to purify and circulate the blood in the body and to help in
distributing the nutrients and oxygen to the body, and waste materials away from the site of
production to the organs of excretion.
Our blood vessels are of three types.
1) Arteries – They are the strongest of the blood vessels, owing to the presence of elastic
tissue in their walls. They are red in color and carry pure blood away from the heart i.e. to the
body parts. They branch to form arterial and finally capillaries.
2) Capillaries-
They are the result of final branching of the arteries. They are made up of a thin layer of
endothelial cells through which fluid and gases can pass to and from the tissue, cells of the
body.
3) Veins-
These are not strong as arteries due to lack of elastic tissue in their walls. They are formed by
joining capillaries. They are bluish in color. They carry impure blood back to the heart.
Blood coming from the digestive system also contains nuttiness nutrients obtained by
digestion of food. Blood is circulated in a continuously repeated cycles by the contraction of
the heart.
Heart rate in a normal adult of rest is 72 times per minute. Each to time the heart muscles
contracts. Blood is forced out of the right ventricle into the pulmonary arteries for perfusion
of the lungs and from the left ventricle in to the aorta to perfuse the various part of the body.
During relaxation of the heart de oxygenated blood collects in the right auricle from the left
auricle from the pulmonary veins, then it passes to the ventricle of the respective sides.
Blueness (cyanosis) arises when the blood is low in oxygen. Normal human body contains 5
liters of blood.
 Asphyxia Fire incidence cause of injuries of with asphyxia or heart thing distress is the
most serious one and may lead to death almost immediately.

Incidents casually handling by fire man must three for involve detection and treatment of
asphyxia with top priority after rescue or at time even during rescue operation.
It is deficiency of oxygen an increase in carbondioxide in the blood and tissues. It occurs due
to a failure of exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the air and pulmonary
capillaries.
 Definition of Asphyxia – The pathological manifestation which become apparent in
an intact animal due to continuous in proper duration of blood for some time are
collectivity called asphyxia.
Asphyxia maybe- 1) General such as by solution of tracheas, pneumothoraxetc.
2) Local as by ligature of blood vessels. Supplying a particular locality.
* Essential condition Asphyxia -
i) There must be both CO2 excess as well as O2 lack.
ii) Animal must be in fact.
iii) The improper duration must be continued.
*How Asphyxia causes death-
The phenomenon of asphyxia has been divided into the stages, each stage showing
characteristic features. The white phenomenon from the onset to death taken only 5 minutes.
*Causes of asphyxia-
Airway obstruction due to
1) Foreign body in the air way causing choking
2) Spasm of respiratory mussels as in tetanus.
3) Draining.
4) Suffocation under bed.
5) Suffocation due to a plastic bag over the head.
6) Strangulation hanging or throttling.
7) Bronchospasm e.g. Bronchial- asthma.
8) Electrical shock.
Lack of oxygen in the air inspired due to high altitudes with low atmosphere pressure fire
inhalation of make Gas lack- inhalation of gas e.g.- coal gas, automobile fumes etc.
*Effects of Asphyxia – first stage-
i) Respiratory rate increases.
ii) Breaths become shorter and noisy.
iii) Chest movement of breathing are reversed.
iv) The chest wall gets sucked instead of moving out when the victim breathe in.
v) Neck veins get distended.
vi) The face, lips, nails, fingers, and toes turn blue.
 Second stage-
i)Consciousness is lost
ii)Frothing occurs at the mouth and nose.
i) Convergence may occur.
ii) Urine and feces are passed involuntary.
iii)Death may occur if not treated in time.
 Asphyxia- first Aid
1) Remove the cause if possible.
2) Place the victim on his back.
3) Clear the air way and provide warmth.
4) Loosen his collar.
5) Put a finger in the mouth and throat and remove body If present.
6) Remove denture if present.
7) Hold an angle of the jaw forward and tilt the head back words this open’s the air
ways.
8) Give artificial ventilation and external cardiac message, if required.
9) Send him to hospital after he settles down.

First Aid Kits

A collection of supplies and equipment used to apply first aid is known as a first aid kit and it
is very necessary for an individual or organization to keep these kinds of medical kits
especially to industries where accidents can happen. A wide range of contents can be put
together inside a first aid kit depending on the type and use. It can be assembled in any type
of container like fabric pouches, durable plastic boxes, and wall mounted cabinets to keep it
clean, safe, and sterile.
First Aid Kits complies with ISO standards which includes the a) green background with
white cross (ISO first aid symbol), b) white background with green cross (alternative ISO
first aid symbol), c) white background with Red Cross (symbol of Red Cross), and d) star of
life.
The content of a first aid box is intended to treat minor injuries such as bandages, adhesives,
gauze, disinfectant, and regular strength pain medication. There are also specialized first aid
kits which focus on the risks according to the specialization or field of work.

Types of First Aid Kits

• Home First Aid Kits – the basic content of a medical kit used or stored at home: antiseptic
hand cleanser, alcohol wipes, tweezers, medical adhesive tape, insect bite swabs, bandage
scissors, triangular bandages, elastic bandages, and instant cold packs.
• Sports First Aid Kits – focus on orthopedic injuries where it contains compression wraps
and cold packs and usually comes with small or big pack depending on the size of the group.
• Office First Aid Kits – most first aid at work consists of drugs intended to cure adults and is
easily restocked after each use.
• First Responder Kits – refer to all levels of emergency medical response which typically
consists of belt packs with flashlights and shears, blood pressure cuffs, and stethoscopes.
• Military First Aid Kits – include tactical and military first aid kits that are easily deployed
especially in a very difficult situation. These usually have tourniquets, clothing agents, and
other wound dressing specifically applied on severe wounds.
• Camping First Aid Kits – materials included in the wilderness first aid kits depends on how
deep you are planning to go.
• Medical First Aid Kits – include items specializing in medical field such as first aid
equipment’s that used to tackle heart attacks and automatic external defibrillator applicable
for both kids and adults.
Contain
1. Adhesive Bandages: It is never a good idea to leave cuts and scrapes uncovered. So, go
ahead and buy a few adhesive bandages since they come in all colors, sizes and shapes. You
might want to pick the larger ones for bigger cuts, and smaller ones for shaving cuts and
smaller scrapes. Also, find colorful ones that your kid will want to wear proudly instead of
ripping off. Also, talk to your vet if you have pets and get bandages meant for dogs or cats
(whatever the case may be).
2. Antiseptic Creams and Lotions: Before you put on that bandage, you will need to
thoroughly clean a wound. While soap and water work fine, it is advisable to use a good
antiseptic lotion to thoroughly rinse out any debris or particles in the wound that could infect
it. Also, if the wound is large and could get pus formation, you will need to use an antiseptic
regularly while you dress up the wound. So, buy Dettol or Salon to kill all germs and bacteria
that can thrive in an open wound.
3. Muscle Creams andSprays: Having a sprain or a backache is one of the most common
ailments people complain of, second only to headaches. To ensure that your aching muscles
get instant relief, do stock up on muscle creams and gels. A spray is a more effective option,
especially when you want to couple it with a heating pad. However, you should use them in
moderation as the ingredients do get absorbed directly in to your bloodstream through the
skin.
4. A Pair ofTweezers: A fine-tipped pair of tweezers can come in handy in so many ways.
Remove foreign objects lodged in the skin like splinters. Or easily remove your dog’s ticks
using them. Make sure you sterilize the tweezers by cleaning them with an antiseptic lotion.
5. Sterile Gauze and Tape
For bigger injuries, especially those that are bleeding profusely, you will need sterile gauze
and medical tape to create a larger bandage. Where a band-aid seems to be too small to cover
the wound, use these two. Create padding with sterile gauze, apply a little antiseptic cream,
and cover the wound. Then secure in place with the tape. These also work especially well on
kids and pets since they cannot remove this as easily.
6. Pain Relievers: What’s more common than a headache or backache? Having a few pain
relievers like Crocin and Combi flam in your first-aid box is a must. Even if the pain is
persistent and needs to be checked by a doctor, you can still pop a painkiller to help you bear
with the trip down to the clinic and the long wait before you get the turn to meet with your
doctor. If you have kids, keep some mild pain relievers at hand. And if you have pets, make
sure you talk to your vet about the best painkiller for dogs and cats. Remember, while most
human medicines work on dogs, some of them can be poisonous to their system.
7. Antihistamines: With all the changing weather and increased pollution, which household
doesn’t have people who develop allergic reactions easily? From sneezing to breaking out in
a rash, antihistamine will take care of all allergies. While sinus and dust allergies might not
need medical attention, a food allergy might need a trip to the doctor. In any case, the allergy
medication will provide a little relief while you rush the patient to the emergency.
8. Fungal Medicines: If you live in a hot, humid climate for any part of the year, you’ll be
well aware of the risk of fungal infections. These infections can erupt anytime, anywhere.
From your genitals to your feet, your face and hands, these fungal infections can be itchy and
embarrassing. So, make sure you have an anti-fungal cream at home to provide relief from
the persistent itch. You can get these in the form of gels, creams, powders and even pills.
9. Nail Clippers: Yes, these also find themselves on the list of top 10 things to keep in a
first-aid box. You may think that cutting your nails and shaping them can pose no emergency,
but what about a painful ingrown toenail? And not to mention painful hangnails that can
actually get infected if chewed on or ripped out. So, make sure you have nail clippers in your
first-aid box to clip nails and hangnails and keep the nails clean. You might not realize this
but dirty nails are the biggest cause for fungal infections, bacterial growths and warts.
10. Thermometer and Fever Medication: Any first-aid box is incomplete without a good
thermometer. And make sure you buy the right kind. No longer do doctors recommend a
mercury thermometer. Get yourself a digital thermometer, and if you have kids and pets, we
recommend you get an ear-canal thermometer. Fevers are common, so do keep Crocin or
basic paracetamol to ensure that you can regulate normal body temperature while your doctor
diagnoses the cause. He may further recommend antibiotics or other medication, but popping
an antipyretic will help you while you wait for the diagnosis.
 CHAPTER –6INTRODUCTION TO ERGONOMICS:

The term 'ergonomics' is derived from the Greek word 'ergo' meaning work and strength and
'nomos' meaning rule or law. It simply means "fitting the job to the worker (and not the
worker to the job)". The object of ergonomics is "to achieve the best mutual adjustment of
man and his work to improve his convenience, efficiency and well-being". Ergonomic
approach includes designing of machines, tools, controls, equipment, process, layout,
housekeeping etc. to increase efficiency of both - man and the machine. Application of
ergonomics reduces accidents and improves health and efficiency.
Ergonomics is also defined as 'the study of human characteristics for the appropriate
design of the living and work environment'. It is human centered, transdisciplinary and
application oriented. It can be applied to jobs, equipment, working place, tools, utensils or
any complicated working system (e.g. multi-person socio-technical system).
Successful application is measured by improved efficiency, safety, productivity and
acceptance of the ergonomic design.
Constituents of Ergonomics work man, machine & Environment
Human factors (HF) was the old discipline concerned with how humans react with
their work tasks and environment aiming to make the relationship safer, healthier and more
efficient. The new-name of this discipline is Ergonomics. Previously known 'Human
Engineer' or "Engineering Psychologist" is now known as "Ergonomist or Ergonomists (in
Great Britain). The term Ergonomics is biotechnological and covers the same scope and
complexity of interests that human factors embraces. Therefore, human factors are the main
constituents of ergonomics. For main division of factors affecting work including human
factors see Part-5 of Chapter-3. In a schematic diagram they are shown below:
 Work Performance or Man at Work

Ergonomics studies the ‘human factors’ and designs the system or suggests
application or modification of the existing system to make the work more suitable or
convenient to the man at work. Thus, in this context, or its procedural aspect, all human
factors - physiological and psychological contribute in constituting the science.
But from discipline point of view, main constituents of ergonomics are anatomy,
physiology, psychology and engineering. Schematic diagram of disciplines (work areas)
constituting the ergonomics is also shown below:

Application of Ergonomics for Safety and Health:

 Application of ergonomics can solve the problems of stress and strain due to work
load, high or low temperature, more or low illumination or glare, noise, vibration, radiation,
awkward work positions and orthopedic problems due to them. The field of application is
very wide which includes following as some of the areas: -
1. Hand tools.
2. Design of Controls.
3. Design of work.
4. Design of information displays.
5. Man/machine information exchange.
6. Limitations of the sense organs.
7. Age, fatigue, vigilance and accidents.
8. Problems of body size and posture.
9. Effects of climate.
10. Human energy, optimizing its efficient use.
11. 'Work tolerance.
12. Anatomy of function.
13. Physiologic measurements.
14. Application of skeletal-muscular forces (e.g. manual handling and lifting.)
Ergonomics is also utilized at design stage where it is called. "System Ergonomics"
in contrast to "Classical Ergonomics” which is applied to solve the ergonomic problems as
and when they occur once a design has been put in use. System ergonomics is a higher level
of practice involving a knowledge of (1) Different tasks the machines can perform. (2) The
relative cost. (3) A variety of tasks and satisfactory work for personnel.
In designing work, ergonomics can be applied for the design of systems, work places,
environments, interfaces and work situations. Some examples are as under:'
Sr. No. Type of Design Examples.

1 Systems Man-machine relationship, procedure.

2 Workplace Posture, seat and control design, bench position, displays.

Required lighting, heating, ventilation, noise, vibration

3 Environmental
etc.

Exchange of information between man and machine /

4 Interface environment, scales, pointers, letters, numbers, their size,
shapes, position, forces etc.
 Hours of work, rest pauses, shift work, inter personal and
5. Work situation
organizational aspects of work.

Following are some of the examples of application of ergonomics (human

engineering) to matters of health and safety:
1. Stresses of excessive heat, light, humidity, noise, vibration etc., their safe limits, type
of worker e.g. age, sex, fitness etc., and task to be performed - all should be
considered and suitable environmental conditions should be designed to fit
appropriately to the worker and his task.
2. Surrounding space, seat design, bench design and positioning of displays, controls,
materials, tools, equipment, instruments etc. should fit the human body so that he can
work without excessive effort within the range of healthy posture.
3. Interface display and control design should consider effective information between
the man and the machine or environment in type and size of numbers, letters, pointers,
shapes and discrimination, identification etc.
4. Working hours, rest pauses, shift work, interpersonal and management problems
should be studied and resolved to maintain health and safety of work people.
5. It should be aimed to do work with a minimal use of energy and materials and without
waste resulting from mistakes. Human errors should be minimized for safety and
health.
6. Design and production of automotive vehicles, communication equipment, farm
machinery, military service, aerospace systems, computers and electronic equipment
can be made safe and most suitable to the operators.
7. Highway signs, typewriters, data processing systems, machine tools, kitchen stoves,
street and highway design, rapid-transit facilities, health facilities, housing, pollution
control, education, law enforcement, postal service, airports etc. are newer areas
where ergonomic design can give good results and reduce accidents.
8. Deciding allocation of functions between men and machines. Functions' of
perceiving, responding to emergency situations, some ' typical judgements etc. are
better done by men than by machines. Functions of heavy lifting, computing, auto
regulation, handling large amount of information etc. are better performed by
machines than by men. These are to be considered at an early stage of design.
9. Task analysis to decide selection standards, workloads, training requirement,
manpower requirement, equipment design can be carried out.
10. Factors of control design, e.g. control display ratio, safeguards against accidental
activation, control coding etc. are part of ergonomic design.
11. Workplace dimensions, location of controls and displays, seat and penal design, the
design of doors and access for easy entry and exit and protective devices for
emergency situations need to be well designed.
12. For good maintenance easy and simple maintenance manuals, tools and test
equipment, better location of units for easy access, faultfinding techniques etc. are to
be designed properly.
13. Allowance for local weather conditions, ventilation in cramped premises, providing
stool to put container to avoid frequent bending, elementary checklists are ergonomic
aspects.
14. Manual material handling has a large scope of ergonomic considerations. Process
flow, job design, layout, selection of equipment, machine, tools, space requirement,
control design, visibility, colour and signs, allowing push and pull instead of lift and
lower, avoiding severe bending, lifting and lowering between knuckle (hip) height
and shoulder height, avoiding excessive weight, avoiding sharp edges, corners, pinch
points, training for safe lifting practice and lifting rules (dos and don'ts), personnel
selection etc. must be well considered.
15. Wrong design of hand tools can create bending of wrist, pressure points between the
hand and the handle, sustained exertions, vibrations etc. Therefore,hand tools should
be designed in such a way that they eliminate or minimize these hazards. Oblique
angle of the handle, proper shape, diameter and length of the handle, rounding off all
edges and sharp corners, minimizing noise and vibration etc. are useful criteria.
16. Office, other work places and workstation design call for specific criteria. Ideal,
practical and detail planning, work process, equipment, workplace layout, final
enclosure, mock-up, trial and redesign, clearance for the operator's body, sufficient
head room, visual field, auditory information, standing or sitting position (both have
advantages and disadvantages), work space dimensions, body position to operate
computer, healthy work postures, eye height, elbow height, knee height, seat design to
reduce physiological and biomechanical stresses by providing wide range of
adjustments and postures to suit the individual (seat height adjustable between 15 to
20 inch, deep 15 to 17 inch, wide 18 inch or more and backrest to support back and
neck and opportunity to change body posture frequently) etc. are some important
criteria:
17. Controls - continuous or detent - should be designed by considering consistency of
movement, control actuation force, multidimensional operation, operator-control
orientation, control-effect relationship, time lag, arrangement and grouping, coding
and prevention of accidental activation etc.
18. Light signals provide useful safety and functional indications as mentioned below:
See also Part 7.3 of Chapter-9.
19. Displays provide necessary information to the operator. They may be visual (lights,
scales, counters), auditory (bells, horns), tactile (shaped knobs. Braille writing) or
audio-visual (buzzer with light, TV display). Selection depends on type of
information to be provided and to whom provided.
20. Labeling permits rapid and accurate performance of controls, displays and other items
that should be identified, read, manipulated or located. Label characteristics are:
accuracy, time of response or recognition, distance, illumination, nature of function
and consistency. Their visibility, legibility, location, orientation, abbreviation, brevity
and standardization are necessary. Legal notices must be displayed.
From above varieties of examples, it is evident that ergonomics has wide applicability
to many functions in addition to health and safety.
8.1.2 Ergonomics of Rehabilitation (RTW)
Rehabilitation Psychology
"Rehabilitation psychologists work with people who have suffered physical deprivation or
loss at birth or during later development as a result of damage or deterioration of function
(e.g., resulting from a stroke). They help people overcome both the psychological and
situational barriers to effective functioning in the world. Rehabilitation psychologists work in
hospitals, rehabilitation centers, medical schools, and in government rehabilitation agencies"
(as stated on the APA website).

RTW Strategy:
We will endeavor to keep you advised of your employee’s medical status and work with you
to coordinate a safe and appropriate return to work strategy.
1. Provide medical attention
2. Take care of any necessary follow-up and return to work status.
3. Report Claim to Insurance Co. within 24 hours of the occurrence.
4. Inform medical provider a pre-injury, as well as a modified duty job description.
5. Communicate with the injured worker on a regular basis to:
- Keep the employee connected to the business and motivated to Return to Work
- Secure updated medical information and Return to Work instructions.
- Discuss Return to Work options and availability.
6. Establish a Target Return to Work Date.
A Target Return to Work Date is the anticipated date an injured worker will be able to safely
return to work, in either a modified or full duty capacity, as determined by a physician. The
date(s) should be flexible and take into consideration the individual needs of the employee as
well as the employer’s ability to accommodate any medical restrictions placed upon the
employee. They should be established early in the rehabilitation process and communicated
to the involved parties and followed up upon at least five (5) days prior to the anticipated
RTW date.

The following terms help define these considerations and may help you in formulating a
job description for rehabilitant employee:

Work Environment means the design of the physical surroundings the employee will work in
as well as the equipment, machinery and supplies that the employee will be expected to use to
perform the work.
Work Position refers to the amount of time an employee spends in any one position vs. the
ability to change positions. Consideration is given to the amount of time the employee spends
sitting, bending over, squatting, kneeling, standing, and walking during the work period.
Work Breaks means the amount of time elapsed between specific job tasks or operations that
allows for a change in position or a temporary relaxation of body movement.
Task Variety means the extent to which variation can be introduced into job
tasks/assignments. Related terms include:
Reorganize Tasks: Alternate tasks within a job to minimize repetition
Job Enlargement: Increase the scope of the job /assignment to increase the variety of work
Job Rotation: People move from one task to another according to a schedule
What to Do in Event of an Accident or Injury:
Employee Factors focus upon the employee as an individual in assessing what the employee
is capable of, and willing to do, if (s)he is not able to perform traditional job duties. These
factors include the employee’s physical size and strength, personal health and hygiene, ability
to learn and adapt to change, motivational forces, as well as sense of attachment to the
employer and co-workers.
Load Characteristics is a term applied to materials-handling tasks. The characteristics include
frequency, weight, stability, starting height, distance, and availability of handgrips.
Work Pace means the amount of time required to complete a specific task or job. The
expected work place within a business should take into consideration the reasonable goals,
work quotas and schedules.
Rest Breaks means the frequency and duration of that period of time when the employee is
not performing his or her work. The employee should leave the workstation, stretch/exercise
or otherwise cease work activity.
Adjustment Period means the amount of time an employee needs to be “physically, mentally
and psychologically ready to perform his/her pre-injury job. The adjustment period will vary
depending upon the person and the requirements of the job.
In developing a return to work program, the employee, employer and medical provider need
to agree as to the employee’s pre-injury job description and the nature of the employment that
the employer can reasonably make available to the employee. According to the US
Department of Labor2, the nature of a person’s employment can be classified by the
following categories:
Sedentary Work – Exerting up to 10 pounds of force occasionally and/or a negligible amount
of force frequently or constantly to lift, carry, push, pull or otherwise move objects, including
the human body. Sedentary work involves sitting most of the time, but may involve walking
or standing for brief periods of time. Jobs are sedentary if walking and standing are required
only occasionally and all other sedentary criteria are met.
Light Work – Exerting up to 20 pounds of force occasionally and/or up to 10 pounds of
force frequently, and/or negligible amount of force constantly to move objects. Physical
demand requirements are in excess of those for sedentary work. Light work usually requires
walking or standing to a significant degree. However, if the use of the arm and/or leg controls
require exertion of forces greater than that for sedentary work, and the worker sits most of the
time, the job is rated light work.

Medium Work – Exerting up to 50 pounds of force occasionally, and/or up to 20 pounds of

force frequently, and/or up to 10 pounds of force constantly to move objects.
Heavy Work – Exerting up to 100 pounds of force occasionally, and/or up to 50 pounds of
force frequently, and/or up to 20 pounds of force constantly to move objects.
Very Heavy Work – Exerting in excess of 100 pounds of force occasionally, and/or in
excess of 50 pounds of force frequently, and/or in excess of 20 pounds of force constantly to
move objects.
The Principle objectives of an Ergonomics Program should be to:
  Reduce the number or occupational injuries and illnesses experienced
 Reduce employee absenteeism and turnover
 Improve the productivity of the work force
 Improve the quality of work produced
 Ensure governmental regulatory compliance
 Accommodate disabled workers under the ADA
 Function in cooperation with a WC cost containment strategy

The basic components used in the development of an ergonomic plan are as follows:
Workstation Analysis – A safety and health review that identifies jobs and work stations
that may contain musculoskeletal hazards, the risk factors that pose those hazards, and the
causes of the risk factors.

Hazard Prevention and Control – Eliminating or minimizing the hazards identified in the
workplace analysis by changing the jobs, workstations, tools or environment to fit the worker.

Medical Management – Effective use of available health care resources to prevent or

manage work-related musculoskeletal disorders.

Training & Education – A method to give both workers and managers an understanding of
the potential risk of injuries, their causes, symptoms, prevention and treatment.

Understanding Ergonomics

Guidelines: OSHA will develop industry-or-task-specific guidelines for a number of

industries based on current incidence rates and available information about effective and
feasible solutions. The objective of the guidelines is to reduce and prevent workplace injuries.
These voluntary guidelines are tools to assist employers in recognizing and controlling
hazards. Employers in other industries for which guidelines have not been developed may
find useful information in these guidelines for implementing their own ergonomic programs.
Enforcement: OSHA will address ergonomic hazards in its national emphasis program,
notifications, and inspections of employers in the Site-Specific Targeting program, and will
aid those employers in this group who have a high percentage of MSDs.

Outreach and Assistance: OSHA will develop a complete and comprehensive set of
compliance assistance tools, including Internet-based training and information, to support
understanding of guidelines and how to proactively define and address ergonomic problems.
 The new ergonomics plan includes a specialized focus to help Hispanic and other immigrant
workers, many of whom work in industries with high ergonomic hazard rates.

Research: While there is a large body of research available on ergonomics, there are many
areas where additional research is necessary, including gaps identified by the National
Academy of Science (NAS). OSHA will serve as a catalyst to encourage researchers to
design studies in areas where additional information would be helpful.

The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) has published a
document entitled “Elements of Ergonomics Program – a Primer based on Workplace
Evaluations of Musculoskeletal Disorders.” The primer recommends a seven-step approach
to combating these disorders in the workplace. The steps are as follows:

 One: Look for signs of potential problems in the workplace, such as frequent reports of
aches and pains, jobs that require repetitive movements or forceful exertions.
 Two: Showing management commitment in addressing the possible problems and
encouraging a team approach,
 involving the labor force, in the resolution of the problems.
 Three: Providing education and training to expand the team’s ability to evaluate potential
injuries
 Four: Gathering data to identify jobs or work conditions that are most problematic, using
sources such as OSHA logs, other injury and illness logs, medical records and job
analyses.
 Five: Identify effective administrative controls and standard operating procedures for
tasks that pose a risk of injury. Monitor and evaluate these approaches once they have
been implemented to see if they are reducing or eliminating the risk.
 Six: Establish health care management protocols that emphasize the early detection and
treatment of symptoms to prevent impairment and /or disability.
 Seven: Minimize risk factors for injury when planning new work processes and
operations. The presumption is that it is less expensive to build good design into a
workplace he to redesign or retrofit it later.

HOW TO BUILD A RETURN TO WORK PROGRAM

1. Assign a specific individual (i.e. Human resources professional or Safety Officer) to oversee
and manage the program.
2. Draft a policy statement and step by step procedures to be followed after an injury has been
reported. You may use your own or make use the sample provided:

3. Make certain the elements of the program comply with any other company personnel
guidelines, policies or procedures. It must also be consistent with any applicable collective
bargaining agreements.
4. Develop and/or utilize job descriptions that include a position description and job (task)
analysis that conforms to the US Dept. of Labor standards. It is suggested you prepare these
documents in advance of an injury but may be created as a need arises. The attached Job
Description Forms are intended to assist you in this process.
5. In the event of a loss, review the position description and prepare a detailed analysis of the
elements which could be assigned within the injured worker’s restrictions.
6. Build business relationships with local medical providers who are interested in understanding
the nature of your business, will work with you to provide treatment for employees
immediately after an injury occurs, and who will help you in determining an injured worker's
ability to return to work. Invite them to meet with you at your facility; the more they know
about your operation, the easier it will be for them to assist you in getting your injured
workers back to work quickly.
7. Communicate the appropriate information to your workforce regarding your temporary
alternative/transitional work program. Introduce the program through the medium best for
your workforce (i.e. Team meetings, workplace postings, payroll stuffer, etc.) If applicable,
incorporate the material into your employee handbook.
8. Once the injured worker has returned to work, maintain an open channel of communication
with him/her and the involved medical provider(s) regarding the rehabilitation plan and
progress towards returning to full capacity employment.

Ergonomics of Automation & Assy.

A little over 300 years ago-in 1689 to be precise-King Charles XI of Sweden decreed that a
weapons factory be built in the town of Huskvarna. A few decades later, some of the artisans
working there switched from crafting firearms to making a peaceful precision product-sewing
machine. The resulting company, now Viking Sewing Machines AB, has been hard at it ever
since.
Today, the company is not only one of the world’s oldest manufacturers, but also one of the
most advanced. Gone are the days when sewing machines were assembled meticulously by
hand. Instead, the company uses automation and flexible manufacturing whenever possible to
increase throughput and efficiency, as well as the quality of its products.
A few years ago, the company implemented a complete Dynamic Assembly System (DAS)
from automation equipment manufacturer Flex Link (Allentown, PA), and the system has
been going strong ever since. Comprised of both software and hardware, the DAS system
assembles, tests, transports and packages Viking Sewing Machines’ Designer 1 model, a
computer-controlled machine that can do everything from buttonholes to embroidery. In
addition to regulating production flow, the mixed-mode, pallet-based system also enhances
operator health and safety through the implementation of various ergonomic features. The
manual portion of the assembly line includes seven workstations, with six additional
workstations providing spare assembly capacity. The system is flexible and easy to adjust in
response to product or capacity changes.
Processing times for the different stations range from 6 to 9 minutes. Before packaging, every
sewing machine undergoes a 12-minute automated functional test. When they reach the end
of the line, the pallets automatically return to the starting point, where they are prepped for
another sewing machine.
“The assembly work follows a computerized route handled by a computer, and the actual
route can be followed on the screen,” says Viking Sewing Machines production engineer
Olof Dahlin. “If there is no station available, the pallet will circulate on the line until an
assembly station becomes available. On our old production lines, you had to follow a
sequential flow, taking the stations in order, without any possibility of changing assembly
steps or the defined role at each workstation.”
Dahlin adds that the line is also much easier on employees than in the past. “Ergonomic
adaptation of each workstation is very important for us,” he says, adding that a
physiotherapist has inspected, tested and approved the entire line

Ergonomics of Visual Fatigue

Displays and Light Signals.
 These are useful to provide, necessary information to operator. They may be dial
gauges, pointers, digital, audio, visual, analog etc. Bell, horn and warning notices are also
displaying which give information. Colored signals have some meaning as under
1. Red - Stop position
2. Flashing Red - Emergency condition.
3. Green - 'On' position or 'yes' indication to proceed.
4. Yellow - Wait, delay or be in readiness position. It also indicates caution
or rechecking.
5. White - No right or no wrong, transitory condition.
Displays should have clear meaning. They should be easy to understand and visible,
properly illuminated, also visible when power fails, coded and labeled according to function.
Numerical display indicates time, temperature, pressure, flow, humidity, pH, speed
etc. Moving pointer on a fixed scale 'have many shapes - circular, curved, horizontal straight
or vertical straight. Numbers or figures should not be obstructed by pointer.
Displays should be located in viewing area and perpendicular to the line of sight.
Labels should be provided where extra information is necessary.

Anthropometry and fundamental of bio-mechanics:Basic and applied

aspects:Anthropometric measurements and their usefulness in industry.
Introduction to Anthropometry.
Anthropometry and biomechanics are branches of ergonomics dealing with physical
dimensions and properties of. the human body.
Anthropometry means measuring the human body. Height, breadth, depth and various
distances of the body parts are measured. Curvatures and circumferences are also measured.
Measurements are taken in stand-erect or seated position.
Body dimensions are measured by anthropometers, calipers, taps and a scale. Such
dimensions are useful in designing work spaces, tools, equipment, seating arrangement,
vehicles and workstations so that' they can best fit to the users.

Fundamentals of Biomechanics
Biomechanics means: study of the motion and causes of motion of living things
Introduction to Biomechanics of Human Movement
Biomechanics has been defined as the study of the movement (kinesiology). A core science
in the academic discipline of kinesiology is biomechanics. Biomechanics in kinesiology is the
study of motion and its causes in human movement. Mechanics is a branch of physics that is
concerned with the description of motion and how forces create motion. Forces acting on
living things can create motion, be a healthy stimulus for growth and development, or
overload tissues, causing injury. Biomechanics provides conceptual and mathematical tools
that are necessary for understanding how living things move and how kinesiology
professionals might improve movement.
Since kinesiology majors are pursuing careers focused on improving human movement, today
people refer to professional athletes or painters because people earn a living with these jobs,
People need help in improving human movement and this help requires knowledge of “why”
and “how” the human body moves. Biomechanics is an important science for solving human
movement problems. However, Bio-mechanics is but one of many sport and human
movement science tools in a kinesiology. Integrate biomechanical knowledge into the
qualitative analysis.

WHY STUDY BIOMECHANICS? 1. Improving Performance

2. Preventing and Treating Injury
Application
A) Sport Medicine
B) Athletics (Exercise, game)
C) Scholarly Societies
Kinds of Sources: Where you can find it...?
Computer Searches
Biomechanics Textbooks

NINE FUNDAMENTALS OF BIOMECHANICS

Biomechanisms measure all kinds of linear and angular mechanical variables to document
and find the causes of human motion. This section proposes nine such principles of
biomechanics and demonstrates how they relate to scientific laws. These biomechanical tools
must be combined with other tools from your kinesiology toolbox to solve movement
problems. Because these principles are the application rules for kinesiology professionals,
they have usually been given less-scientific names so that we can communicate effectively
with our clients.
Principles and Laws
The nine principles of biomechanics that follow take the form of general principles related to
human movement. It is important to realize that principles for application are not the same as
scientific laws. Science is a systematic method for testing hypotheses with experimental
evidence for the purpose of improving our understanding of reality. Science uses a process,
known as the scientific method, for testing a theory about a phenomenon with measurements,
then reevaluating the theory based on the data. Ultimately, science is interested in finding the
truth, facts, or laws of nature that provide the best understanding of reality. When
experimentation shows data always consistent with a theory, then the theory becomes a law.
Scientists must always be open to new data and theories that may provide a more accurate
description or improved understanding of a phenomenon. True scientific revolutions that
throw out long-held and major theories are not as common as most people think. Though
news reporters often herald scientific “breakthroughs,” they are usually Exaggerating the
importance of a small step in what is a very slow process of weighing a great deal of
evidence. Technology is the term usually used to refer to the tools and methods of applying
scientific knowledge to solve problems or perform tasks. Remember that in chapter 1 we
noted the belief of some scholars that studying academic disciplines and doing theoretical
research are worthy enterprises without any need to show any practical application of
knowledge. Even in “applied” fields like kinesiology, there is a long history of a theory-to-
practice, or a science-to-profession gap (Harris, 1993). Why does this gap exist? It might
exist because some scholars are hesitant to propose application based on what is often less-
than-conclusive data, or they might be concerned about receiving less recognition for applied
scholarship. Practitioners contribute to this gap as well by refusing to recognize the
theoretical nature of science, by not reading widely to compile the necessary evidence for
practice, and by demanding simple “how-to” rules of human movements when these simple
answers often do not exist. This text is based on the philosophy that the best use of the
science of biomechanics is in its translation to principles for improving human movement.
These principles are general rules for the application of biomechanics that are useful for most
all human movements. Some of the principles are based on major laws of mechanics, many
of which are hundreds of years old. For example, Newton's Laws of Motion are still used at
NASA because they accurately model the motion of spacecraft, even though there are more
recent advancements in theoretical physics that are only an improvement in very extreme
conditions (high-energy or near the speed of light). Unfortunately, the human body is a much
more complicated system than the space shuttle, and biomechanisms have not had hundreds
of years to make progress on theories of human movement. For these reasons, these nine
principles of application should be viewed as general rules that currently fit what we
currently know about the biomechanics of human movement.

Nine Principles for Application of Biomechanics

The nine principles of biomechanics proposed in this text were selected because they
constitute the minimum number or core principles that can be applied to all human
movements and because they provide a simple paradigm or structure to apply biomechanical
knowledge. The names of the principles are put in the common language of application;
however, each can be directly linked to the concepts and laws of biomechanics. Special
attention has been paid to make application of these principles both friendly and consistent
with the specialized terminology of mechanics. As kinesiology professionals you will know
the names of the biomechanical laws and theories behind these principles.
1. The first principle in biomechanics is theForce–Motion principle. Force–motion says
that
Unbalanced forces are acting on our bodies or objects when we either create or modify
movement. In quiet standing the force of gravity is balanced by ground reaction forces under
our feet, so to move from this position a person creates larger horizontal and vertical forces
with their legs. This simple illustration of the body is our first example of what in mechanics
is called a free-body diagram. A free-body diagram is a simplified model of any system or
object drawn with the significant forces acting on the object. The complexity and detail of the
free-body diagram depends on the purpose of the analysis. Inspection of should make it
qualitatively obvious that the addition of the two vertical forces illustrated would cancel each
other out, keeping the person essentially motionless in the vertical direction. The Force–
Motion principle here correctly predicts no change in motion, since there is no unbalanced
force acting on the person. Later on, in the text we will use free-body diagrams to actually
calculate the effect of forces and torques on the motion of the human body, and we will study
the effects of forces acting over time to change the motion of the human body. We will also
come to see later that this principle is based on Newton's three laws of motion. An important
thing to notice in this principle is the sequence of events. Forces must act first, before
changes in motion can occur. Detailed study of kinematics will illustrate when the motion
occurred relative to the acceleration and force causing it. Suppose a person is running on a
sidewalk and a small child darts directly in the runner's path to grab a bouncing ball. In order
to avoid the child, the runner must change the state of motion. The Force–Motion principle
tells the kinesiology professional that the runner's sideward movement (a change in direction
and speed) had to be created by large forces applied by the leg to the ground. The force
applied by the leg comes first and the sideward motion to avoid the collision was the result.
Substantial changes in motion do not instantly occur but are created over time, which leads us
to the next principle of Force–Time.
2. principle of Force–Time.
It is not only the amount of force that can increase the motion of an object; the amount of
time over which force can be applied also affects the resulting motion. A person using a
longer approach in bowling has more time to apply forces to increase ball speed. Increasing
the time to apply force is also an important technique in slowing down objects (catching) and
landing safely. The impulse–momentum relationship, the original language of Newton’s
second law, is the mathematical explanation of this important principle.
3. Another important principle to understand in the modification of motion is Inertia.
Inertia can be defined as the property of all objects to resist changes in their state of motion.
Newton's first law of motion outlines the principle of inertia. The Newtonian view of inertia
as a fundamental property of motion was a major conceptual leap, rejecting the old
Aristotelian view that constant application of force was required for motion. The linear and
angular measures of inertia are mass (m) and moment of inertia (I). We will see that inertia
can be viewed as a resistance to motion in the traditional sense, but this property can also be
used to an advantage when modifying motion or transferring energy from one body segment
to another.
4. The next principle involves the Range of Motion the body uses in movement.
Range of Motion is the overall motion used in a movement and can be specified by linear or
angular motion of the body segments. The purpose of some movements might require that
somebody segments limit range of motion, while others requiring maximum speed or force
might require larger ranges of motion. Increasing the range of motion in a movement can be
an effective way to increase speed or to gradually slowdown from a high speed. A baseball
pitcher taking a longer stride is increasing the range of motion of the weight shift. Since
moving through a range of motion takes time, this principle is related to the force–time
principle.
5. The next biomechanical principle is Balance. Balance is a person's ability to control
their body position relative to some base of support. Stability and mobility of body
postures are inversely related, and several biomechanical factors are involved in
 manipulating a person's stability and mobility. A handstand is a difficult gymnastic
skill not only because of the muscular strength required, but also because of the small
base of support in the anterior and posterior directions. Athletes in the starting blocks
for sprints choose body postures with less stability in favor of increased mobility in
the direction of the race. How the muscle actions and body segment motions are timed
in a human movement is usually referred to as coordination.
6. The Coordination Continuum principle
Says that determining the optimal timing of muscle actions or segmental motions depends on
the goal of the movement. If high forces are the goal of the movement, more simultaneous
muscle actions and joints rotations are usually observed, while low-force and high-speed
movements tend to have more sequential muscle and joint actions. These two strategies can
be viewed as a continuum, with the coordination of most motor skills falling somewhere
between these two strategies.
7. The principle of Segmental Interaction
Says that the forces acting in a system of linked rigid bodies can be transferred through the
links and joints. Muscles normally act in short bursts to produce torques that are precisely
coordinated to complement the effects of torques created by forces at the joints. A wide
variety of terms have been used to describe this phenomenon (transfer, summation,
sequential) because there are many ways to study human movement. This variety of
approaches has also created a confusing array of terminology classifying movements as either
open or closed (kinematic or kinetic) chains. We will see that the exact mechanism of this
principle of biomechanics is not entirely clear, and common classification of movements as
open or closed chains is not clear or useful in analyzing movement (Blackard, Jensen, &
Ebben, 1999; di Fabio, 1999; Dillman, Murray, & Hintermeister, 1994).
8. The biomechanical principle of Optimal Projection says that for most human
movements involving projectiles there is an optimal range of projection angles for a
specific goal. Biomechanical research shows that optimal angles of projection provide
the right compromise between vertical velocity and horizontal velocity within the
typical conditions encountered in many sports. For example, in throwing most sport
projectiles for horizontal distance, the typical air resistance and heights of release
combine to make it beneficial for an athlete to use projection angles below 45
degrees. This research makes it easier for coaches to determine if athletes are
optimizing their performance.
 9. The last principle involves the Spin or rotations imparted to projectiles, and
particularly sport balls.
Spin is desirable on thrown and struck balls because it stabilizes flight and creates a fluid
force called lift. This lift force is used to create a curve or to counter gravity, which affects
the trajectory and bounce of the ball. A volleyball player performing a jump serve should
strike above the center of the ball to impart topspin to the ball. The topspin creates a
downward lift force, making the ball dive steeply and making it difficult for the opponent to
pass. The spin put on a pass in American football stabilizes the orientation of the ball, which
ensures aerodynamically efficient flight. The natural application of these biomechanical
principles is in qualitative analysis of human movement.

QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS

The examples that illustrate the application of the principles of biomechanics in the solution
of human movement problems in this book will be based on qualitative analyses. Research
has shown that general principles of biomechanics provide a useful structure for qualitative
analysis of human movement Quantitative biomechanical analysis can also be used, but most
kinesiology professionals will primarily be using qualitative analyses of movement rather
than quantitative biomechanical analyses. There are several models of qualitative analysis of
human movement. Traditionally, kinesiology professionals have used a simple error detection
and correction approach to qualitative analysis. Here the analyst relies on a mental image of
the correct technique to identify “errors” in the performance and provide a correction. This
approach has several negative consequences and is too simplistic a model for professional
judgments. The application of the principles of biomechanics is illustrated in the present book
using a more comprehensive vision of qualitative analysis than the simple error
detection/correction of the past. This text uses the Knudson and Morrison. This model
provides a simple four task structure: preparation, observation, evaluation/diagnosis, and
intervention. This model of qualitative analysis is equally relevant to athletic or clinical
applications of biomechanics to improving human movement. In the preparation task of
qualitative analysis, the professional gathers relevant kinesiology knowledge about the
activity, the performer, and then selects an observational strategy. In the observation task the
analyst executes the observational strategy
Interdisciplinary Issue:
The Vertical Jump
Now that the principles are out of the bag, let's use them to look at a common sport
movement, the vertical jump. Imagine an athlete is doing a standing vertical jump test. Which
principles of biomechanics would be
of most interest to scholars from motor development, motor learning, exercise physiology, or
sport psychology studying the vertical jump test? What combinations of the sport sciences are
most relevant to the concept of skill in vertical jumping? What sports science provides the
most relevant information to the physical terminatesof jumping ability? How could someone
determine if the success of elite jumpers is more strongly related to genetics (nature/physical)
than coaching? How could a strength coach integrate jump training studies with
biomechanical studies of jumping techniques? to gather all relevant sensory information
about the performance of the movement. The third task of qualitative analysis has two
difficult components: evaluation and then diagnosis of performance. In evaluation the analyst
identifies strengths and weaknesses of performance. Diagnosis involves the prioritizing of the
potential interventions to separate causes of poor performance from minor or symptomatic
weaknesses. Intervention is the last task of qualitative analysis. In this task the professional
executes some action on behalf of the performer. Often in live qualitative analysis, the analyst
will return immediately to the observation task to monitor the intervention and the mover's
progress.
SUMMARY

Most biomechanical research has been based on rigid-body models of the skeletal system.
Kinematics involves the description of the motion, while kinetics focuses on the forces that
created the motion. There are many biomechanical variables and they can be classified as
either scalars or vectors. Despite the precision of quantitative biomechanics, most kinesiology
professionals apply biomechanics at a qualitative or conceptual level. The nine principles of
biomechanics that can be used to apply biomechanics knowledge in professional practice are
Force–Motion, Force–Time, Inertia, Range of Motion, Balance, Coordination Continuum,
Segmental Interaction, Optimal Projection, and Spin. These nine principles can be applied
using a comprehensive model qualitative analysis.
Application: Quantitative Analysis

An athletic trainer is planning a qualitative analysis of the lower-extremity muscular function

of an athlete finishing up an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) rehabilitation program. The
trainer has run the athlete through the rehabilitation program, but wants a more functional
evaluation of the athlete's ability and readiness for play. The athlete will be doing several
drills, including multiple one-legged hops and squats, shuttle runs, landings, jumps, and
lateral cutting movements. For the preparation task of qualitative analysis, give examples of
research or biomechanical principles that you think would be relevant to analyzing the
athlete's ability to prevent damage to the ACL. Is there a task of qualitative analysis that more
heavily relies on biomechanics than other sport sciences?

Ergonomic Design of Work Station: Concept of workstation and its design. Improving
safety and productivity through work station design. Technical and Engineering control
measures. Economics consideration.
Work Station Design:
Introduction to Anthropometry.

Anthropometry and biomechanics are branches of ergonomics dealing with physical

dimensions and properties of. the human body.
Anthropometry means measuring the human body. Height, breadth, depth and various
distances of the body parts are measured. Curvatures and circumferences are also measured.
Measurements are taken in stand-erect or seated position.
Body dimensions are measured by anthropometers, calipers, taps and a scale. Such
dimensions are useful in designing work spaces, tools, equipment, seating arrangement,
vehicles and workstations so that' they can best fit to the users.
Concept of Percentiles.
Percentile indicates which percentage of a known population is fitted by a design range.
Suppose work seat height is to be designed most convenient to majority of men and women,
its range should fit to the women in 5th percentile to the man in is 95th percentile. This
means much deviation will not be required in this range of seat height (say lowest 35.5 cm to
its highest setting at 48.8 cm). Then addition of 2 cm for heal height may be required. 50th
percentile corresponds to a single fixed seat height of 41 cm for a mixed male female
population, but, this will be too high for about 50 % of the people and too low for the rest.
Thus, designing for the average fits nobody.
5th, 50th and 95th percentiles measurements for human height, depth, breadth, head, hand
and foot dimensions are available for ergonomic design purpose.
Health problems related to wrong postures, back pain etc.
Sitting or standing in the same posture for a long time
exert muscle tension and spinal compression. Therefore,
this should be avoided by providing rest periods, physical
activities or exercises.
Computer operators keep the head in a fixed position for
a long time and therefore suffer pain and tension in the
neck area. Intensity, frequency and long hours of muscle
contractions cause severe discomfort, pain and other
musculoskeletal disorders that last for long periods.
Lumber spine suffers more force while sitting on a stool without backrest than in standing at
ease. Leaning back over the backrest and arms hanging down reduces compression force.
Straight upright backrests do not support the body and high disk forces may occur. When it is
declined back and upper body weight is rested on backrest, internal forces are also declined.
Relaxed leaning on a declined backrest is the least stressful sitting posture.
Ergonomic Office Furniture and Utility Tools.
Workstation consists of furniture, equipment, work material and overall environment.
Persons do job there. Work posture includes movement of body parts and work activities
include visual, auditory, vocal and motor types. Their combined effect is performance output
and persons' well-being.
Work space design, good lighting and ventilation, attractive and comfortable work situation
are basic requirement. Office furniture and utility tools like controls, displays, switches, trays,
bins, office equipment’s and instruments also play an important role.
General system components include computers, keyboards, tables, chairs and cupboards. But
operator is the most important component in this system, because work output depends on
him and he utilizes other components of the system. He should be most comfortable. His
body dimensions are useful in designing workstation dimensions as under -
1. Dimensions should be slightly adjustable according to individual's requirement.
2. Visual tasks - monitor, key board, papers, books etc. - should be at eye height.
3. Keyboard, mouse, notepad, pen and hand controls should be convenient to elbow
height and forearm length.
4. Leg room height depends on knee height, and thigh thickness and its depth depend on
foot length.
5. Thigh width and lower leg length (Popliteal height) decide the width and height of the
seat pan.
6. Functional reach decides height of shelves and other furniture.
7. Furniture should provide user freedom to extend legs or hands, to lean forward or
backward, to rotate left or right and to take any posture.
8. Ergonomic chairs with large backrest are most comfortable as they provide support to
back and neck. Seat height must be fully adjustable, (height 35 to 50 cm, depth 35 to 45 cm
and width 45 cm). Seat surface should not generate any pressure to the seated person.
9. Armrests are useful in reducing compression load on the spinal column.
10. Visual targets should riot be spaced apart in direction or distance from the eye. They
should be easily viewable in the front.
11. All components of workstation should fit each other and each should fit the operators.
Flexibility for individual requirement is also necessary.

Machine Controls and Displays:

Location & Sequence of Operation.
Controls are mostly hand or foot operated. They transmit inputs to machine, vehicle
or equipment. They are selected on basis of their functional utility and located in easy reach
so that operator's body parts are not overstressed.
Controls are of 'continuous' type (e.g. crank, knob wheel etc.) or 'detent type (e.g. key
lock or switch, bar knob, thumbwheel & different switches) where step wise operation is
required.
Controls having sequential relations should be arranged in functional groups with
their associated displays and in operational sequence.
If sequential operation follows fixed pattern like car gear handle, they should be
arranged to facilitate operation i.e. top to bottom or left to right. Sufficient spacing s required
for movement.
 Controls should be located as per operator's requirement i.e. easy operation. Time lag
between control input and system response should be minimum and consistent with safe and
efficient operation.
Knobs are provided where little force is required and when fine adjustment is
necessary.
Hand wheels are used for two hand control. Then knurling (corrugation) should be
provided for good grasping.
When levers are used for fine or frequent adjustment (e.g. car gear lever) limb support
are useful. e.g. elbow support for large hand movement, forearm support for small movement
and wrist support for finger movement.
When several levers are located side by side, the lever handles should be coded.
Levers should be labeled for their direction of motion and function. For joystick controls
(three-dimensional steering), elastic resistance is added for smooth displacement.
Natural Expectation of Control Movement.
Control movement should match with natural expectation e.g. foreword motion for
front driving, backward motion for reversed driving, clockwise motion for right direction and
anticlockwise for left direction, forward motion for boom descend and vice versa. In
electrical switches, downward indicates 'on' and upward indicates 'off position. This is natural
expectation.
In key lock switches (e.g. car ignition switch), key's vertical position indicates 'off
position, turning clockwise indicates 'start' position and key should not come out without
turning the switch i.e. without stopping the vehicle or machine. The 'on' and 'off positions
should be labeled.
Preventing Accidental Activation.

Controls should be so designed and located that they will not move or change their
position accidentally. They should not come out accidentally or by slight touch from 'off to
'on' position and start the vehicle or machine [Section 24(3) of the factories Act]. Such
inadvertent operation can cause 'accident to person, machine or system. To prevent such
accidental activation, following measures are useful
1. Cover or guard the control.
2. Provide interlock so that extra movement is required to change the position.
3. Provide resistance by spring action or viscous friction so that extra effort is
required for actuation.
4. Provide rotary action for operation.
 5. Provide recess, slot, shield etc. to contain controls within it and finger is
required to insert inside. e.g. push button or switch in recess or guard on foot pedal of a
power press.
6. Provide 'on' and 'off. button separately and with different colour.
7. Provide' Dead man control' which will keep the system working till the control
is pressed and will stop the system when the control is released, e.g. petrol nozzle trigger
(knob) or drill machine push button.
Foot controls.
Foot controls have specific use and where powerful braking force is required or when
leg is only convenient limb, viz. brake pedal or acceleration control lever in car or brake
pedal for power press, press brake, metal shear and other machines.
Displays and Light Signals.
These are useful to provide, necessary information to operator. They may be dial
gauges, pointers, digital, audio, visual, analog etc. Bell, horn and warning notices are also
displaying which give information. Colored signals have some meaning as under

1. Red - Stop position

2. Flashing Red - Emergency condition.

3. Green - 'On' position or 'yes' indication to proceed.

4. Yellow - Wait, delay or be in readiness position. It also indicates

caution or rechecking.

5. White - No right or no wrong, transitory condition.

Displays should have clear meaning. They should be easy to understand and
visible, properly illuminated, also visible when power fails, coded and labeled according to
function.
Numerical display indicates time, temperature, pressure, flow, humidity, pH, speed
etc. Moving pointer on a fixed scale 'have many shapes - circular, curved, horizontal straight
or vertical straight. Numbers or figures should not be obstructed by pointer.
It discloses the soundness, thickness or physical property of the material or nature of
discontinuities without impairing the material and by exposing its one side only. Ultrasonic
waves i.e. vibrations are created by an electronic generator and passed through a material due
to its elastic properties. Vibrations above the human hearing range (20000 Hz) are called
ultrasonic vibrations. An ultrasonic testing unit uses vibrations of about 5x10666 Hz (5
megahertz).
Electrical energy is applied to a piezoelectric crystal also called transducer which
causes material displacement within the specimen. The transducer converts electrical energy
into mechanical and vice versa. Thus, transducer can transmit or receives the energy.
Transmission of energy can be pulsed or continuous. Steel, water and oil can transmit
ultrasound very well but air is a poor transmitter because of its low particle density. Velocity
of sound in steel, water and air are 5.9, 1.48 and 0.33 km/sec respectively. Therefore water,
oil (grease) or steel is used as a coolant between the transducer and the test specimen. The
pulses (waves) return back (reflect) from discontinuities in their path or from any boundary
(end) that they strike. The received reflections are displayed on a cathode ray tube (CRT).
The quality of the material is measured in terms of energy lost by a sound beam as it travels
through the material.
Normally two methods are used. In 'Contact testing' method the transducer is coupled
to the material through a thin layer of coolant. In ‘Immersion testing' method, both the
material and the transducer are immersed in a tank of coolant (usually water). Immersion
technique is commonly used to inspect tubing; pipe and butt welds.
There are two types of test systems - Pulse - echo reflection and Through transmission
as shown in A third system known as 'Resonant frequency' is rarely used because its
functions of 'thickness measurement' and 'bond or lamination inspection' are also performed
by the pulse-echo system.
Physiology of respiration, cardiac cycle, muscle contraction, nerve conduction system.
Permissible limits of load for manual lifting and carrying. Criteria for fixation limits
Physiology is the science of dealing with functioning of living organisms or their parts.
Human physiology is study of the normal functioning of cells, tissues and organs of the
human body
Physiology of Respiration:
Respiration is aerobic or anaerobic. Aerobic Respiration is the process by which living
organisms or their components, take oxygen from the atmosphere to oxidize their food to
obtain energy. Anaerobic Respiration is the process by which organisms or their components,
obtain energy from chemically combined oxygen when they do not have access to free
oxygen. Many organisms can respire anaerobically for a short time only, but certain bacteria
depend entirely on anaerobic respiration.
Respiratory Quotient (RQ) is the ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide expired by an
organism or tissue to the volume of oxygen consumed by it over the same period.
Respiratory pigment is a substance formed in blood cells or blood plasma that is capable of
combining loosely and reversibly with oxygen, e.g. hemoglobin.

Physiology of Cardiac Cycle or Cardiovascular system (CVS):

It comprises a closed canalicular network made up of arteries, capillaries, veins and a central
pumping organ - the heart. Following a cardiac contraction, the blood is distributed to the
arteries and then to the capillary areas, returning through the veins back to the heart. The
arteries and veins are simple transit vessels whereas the capillaries have an important
functional significance since they are involved in the vital exchange of substances between
the blood and the inter-cellular spaces, resulting in important modifications in the blood's
chemical composition and physical properties.
Cardiac work is the quantity of energy that the heart transmits to the volume of blood to
propel it through the vessels. This energy is produced by the oxidation of organic substances
such as glucose, glycogen, lactic acid etc., partially converted to mechanical energy during
myocardial contraction.
The heart has four chambers - left and right atria and left and right ventricles. There are two
separate circulation of blood in these four compartments. The lesser or pulmonary circulation
starts at RV and finishes at LA. The greater or systemic circulation starts from LV and
finishes at RA. The four cardiac chambers are separated by a system of valves. The two
phases in the cardiac cycle are diastole and systole. The cycle occurs around 75 times per
minute but it may vary depending on age and physiological condition.
The myocardial fiber (strained muscle cell of special structure) has four basic
properties to control cardiac function i.e. rhythmicity, conductivity, irritability and
contractility.
The stroke volume has an effect on the arterial wall, the tension of which varies depending on
blood pressure. Blood pressure is directly proportional to the volume of blood injected per
minute (minute volume Vim) and peripheral resistance.
During effort coronary flow increases considerably whereas myocardial oxygen extraction
remains largely the same as at rest. Aortic pressure plays a major role in regulating coronary
circulation' - when it increases, it raises the flow and vice versa.
In a normal subject, an average of 90% of the contractile work is used in the propagation of
systolic wave, 25-45% of this work is stored in the elastic components, only 10% on average,
is not returned and is probably released during the period of isometric relaxation.
Cardiac insufficiency can be defined as the inability of myocardial function to ensure an
output that meets the body's requirements. The patient in a state of cardiac insufficiency is
not capable to increase his cardiac work to the same degree. The result is a reduction in
contractility. The defective heart does not fully utilize the energy obtained from glucose
degradation. The result is a reduction in cardiac output. The predominant symptom is
dyspnea, which results from the increase in respiratory work. Due to reduced cardiac output,
fatigue, gastrointestinal disorders and renal dysfunction take place. This affects the normal
functioning of the various organs.
Physiology of Muscle Contraction

There are about 200 skeletal muscles in the body. Many consist of bundles of muscles, each
of which is wrapped - as is the total muscle - in connective tissue in which nerves and blood
vessels are embedded. The tissues combine to form tendons that connect the ends of the
muscle to bones. The only active action a muscle can do is to contract. It is done by
filaments. Elongation is brought about by external forces.
This is a complex phenomenon involving many internal human reactions. Muscle fibers
(cells) are controlled by a single motor nerve fiber. This is known as the motor unit. An
impulse started in a motor nerve cell (motoneuron) propagates along the nerve fiber and
transmitted to the motor endplate where acetyl chlorine is released. This reverses the resting
membrane potential. The neuromuscular transmission transduces electrical signals, (nerve
impulses) to chemical signals and then back to electrical signals (muscle action potentials).
This initiates the mechanical-chemical mechanisms and causes the muscle to react. In the
activated muscle, the contractile components (myofibrils), shorten and stretch the elastic
components (connective tissue, tendon). When no movement, the contraction is called
isometric (static) and when muscle is activated to vary its length, the contraction is called
isotonic (dynamic). In the latter case external work can be given by the following equation
Work or energy = force x distance

(Nm or Joule, J) = (Newton) x (meter)

Power = Work per unit time

1 watt (W)
or 1 J/sec = 6.12 kilopond meter per minute

9.81 W = 1 kpm per second

1 HP=736 W=75 kpm/sec - 4500 kpm/min

Physiology of nerve conduction system:
A nerve cord which starts from the brain ends in nerve fibers at different locations of body
like hand fingers Legs & Toes. This Nerve Cord go through the vertebral column & branches
in to the nerve fiber. This nerve fibers give sensation of touch & environment after
stimulation from brain. In case of
1. Damage of vertebrae or
2. Slip Disc due to continuous wrong posture over-weight or bending,
The orientation of nerve cord can be disturbed resulting in to the pack pain & numbness in
body part.

Permissible limits of load for manual lifting and carrying. Criteria for fixation limits:
Factories Act 1948 under MF Rules talks about permissible load for manual lifting
manual transport of loads means any transport in which the weight of the load is wholly
borne by one worker including lifting and putting of the load;
Regular manual transport of load means any activity which is continuously or intermittently
devoted to the manual transport of load.
No person, unaided by another person, or mechanical aid, allowed to lift, put down, carry or
move any load of material, article, tool or appliance exceeding the maximum limit in weight,
as set out in the following.

SCHEDULE

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------
Persons Maximum
weight of
Material, article, tool
or appliances kgs.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------
 (a) Adult male...
55.00
(b) Adult female. 30.00
(c) Young person (male 15-18 years) 30.00
(d) Young person (female 15-18 years) 20.00
(e) Young person (male 14-15 years) 16.00
(f) Young person (female 14-15 years) 14.00

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------

2) No woman or young person shall be engaged in conjunction with others, in

lifting, carrying or moving any material, article, tool or appliance, if the
weight thereof exceeds the maximum weight fixed by the schedule to sub-rule
(2), multiplied by the number of the persons engaged.
3) Considering all conditions in which the work is to be performed, no worker
shall be required or permitted to engage in the manual transport of load
which, by reason of its weight, is likely to jeopardize his health or safety.
4) Wherever reasonably practicable, suitable mechanical devices shall be used
for the manual transport of loads.

7.1.2: Physiology and Ergonomics at Work: Working posture: Its effect on cardio-vascular
and muscular-skeletal system and implications on health & Control measures

Nutrition and its importance in manual work. Nutritional requirements and nutritional of
diet.

Physiological effects of working posture on cardio-vascular system in Hot Environment

are:
(1) Cardiovascular stress
(2) Heart rate
(3) Cardiac cost
(4) Blood pressure
(5). O2 uptake and (6) Sweat loss

Physiological effects of repeated work cycles in Hot Environment are:

(1) Heart rate
(2) Recovery time
(3) Cardiac cost and
(4) Sweat loss.
Psychic factors affecting muscular (service) functions are attitude and motivation.
Environmental factors that affect are heat, cold, noise, vibration, gas pressure, altitude, air
pollution.
Physiological effects of working posture on muscular-Skeletal System:
Muscle system consists of about 200 skeletal. muscles in the body. They are in the
form of bundles of muscles and wrapped on each other. They are connected with tissue
carrying nerves and blood vessels inside. The tissues combine to form tendons which connect
the ends of the muscle to bones. The sheaths of the connective tissues provide mechanical
properties to the muscle.
A muscle has only action to contract. Elongation is by
external force. Filaments of muscle sliding along each other
provide automatic contraction after elongation. Signal to
contract comes from brain by the neuromuscular system.
Signals coming to motor units of the muscle can be
observed by electromyogram (EMG).
Lever system is consisted of links (bones) joined in their
articulations and powered by muscles bridging the joints. As elbow angle changes, lever arm
(LA) also changes with the muscle force (MF).
Safe use of these muscle and lever system of human body is mostdesirable to prevent
injury, damage or pain to the body. Excessive load causes excessive stress in muscle which
may result in strain, stretch or pain. Therefore, excessive weight limits are legally prescribed.
Some safety measures are as under:
1. While handling material, force exerted by hands should be transmitted through the
whole-body parts including feet to the floor. In this chain of forces, weak link is
spinal column, particularly at the low back. This limits the capability of a person to
work. Therefore, task should not be too heavy.
2. Tasks, equipment and system should be designed to provide ease and efficiency of
manual handling.
3. Layout of material transfer and facilities should be convenient and comfortable to the
people.
4. Job design should be safe, efficient and agreeable for the worker.

5. Selection of tools, machines, equipment should be proper. Sufficient space for

movement, visibility, lighting, colour coding and control design are important.

6. Select persons capable of performing the job. The job should be designed to fit the
worker.

7. Give training for safe lifting practices.

Nutrition: Nutritional requirements and the Diets for Exercise, Work and Physical Fitness.

Nutrition, Diets, Physical Fitness and their Relationship:

Among factors modifying physiological functions, nutrition or diet is an important

factor, because it has direct relationship with calorific value which is essential to compensate
energy expenditure (Kcal/min) on heavy or continuous physical (muscular) work.

As workload increases, calorie requirement increases. Insufficient calorie intake

reduces work output or maximum aerobic power which can quickly be restored by
improvement in diet. A well-fed worker can store more energy in his fat and is able to work
easily at required productivity level.

Functions of Nutrients:Diet is made of foods and foods are made of specific

substances called nutrients. Each nutrient has a specific role e.g. in growth, building and
repair of body, in giving heat and energy, in liberating and using energy contained in foods,
in regulating other body functions and maintaining a good health.

Life functions (heartbeat, breathing, digestion) and all bodily activities (muscular or
mental) require, energy and heat and these are provided by the nutrients present in the foods.
Balanced diet tries to contain all the nutrients in required proportion.

The energy value of food is measured in the form of beat/given off when the food is
burned. The heat required to raise temperature of 1-liter water from 15 °C to 16 "C is called
Kilocalorie (Kcal) or a Calorie (Cal). 1 Cal = 4.184 Joule.
 Mainly there are six categories of nutrients Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats and Oils,
Minerals, Vitamins and Water. Proteins are made of amino acids (some 23 types) and useful
in body building and repair. Growing children and nursing mothers need extra protein.
Cereals, nuts, peas, beans are plant sources and meat, fish, milk, cheese and eggs are animal
sources of protein. Plants provide carbohydrates and also proteins, vitamins and minerals. 1
gm of carbohydrate produces @ 4 Cal energy. Fats and oils are obtained from plant or animal
and provide @9 Cal/gm, and aid some vitamins. Minerals are needed in small quantity.
Calcium in milk and milk products (except butter) is essential for teeth and bones, clotting of
blood after a wound and for normal contraction of muscles. Iron is necessary for red blood
cells. Iodine is a part of thyroid hormone which helps to regulate growth, mental development
and rate of body functions. Vitamins (20 identified) are equally useful for growth,
development and body function. Their quantity required is small. Vitamin A prevents night
blindness, B protects nerves, C prevents scurvy and D ensures strong and straight bones. 60
to 70% of the human body is made up of water and it is most essential for life. Water controls
the body temperature, digestion, absorption and distribution of foods to body tissues, removal
of waste and functioning of the kidneys. During heavy work and in hot environment, extra
water is required to compensate sweating and to keep the body temperature within limits.

Energy is always expended in work and food (nutrients) is the basic need to supply
this energy. Even a simple meal provided at workplace can remarkably improve production
rate and earnings.

A diet which provides enough food of different types and tastes to meet nutritional
values is called a balanced diet. It varies from person to person, states to states and countries
to countries because of the varieties of factors.

Food should be fresh, warm and non-contaminated. It should be eaten after washing
hands, mouth and teeth.

Nutrition and Physical Fitness Relationship:

Above discussion makes it clear that nutrition has direct

relationship with physical fitness. The fitness increases with nutrition to
its maximum level beyond which nutrition cannot help

Depending on quantum of physical (muscular) work, type of weather,

digesting power, hunger, thirst etc., one should maintain his nutrition standard to maintain
good health. More nutrition is necessary by growing children, pregnant women, nursing
mothers, hard workers, athletes and people living in cold countries. To regain health after
illness or injury, good and gradual nutrition is most essential. We all have to remember this
relationship till our life.

7.1.3: Assessment of Work Capacity Fatigue and Rest Allowances, Physiological Test for
Assessment of Occupational Health Nutrition: Nutritional requirements and the Diets for
Exercise, Work and Physical Fitness.

Assessment of Work Capacity:

Fatigue and Rest Allowances:

Physiological fatigue is characterized by the gradual decrement of work performance effected

by various factors viz. physical, physiological, psychological and wrong working posture. It
is manifested by gradual increase in physiological strain as the work of the day progresses.

During work in a hot environment, the body gains heat due to work and external
environment. These two factors put a lot of thermal stress on human beings. A continuous
work in such environment may lead to exhaustion, if sufficient cooling of the body is not
possible. This also leads to lower efficiency and reduced productivity. Under the
circumstances a rest interval or pause is essential for the workers to recover from exhaustion
as well as to increase efficiency and productivity. Frequent rest pauses reduce fatigue better
than a few long breaks.

Rest Allowance in Energetic Work:

Following formula gives percentage rest time Tr as

Tr = Mmax – M x 100

Mr – M
 where Mmax is the upper limit of the metabolic cost for sustained work, M the
metabolic cost of the job (task) and Mr the resting (sitting) metabolism.

Tr = 400-500 x 100 = -100 x 100 = 25%

100-500 -400

This means, rest intervals should have 20% time i.e. 20% x 8 hr. = 0.20 x 8 x 60 = 96 min.
This can be divided in 3 pauses of 32 min or 4 pauses of 24 min in an 8-hr. shift, or 20% per
hour i.e., 12 min per each working hour.

Combination of heavy and light work provide indirect rest. Walking to give or take material,
counting for some time, writing record or sharpening tools etc. are examples of light work
changes.

According to a German Physiologist (Lehmann), 200 Kcal/hr. represents the upper

permissible limit, and about 250 'work' Kcal per hour or 4 work Kcal per min. +1 Kcal for
resting metabolism represent upper limits for more sustained work. Based on these figures,
Spitzer (one of Lehmann's co-workers) has arrived at the following formula to calculate rest
allowance for workers engaged in energetic heavy work.

Rest Allowance percent = (Kcal/min – 1) x 100

The above formula may, however, not be applicable to Indians having lower body weights
and low physical fitness standard. In their case 3 'work' Kcal per min will represent the upper
limit for sustained work. The above formula may accordingly be modified to work out the
rest allowances for Indian workers engaged in manual work. -

Above formula represents a method to calculate rest allowance percentage time in total
working time. Another method to determine rest pause is from heart beats and is given in the
following table –

Rest Allowances at Different Heart Rates

Heart Rate Energy Rest Fraction in 8 hrs. working minutes

(avg. beats/ Expenditure Allowance Work Rest Total
min Kcal/min (% of
working
time)

110 4.3 - 480 - 480

115 4.9 15 420 60 480
120 5.4 30 370 110 480
130 6.3 65 290 190 480
140 7.3 100 240 240 480
150 8.3 136 205 275 480
160 9.2 170 180 300 480
170 10.2 200 160 320 480
180 11.2 235 145 335 480

After working out the time of rest pauses it should be decided that how it should be
given to minimize the fatigue.
Reducing Stress and Fatigue:
The decrease in the stress upon the workers and consequently the higher efficiency
and morale in the plant may be achieved by:
1. Reducing energetic workload through mechanization.
2. Reducing the heat load by better ventilation or screening.
3. Machines and tools can be designed formaximum efficiency with minimum
physiological cost.
4. The workers can be chosen on the basis of their physiological fitness for specific
tasks, to work on furnaces.
5. Provision of air-conditioned rest rooms.
6. Adequate rest periods by adjustment of work and rest periods.
7. Organizing workers' team. More workers should be added if the workload in a team is
considered very heavy.
8. Compensating for sweat loss by adequate intake of water and salt. There should be
easy access of cold drinking water close to the workplace.
Tests for Physical Fitness:
The test exercises are carried out by ergometers, stepping tests, treadmills, bicycle or
running. As a precautionary measure, the person should be medically examined prior to
testing and also after maximal testing.
(1) Physiological Test (Step Test):
 The step test was developed in the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory, USA to evaluate the
physical fitness of an individual. It is modified for Indian workers and described below:

While carrying out the test, the person has to step up and down on a stool 45 cm. high
at the rate of 30 complete steps per minute for a maximum period of 5 minutes or earlier in
case of difficulty. The rate of stepping is regulated by a metronome. Immediately after the
exercise is over, the subject is seated and his pulse is counted during the period 1 min to ½
min after exercise.

The fitness score is computed as follows:

Score = Duration of stepping seconds x 100

5.5 x (half min recovery pulse count recorded)

Grading of scores is:

Below 50 - Poor
50-65 - Low average
65-80 - High average
80-90 - Good
Above 90 - Excellent

The test score which is computed from the pulse count taken during recovery after
exercise is a measure of the individual's cardiovascular efficiency and can be made use of in
grading men for their capacity for physical work in general and in hot environments in
particular.
(2) Pulmonary function test:
This test is the simplest test in which an ergometer is used to measure exhaled air
volume and by comparing it with standard average values, the physical fitness or any disorder
is judged.
Other exercise tests are also used to determine physiological load and functional
capacities of the cardio respiratory system. In abnormalities e.g. an electrical activity of the
heart, cardiovascular disease or improvement after illness or injury.
In young adults 170 beats/min has been widely used as a level at which the intensity
of work indicates physical working capacity.
Nutrition, Diets, Physical Fitness and their Relationship:
Among factors modifying physiological functions, nutrition or diet is an important
factor, because it has direct relationship with calorific value which is essential to compensate
energy expenditure (Kcal/min) on heavy or continuous physical (muscular) work.
As workload increases, calorie requirement increases. Insufficient calorie intake
reduces work output or maximum aerobic power which can quickly be restored by
improvement in diet. A well-fed worker can store more energy in his fat and is able to work
easily at required productivity level.
Functions of Nutrients: Diet is made of foods and foods are made of specific
substances called nutrients. Each nutrient has a specific role e.g. in growth, building and
repair of body, in giving heat and energy, in liberating and using energy contained in foods,
in regulating other body functions and maintaining a good health.
Life functions (heartbeat, breathing, digestion) and all bodily activities (muscular or
mental) require, energy and heat and these are provided by the nutrients present in the foods.
Balanced diet tries to contain all the nutrients in required proportion.
The energy value of food is measured in the form of beat/given off when the food is
burned. The heat required to raise temperature of 1-liter water from 15 °C to 16 "C is called
Kilocalorie (Kcal) or a Calorie (Cal). 1 Cal = 4.184 Joule.
Mainly there are six categories of nutrients Proteins, Carbohydrates, Fats and Oils,
Minerals, Vitamins and Water. Proteins are made of amino acids (some 23 types) and useful
in body building and repair. Growing children and nursing mothers need extra protein.
Cereals, nuts, peas, beans are plant sources and meat, fish, milk, cheese and eggs are animal
sources of protein. Plants provide carbohydrates and also proteins, vitamins and minerals. 1
gm of carbohydrate produces @ 4 Cal energy. Fats and oils are obtained from plant or animal
and provide @9 Cal/gm, and aid some vitamins. Minerals are needed in small quantity.
Calcium in milk and milk products (except butter) is essential for teeth and bones, clotting of
blood after a wound and for normal contraction of muscles. Iron is necessary for red blood
cells. Iodine is a part of thyroid hormone which helps to regulate growth, mental development
and rate of body functions. Vitamins (20 identified) are equally useful for growth,
development and body function. Their quantity required is small. Vitamin A prevents night
blindness, B protects nerves, C prevents scurvy and D ensures strong and straight bones. 60
to 70% of the human body is made up of water and it is most essential for life. Water controls
the body temperature, digestion, absorption and distribution of foods to body tissues, removal
of waste and functioning of the kidneys. During heavy work and in hot environment, extra
water is required to compensate sweating and to keep the body temperature within limits.
Energy is always expended in work and food (nutrients) is the basic need to supply
this energy. Even a simple meal provided at workplace can remarkably improve production
rate and earnings.
A diet which provides enough food of different types and tastes to meet nutritional
values is called a balanced diet. It varies from person to person, states to states and countries
to countries because of the varieties of factors.
Food should be fresh, warm and non-contaminated. It should be eaten after washing
hands, mouth and teeth.

Nutrition and Physical Fitness Relationship:

Above discussion makes it clear that nutrition has direct

relationship with physical fitness. The fitness increases with nutrition to
its maximum level beyond which nutrition cannot help

Depending on quantum of physical (muscular) work, type of weather,

digesting power, hunger, thirst etc., one should maintain his nutrition standard to maintain
good health. More nutrition is necessary by growing children, pregnant women, nursing
mothers, hard workers, athletes and people living in cold countries. To regain health after
illness or injury, good and gradual nutrition is most essential. We all have to remember this
relationship till our life.

7.1.4 Aerobic work capacity (physical work capacity), methods of its determination (use
of bicycle, ergometer, treadmill, step-stool ergometer). Factors affecting aerobic
capacity and work performance.

Aerobic (Physical) Work Capacity

The evaluation of a worker is made from his physical work capacity i.e. his maximum 0,
intake or aerobic capacity, other physiological functions under classified workloads and his
tolerance limit to work in hot environment.
The physical work capacity of an individual is measured by the physiological work capacity.
This is a measure of his physical fitness and estimated in terms of his maximum oxygen
uptake capacity. The upper level of physiological work capacity of an individual depends on
his capacity to utilize the inhaled oxygen to its maximum possible limit. Beyond this, any
additional work has to be carried out only on oxygen debt. Thus, there is an upper limit of
oxygen uptake, being a measure of his maximal aerobic power and the best index to judge
one's total physical fitness. This is important for many practical purposes such as selection of
right jobs, disability evaluation, and rehabilitation of disabled and diseased workers. It is
practiced in all developed countries.
Factors affecting Aerobic Capacity & Work Performance:
Oxygen intake and oxygen debt are the limiting factors in physical exertion. Factors
determining the rate of 0, intake i.e. the efficient supply of 0, to the active tissues are -
1. Ventilation of the lungs.
2. O2 carrying capacity of the blood.
3. Unloading of O2 at the tissues, and
4. Minute volume of the heart.
Physical fitness is not a static condition. It varies with age, body dimensions, general health
and nutritional state (diet) of the worker. Due to illness or other reason, he may lose his
fitness for some time and may regain after some time. A worker doing light work may adjust
himself to a low level of physical fitness and vice versa, but a change from light to heavy job
necessitates a period of training and adjustment and calls for extra strain on the worker.
Normally female workers can be expected to show 70% aerobic power of males of the same
age. Ageing effect decreases heart rate from an average of @ 200 to @ 165 beats/min
between the age from 25 to 55 years in both males and females along with decrease in
functional capacity of other organs.
Maximum aerobic power is determined by measuring the maximum oxygen uptake during
dynamic muscular exercise. This can be done in two ways. In the direct method, muscular
exercises are performed with increasing intensity until a work rate is established above which
there is no further increases in oxygen uptake. In the indirect method, a linear relationship is
established between the heart rate and oxygen uptake when the metabolic rate, circulation and
respiration have reached a steady state at sub-maximal work rate and the curve is then
extrapolated to the maximum heart rate.
Methods of determination of Aerobic work capacity (physical work capacity), with the
use of bicycle
During muscular work, physiological functions change from the resting level and heart rate,
blood, pressure, cardiac output, respiration, pulmonary ventilation, oxygen uptake, carbon
dioxide production, chemical composition of blood and urine, body temperature, rate of
perspiration, etc. increase. They come back to resting level when the work stops. The period
during which the work continues is known as "Work Cycle" and the period during which the
physiological functions return to the resting level is known as "Recovery Period." Both
together is known as Bicycle
By measuring one or more physiological variables during activity, it is possible to
determine in what degree the working level differs from the resting level. This gives an
estimate of the physiological stress experienced in performing a given task. When the activity
ceases, it is possible to follow the return of the same variables to the resting level and to
determine the duration of the recovery period, at the end of which the individual has returned
to his pre-activity physiological equilibrium. In order to evaluate total physiological
expenditure, one must consider physiological reactions, both during the work and during the
recovery period. A complete work cycle includes physiological cost of work plus the
physiological cost of recovery.
When muscles work they increase heat production from about 4 kJ/min (resting level) to 200
kJ/min (max.) i.e. about 50 times more. The rate of heat removal, CO, water, waste products
etc. must also be increased proportionally. To maintain physical and chemical equilibrium of
the cells, a tremendous increase in the exchange of molecules between intra and extra cellular
fluid is required. Normal pulse rate 60-72 beats/min can rise up to 220 beats/min, normal
oxygen consumption rate 0.2 to 3 lit/min can go up to 4 lit/min and corresponding energy
level rises from I Kcal/min to @ 20 Kcal/min. The energy expenditure, core temperature,
sweat rate, skin galvanic resistance, heart stroke volume and pulmonary ventilation also
increase.
To restore the energy content of the body, working at maximum capacity up to 4 times, more
food must be digested, than when the individual is at rest. Moreover, during physical work,
many of the hormone producing glands are involved in the regulation of metabolic and
circulatory functions of the body.
The energy expended by muscles during work comes from food intake. There are two sources
of this energy supply, one is aerobic i.e. direct oxygen intake from air to oxidized food to get
energy and the other anaerobic i.e. consuming chemically combined oxygen in the body.
During sever muscular exercise, oxygen demand goes up and up and a stage comes when the
body cannot maintain demand and supply. Metabolites like lactic and pyruvic acid get
accumulated and the person gets exhausted or feels fatigue. Such physical fatigue, static or
dynamic should be removed daily by regular light exercises (Yongsan) and deep breathing in
a fresh cool air (in early morning").
In Maximum permissible load limits, three criteria are considered (1) Male or Female as their
lifting capability differs at the same age (2) Age as physical muscle strength varies from child
to an adult person and (3) Safe load limit which should not cause any injury or back pain.
Methods of determination of Aerobic work capacity (physical work capacity), with the
use of ergometer
Pulmonary function test: dynamic
This test is the simplest test in which an ergometer is used to measure exhaled air volume and
by comparing it with standard average values, the physical fitness or any disorder is judged.
Other exercise tests are also used to determine physiological load and functional capacities of
the cardio respiratory system. In abnormalities e.g. an electrical activity of the heart,
cardiovascular disease or improvement after illness or injury.
In young adults 170 beats/min has been widely used as a level at which the intensity of work
indicates physical working capacity.
Methods of determination of Aerobic work capacity (physical work capacity), with the
use of treadmill

It was intended to select the work rates corresponding to 20, 30, 40, 50 & 70% RL (relative
Load) in order to determine the AWL (Acceptable work load). These work rates were
determined by using the monogram constructed by Margarian et al. (1963) for different speed
of walking and gradient of the treadmill.however, the intended rates of work could not be
obtained; the observed mean RLs were 20,28,36,50,62, and70%.
Work –schedule of treadmill running
After an initial rest of 30 min, the subjects were asked to run on the treadmill at the pre-
determine rates for 8 hr. from 0930 to 1730 hr. with a lunch breaks of 15 min each. the details
of the work-schedule are given in table.
Work-schedule for 8 hr. work on treadmill walking.
Initial tea Lunch tea
work work work work
rest break break break

0900- 0930 1130 1145 1300 1400 1530 1545

0930
1130 hr. 1145 hr. 1300 hr. 1400hr 1530 hr. 1545 hr. 1730 hr.
hr.

Experimental design:
A randomized block design was used for experiments of treadmill running on different rates
of work to eliminate the effect of training due to previous work rates on the physiological
functions.
Physiological misorients:
Energy expenditure and heart rate responses of the subjects with each work rate were
recorded as per the time schedule given of 3min after each break and at the end of the
day’swork. energy expenditure was determined according to standard procedures using a 120
1 Collin’s Gasometer and Haldane gas analyzer. The expired air was collected for the last 2
min during the steady state condition. Heart rate was monitored simultaneouslyby means of
an electronic pulse counter (heart rate monitor model 504, parks electronic lab, U.S.A)
Time of different physiological observations
Observation time(hr.)

1 0948

2 1028

3 1128

4 1158

5 1258

6 1418

7 1528

8 1558

9 1658

10 1728

Working environment.
The thermal environment of the laboratory during the period of the experiments was
comfortable with respect to dry bulb temperature, wet bulb temperature, air movement and
effective temperature.
Methods of determination of Aerobic work capacity (physical work capacity), with the
use of step-stool ergo meter
Physiological Test (Step Test):
The step test was developed in the Harvard Fatigue Laboratory, USA to evaluate the physical
fitness of an individual. It is modified for Indian workers and described below:
While carrying out the test, the person has to step up and down on a stool 45 cm. high at the
rate of 30 complete steps per minute for a maximum period of 5 minutes or earlier in case of
difficulty. The rate of stepping is regulated by a metronome. Immediately after the exercise is
over, the subject is seated and his pulse is counted during the period 1 min to ½ min after
exercise.
The fitness score is computed as follows:

Score = Duration of stepping seconds x 100

5.5 x (half min recovery pulse count recorded)

Grading of scores is:

Below 50 - Poor

50-65 - Low average

65-80 - High average

80-90 - Good

Above 90 - Excellent

The test score which is computed from the pulse count taken during recovery after exercise is
a measure of the individual's cardiovascular efficiency and can be made use of in grading
men for their capacity for physical work in general and in hot environments in particular.

Environmental Physiology:
Environmental factors that affect are heat, cold, noise, vibration, gas pressure, altitude, air
pollution etc.
Physiological effects of continuous work in Hot Environment are: (1) Cardiovascular stress
(2) Heart rate (3) Cardiac cost (4) Blood pressure (5). O2 uptake and (6) Sweat loss
Physiological effects of repeated work cycles in Hot Environment are: (1) Heart rate (2)
Recovery time (3) Cardiac cost and (4) Sweat loss.
Psychic factors affecting muscular (service) functions are attitude and motivation.
All above factors - food and nutritional, physiological, environmental, psychic and nature of
work - actuate service functions that deliver fuel and oxygen to the working muscle fiber.
This service function capacity transforms food energy (chemically bound) into mechanical
energy for muscular work. This ability of the muscle cell to transform energy actuates ability
to perform a physical work.
Therefore, by paying attention on above factors i.e. giving work according to age and
sex, providing rest intervals, reasonable working hours (no overtime), good ventilation,
temperature and working conditions, ample drinking water and nutrition, proper clothing,
PPE and training etc., good muscular or physical work can be obtained from the workers.
(1) Heat & Cold
Heat causes burns, exhaustion, stroke, cramps, fatigue, decreased efficiency, pain,
discomfort, heal collapse, systemic disorders, skin disorders, psychoneurotic disorders and
tendency to cause accident. Acclimatization to high temperature requires reduction in heart
rate and internal body temperature at the expense of increased sweating. Radiant heat (e.g.
ovens, furnaces), stagnant heat (e.g. textile mills), and high temperature (e.g. mines, glass
furnaces). create stress and impair health.
One UK Standard suggests the following criteria
Environmental Factor Standard
Air temperature 21 oC
Mean radiant temperature > 21oC
Relative humidity 30-70%
Air movement 30-60 mt / min
Temperature gradient (foot to head) < 2.5 oC

The cold causes chilblains, shivering, frostbite, trench foot, vasoconstriction, and
erythromyeloid.
The control measures include (1) sufficient intake of water and salt (2) cotton and
protective clothing (3) break in exposure time and more rest intervals (4) engineering controls
(5) medical control and (6) acclimatization of the workers.
(2) Air Pressure:
 Abnormal air pressure can cause decompression sickness known as 'Bends' (dull
throbbing pain in joints or deep in muscles and bones) and 'chokes' (subdermal distress and
difficulty in deep inspiration with coughing).
(3) Light &Colour:
Improper and insufficient illumination causes eye strain, eye fatigue, headache,
lachrymation, congestion around cornea and miner's nystagmus (chronic effect). Glare or
excessive brightness causes visual discomfort and fatigue, tiredness and irritability. There
should be sufficient and suitable lighting natural or artificial in all work areas.
(4) Noise &Vibration:
Noise - too low or too high cause ear strain or pain. Auditory effects are temporary or
permanent hearing loss. Non-auditory effects cause nervousness, fatigue, difficulty in
conversation, decreased efficiency, annoyance and psychological and systemic effects. The
degree of injury depends on intensity and frequency of noise, exposure time (duration) and
individual susceptibility.
Vibration of 10 to 500 Hz frequency range as normally found with pneumatic drills,
hammers and grinders affects the hands and arms. After exposure of months or years, fingers
become sensitive to spasm known as white fingers. Vibrations also produce injuries to joints,
elbows and shoulders.
Sick or Tight Building Syndrome is a health effect on workers, mostly IT personnel
due to heat or cold stress, poor ventilation, poor lighting, or monotonous work in fixed type
of environment for a longer period. Sickness is resulted in health effects like indigestion,
psychosis (mental fatigue), visual problem, mental feeling of impotency, headache, backache,
uneasiness, obesity, acidity etc. Remedial measures include-change in working environment,
new and attractive atmosphere, good lighting and ventilation, good housekeeping, rotation of
persons, recreation facility and staggered working hours instead of continuous eight or more
working hours.

(5) Ionizing& Non-ionizingRadiation:

Electromagnetic radiation consists of varying electric and magnetic fields, operating
at right angles to each other. It has both particulate and wavelike aspects. Following table
shows the wavelength and frequency for various electromagnetic radiation. Longwave have
low energy, short-waves have high. The higher energy wavelengths (short-waves) are more
penetrating i.e. more damaging. X-rays, Gamma rays and cosmic rays have short
wavelengths, 10" cm and less, and high frequency, 10'6 c/s and above and cause ionizing
radiation.
Others i.e. electric waves, radio waves, micro waves, visible light, IR, UV and lasers
have longer wavelength and less frequency and cause non-ionizing radiation. Lasers are
involved in visible light, IR and UV regions of the spectrum given below:

Types and Limits of Radiation:

(A) Ionizing Radiation:

Ionizing radiation means electromagnetic or corpuscular radiation capable of

producing ions directly or indirectly in its passage through matter. It is not visible by normal
eyes. X-rays, Alpha, Beta, Gamma, fast neutrons, thermal neutrons and radionuclides are
ionizing radiation. Radioactive substance (chemical) must be firmly sealed within metal
container to prevent dispersion to active material into surrounding. Radiation hazard means
the danger to health arising from exposure to ionizing radiation which may be external or
internal.

Animal and human studies have shown that exposure to ionizing radiation can cause
carcinogenic, teratogenic or mutagenic effects, as well as other sequelae. The NCRP has
formulated exposure limits. Some such limits are given below:

International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) has prescribed a dose-

equivalent limit of 0.5 SV (50 rem) to prevent non-stochastic effects.

Radiation dosimetry in health physics tries to know whether individual radiation

exposures are within permissible dose. Various fixed and portable monitors (detectors and
survey instruments) are used for radiation exposure measurement. Some fixed monitors are
as under:

Fixed monitors are either area monitoring instruments or contamination monitoring

instruments. Area monitors are used for measurement of air, gamma radiation, neutron
radiation and radioactive effluents. The contamination monitoring instruments include hand
and shoe monitors, portal monitors, clothing monitors and monitors for contaminated
wounds. The dosimeters are to be calibrated for proper use.

Protection Techniques include:

1. Control of exposure time and distance.
2. Shielding.
3. Wearing a film badge to check dose limit.
4. Pre and post-employment medical test.
5. Prevention of radiation disease such as skin cancer, ulceration, dermatitis, cataract,
damage to bones and blood etc.
6. Use of remote controlled containers.
7. Continuous monitoring and maintaining safe limits by engineering controls and PPE.
8. The sealed container should be leakproof.

Health Physics is a branch of science dealing with improvement of protection against

exposure to ionizing radiation (IR). The main principles of health physics were defined in
1977 by the ICRP. Three general principles of radiation protection are - (1) justification (2)
optimization and (3) limitation of worker's exposure to radiation.
Limitation means to limit the exposure entering a human body by protecting
individual or society by devices and observing prescribed safe dose limits.
A record for more than 30 years must be maintained even after completion of job on
ionizing radiation, of (1) doses absorbed by individual and (2) exposure measurement.
In our present-day industry, radiation generating machines and radioactive materials
for testing of materials, process control and research have found wide-spread use. X-ray
machines are widely used in industry, medicine, commerce and research. Industrial X-ray
devices include radiographic and fluoroscopic units used for the determination of defects in
materials in packaged food etc. All such uses are potential sources of exposure. The most
widely used naturally occurring radio-nuclide is Ra. 226 which is used in medicine and
industry. In its use in the medical field, many individuals, besides the patient are potentially
exposed to radiation. In industry, the principle uses of radium are for radiography in
luminous compound and in making static eliminators. Textile and paper trades, printing,
photographic processing and telephone and telegraph companies are the typical industries
where the static eliminator may be found. The use of artificially produced radio-nuclides
(radio-isotopes) in medical, biological, agricultural fields, and scientific research has been
increased. Possible exposure from such radio nuclides is involved with their preparation,
handling, application and transportation. Exposures, internal or external, might also arise
through contamination of the environment by wastes originating from 'the use of these
materials.
 Applications of ionizing radiation in industry are many. It is used mostly in biological
and chemical research, chemical pilot plants and production. It is used for curing, grafting,
testing & evaluation, free radicals, cross. linking, polymerization, disinfection, sterilization,
pasteurization etc. Productwise it is used in semi-conductors, rubber, adhesives, spices, paints
and coatings, membranes, fuels, lubricants, plastic piping, enzymes, cosmetics,
pharmaceuticals, medical supplies, foods, flooring, furniture, textile, medical uses,
agricultural uses etc.
Biological Effects and Controls: Occasional small dose (e.g. X-ray photograph) does
not affect much but small doses for a longer time or more frequent dose or higher dose may
cause biological damage to a human body. Radiation energy passes through a body. The
energy absorbed in a body is called dose. The time between the exposure and the first
symptom of radiation damage is called latent period. The larger the dose or the residence
time, the shorter the latent period.
Human body always generates new cells replacing dead or damaged cells. But when
ionizing radiation causes more damage than the body's repair capacity, biological damage
takes place. Injury to individual .is called somatic effect and that being passed into future
generations is called genetic effect. The. biological effect is the destruction of reproduction
capacity of a cell or carcinogenic effect (cancer) which is difficult to cure.
Biological effect of radiation can be reduced by -
1. Shielding the body portion (especially blood forming tissues and intestine).
2. Shielding by a portion between the source and the human body by a high-density
material such as lead or concrete wall. Thickness should be increased depending on intensity
of radiation.
3. Less dense (less hazardous) radiation (electromagnetic instead of charged
particles).
4. Low dose rate or fractionation of the dose and decreasing the dose level.
5. Diminishing O2 concentration in the tissues.
6. Reducing the exposure time.
7. Increasing the distance from source.
8. Using sealed source of radiation.
9. Monitoring the environmental exposures by various instruments such as film badge,
thermoluminescence dosimeters (TLD), pocket dosimeter, Geiger-MuUer tubes (having
automatic audible. alarm), ionizing chambers, neutron and proton monitors and keeping them
below the permissible threshold limits. Calibration techniques for instruments is most
important.
10. Decontamination facilities.

11. Safe disposal of radioactive wastes.

Medical Surveillance: Exposure to radiation workers may not give any clinical signs.
Therefore, according to ICRP, the medical surveillance of radiation workers should aim at-
1. To assess the health of the workers.
2. To preserve good general health standards by monitoring the work conditions,
exposure levels and the health of the workers and
3. To provide baseline information in case of accidental exposure or occupational
disease.
Functions of such medical service include--
1. Pre-employment and during and after (post) employment examinations are
necessary.
2. Evaluating the fitness of individual workers for specific tasks.
3. Medical examinations and first-aid after radiation accidents, irradiation or
contamination accidents.
4. Keeping of adequate medical records for quite a long time (30 years).
5. Contributing to safety and health training and
6. Helping to solve safety problems in the plant.
Large nuclear installations should have full time and fully equipped medical and
health physics services and facilities - including decontamination facilities and ablutions very
near the workplace. Small units should obtain part-time facilities.
Personal decontamination facilities include a separate ambulance port, monitoring
devices, sink, showers, a disrobing room, clean clothing and pharmaceutical supplies.
Plant medical service should remain in touch with local and other hospitals where
irradiated or contaminated persons can be treated.
A card containing information of possible contaminants, the time of sampling and any
treatment given before the sampling, must be sent along with the samples to the
radiotoxicological laboratory as quickly as possible.

Decontamination: The ionizing radiation cannot be neutralized or interrupted.

Therefore, rapid decontamination is one of the best safety measures to protect man against
possible or actual hazards of direct or indirect radiation. The purpose of decontamination is to
reduce its level below the safe level. Following methods of decontamination are used:
1. Mechanical decontamination i.e.removal of radioactive layer by scrubbing,
shot blasting, washing by water etc.
2. Physical decontamination i.e. evaporation, dilution, filtration, ultrasonic
techniques, or allowing the half-life time if it is in hours or up to 3 days.
3. Chemical decontamination i.e.treating with acid, alkali, chelating compounds,
ion-exchange resins etc.
4. Biological decontamination of sewage.
5. Decontamination of water, surface and clothing by selecting appropriate
material, e.g. 10% solution of citric acid followed by 0.5% solution of nitric acid to clean
stainless-steel surface, mineral acids to clean glass and porcelain vessels, replacement of
concrete blocks etc. 6. Decontamination of persons by scrubbing the skin with warm water
and soap and followed by use of surfactants and absorbents. I to 3% solution of hydrochloric
and citric acid are also useful. Use of organic solvent is inadvisable. Cleaning for more than
10 min. is also not advisable, as further cleaning cannot remove contaminant and may
damage the epithelium.
Removal of radionuclides from the human body is much more difficult and needs
experienced medical treatment. The choice of a method and reagent depends on the type and
character of the contaminant, path of penetration and time elapsed after contamination.
Surgery is the best method to decontaminate wound. Complexing reagents (viz. DTPA) are
generally effective to decontaminate blood, internal organs and tissues. To decontaminate
upper respiratory system, expectorants and vasoconstrictive preparations are prescribed.
(B) Non-IonizingRadiation:
The main difference between ionizing and nonionizing radiation is that the former is
more hazardous because of its higher frequency range and shorter wavelength comparing
with the later which has lower frequency range and longer wavelength. More safety measures
- Decontamination, medical and others- are required to prevent and control the ionizing
radiation and its damage.
Non-ionizing Radiation refers to those regions of the electromagnetic spectrum where
the energies of the emitted photons are insufficient, under ordinary circumstances, to produce
ionization in the atoms of absorbing molecules. Its lower wave length limit is 100 nm
(arbitrary). It includes ultraviolet, visible light, infrared radiation, microwaves, radio waves,
lasers, power frequencies and radar waves.
 Physical & Biological Units: The entire electromagnetic spectrum is roughly divided
and studied in two parts:
1. The upper region of shorter wavelength is of more concern to physicists and
physical scientists who describe radiation in terms of wavelength.
2. The lower region of longer wavelength is of more concern to communication
scientists and engineers who describe radiation in terms of frequency.
Biological effects of the UV, visible, IR, radio frequency and the extremely low
frequency of power transmission, have been studied. Visible light and heat waves can be
easily perceived and dark goggles can reduce their intensity to a comfortable level. The UV,
IR, microwave and lower frequency radiations cannot be perceived by eyes, but have
biological penetration as shown in the following table -
Thermal effects are produced in the skin due to exposure in IR and FM-TV-radio
region. Photochemical effects can be produced in the UV and visible regions.
Now, main divisions of non-ionizing radiation are explained below in brief.
(1) Infrared (IR) Radiation:
The IR region extends from 750 nm to 0.3 cm wavelength of microwaves.
Exposure to infrared radiation is very common in glass industry and near cupolas and
furnaces. Since long-wave infrared radiation is readily absorbed by the surface tissues of the
body, it cannot inflict deep injuries in the 'human body. Over exposure produces some
discomfort which generally gives adequate warning. However, the eyes may suffer injuries
or general discomfort to other parts of the body, there is some evidence that this may result in
cataract.
The protective measures against this radiation include the placement of reflective
screens of polished aluminium shield near the source. Those screens will direct the. rays
away from the personnel into unoccupied space or return them to the heat source. They have
been found very effective in many industrial situations. Eyes of the exposed personnel
should always be protected, by suitable glasses, from direct radiation arising from areas that
given off intense heat, even though the temperature is not necessarily high. Infrared radiation
be measured by the black-bulb thermometer and radiometers.
Main industrial IR exposures are from hot furnaces, molten metal or glass and from
arc processes. Use of enclosures, shielding, eye protection and safe distance are main safety
measures.

(2) Ultraviolet (UV) Radiation:

 The UV region is subdivided as Near - 400 to 300 nm. Far - 300 to 200 nm and
vacuum -200 to 4 nm.
The effects of ultraviolet radiation are similar to sunburn. Since there is a
considerable time gap between exposure and development of injury, deep burns, may be
endured without immediate discomfort. This radiation is readily absorbed in human tissue. As
a result, superficial injuries are produced chiefly to the skin and eyes. Higher exposure can
cause skin or eye damage. The skin effect is called dermatological and the eye effect is called
ocular.

Some industrial processes, such as welding, produce considerable amount of

ultraviolet radiation. In areas where ultraviolet radiation is quite intense, potentially
hazardous chemical contaminants, such as ozone and oxides of nitrogen, are also produced
due to action of this radiation on air. In the zone where arc-welding is carried out, very high
concentrations of ozone and oxides of nitrogen have been found.
All personnel engaged in welding should invariably wear goggles and face shields.
Besides these, the use of gloves, leggings, overalls and boots is an essential necessity for the
personnel engaged in welding. Furthermore, opaque shielding should be used around welding
areas to protect other persons. Local exhaust ventilation may also be used as an effective
means for the removal of chemical contaminants produced during the arc welding.
Ultraviolet meters can be used for the measurement of. this radiation. It has been
suggested that 0.5 microwatt per square centimeter be the permissible limit of ultraviolet
radiation for a 7 hours continuous exposure.
The most common exposure to UV radiation is from direct sunlight. Solar irradiation
exhibits intense UV radiation but due to the atmosphere (ozone) shielding of the earth (God's
gift), we are not exposed to the lethal doses. Long time exposure to hottest sunlight
(afternoon) may cause skin cancer. This must be avoided.
Some commercial application of UV radiation are fluorescent lamps, mercury Vapour
lamps, germicidal lamps, electric arc welding, chemical processing, etched circuit board
production and UV lasers. Wavelengths cause skin reddening and skin-burn, carcinogenic
effects. Solar or UV radiation from artificial sources may cause skin pigmentation (tanning).
Main safety measures are shielding of UVR source, use of eye goggles, protective
clothing and absorbing or reflecting skin creams.
 (3) Visible Light (Energy):

This portion lies in the range of 400 to 750 nm. The danger of retinal injury lies
between 425 to 450 nm due to peak brightness. Eye response to excessive brightness i.e.
partial or full lid closure and shading of the eyes, is a protective human mechanism.
Main sources of visible light are sun, laser beams, arc welding, highly incandescent or
hot bodies and artificial light sources such as pulsating light, high-intensity lamps, spotlights,
projector bulbs, neon tubes, fluorescent tubes, flash tubes and plasma torch sources.
The visible light is of three types: incident, reflected and transmitted light. Incident
light is that light which strikes the work surface. Reflected light is that light which bounces
off surfaces and reflected onto work surfaces by walls and ceiling. It is measured to
determine glare and shadows. Transmitted light penetrates a transparent or translucent
material.
Vision is a photochemical and physiological phenomenon. Exposure to glare can
cause fatigue of eyes, iritis and Blepharisma. But these effects cannot cause pathological
changes.
Poor illumination can cause industrial accidents. Direct glare, reflected glare from the
work and dark shadows lead to visual fatigue. Better lighting provides safe working
environment, better vision and reduces losses in visual performance.
Factors of good lighting are its quantity and quality. The Quantity is the amount of
illumination that produces brightness on the task and surroundings. The Quality refers to
distribution of brightness in environment and includes the colour of light, its diffusion,
direction, degree of glare etc.
(4) Radio and Microwaves:
Within the broad spectrum of radio frequencies, the microwave. region is between 10
to 3 x 105 MHz (megahertz). This form of radiation is propagated from antennas associated
with TV transmitters, FM transmitters and radar transmitters.

Uses of microwave radiation are heating sources like microwave ovens, dryers for
food products and plywood, pasteurization, ceramics, telecommunications like radio and TV
and medical applications (diathermy devices). Microwave ovens for heating or cooking food
are clean, flexible and instantly controllable. The heating rate is very high and use of any fuel
or pollution due to it should be avoided.
 Radio or high frequency electrical heaters are used in metalworking plants for
hardening cutting tools, gear-teeth and bearing surfaces and for annealing, soldering and
brazing. Use in food industry is for sterilizing vessels and killing bacteria in foods.
In woodworking plants, high frequency heating is used for bonding plywood,
laminating and general gluing. Other uses include moldings plastics, curing and vulcanizing
rubber, thermosealing and setting twist in textile materials.
Induction heaters are used for annealing, forging, brazing or soldering conductive
materials. Induction furnaces are used in foundries to melt metal. Dielectric heaters are used
for non-conducting, dielectric materials like rubber, plastics, leather and wood.
The primary effect of microwave energy is thermal. The higher frequency cause lower
hazard and vice versa. Frequencies less than 3000 MHz can cause serious damage. At 70
MHz, maximum SAR (specific absorption ratio) in human takes place. Exposure of high
intensity and more time can cause localized damage by skin burning, tissue burns, cataracts,
adverse effect on reproduction and even death.
The basic safety measures include restricting energy (power density in microwatts/
m2 and frequency) below the safe level, reducing time of exposure, shielding and enclosing
microwave source, reorienting antenna or emitting device, use of PPE and controlling at
source.
(5) Power Frequencies:
The main hazards from high voltage lines and equipment (low frequency) are shocks
and current. Extremely low frequency (ELF) radiation produces electric field and magnetic
field. An external electric field induces electric current in the body.
Protection from ELF is possible by shielding of electric field by any conducting
surface. Persons working in high field strength regions (e.g. high voltage lines) should wear
electrically conductive clothing. Avoiding entry in such region is also advisable.
ELF magnetic field cannot be shielded. Therefore, the only remedy is to keep the
magnetic field below safe levels or to restrict entry of personnel into the magnetic fields.
(6) Radar:
Radar means "radio detection and ranging". It is a radio detecting instrument that
operates in the radio frequency range from 100 to 105 MHz, echoing in a wavelength range
from some meters to milli meters. It consists of a transmitter and receiver, usually operating
through a common antenna. Power output varies from a few watts to megawatts.
 Hazards &Controls: Main hazards associated with radar are as under:
1. Electrical hazards from high voltage equipment.
2. Fire hazards from flammable gases, vapours, explosives and other materials.
3. Toxic hazards of gas fill in certain waveguides.
4. Thermal effects of electromagnetic radiation.
5. Radioactivity from certain switching tubes.
6. X-rays from high voltage tubes.
7. Material handling hazards in moving portable and fixed equipment.
Control measures include -
1. Standing near or in front of the antenna should be avoided.
2. Radar workers should not look directly into a radar beam from a high energy
unit. High energy is more than 0.01 W/cm2
3. Interior ofmicrowave tubes should be seen through a remote device such as a
periscope or telescope.
4. Microwave absorber should be provided to contain beam discharge.
5. Persons should take care to have minimum exposure by keeping a safe
distance from the beam.
6. Photoflash bulbs should be properly packed to avoid ignition hazard.
7. Pre, current and after employment medical examinations of the radar workers
including blood-count and complete eye examination including slit-lamp examination are
necessary.
(7) Lasers
Laser means "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation". Normal light
radiates in all directions. Light waves of varying lengths reinforce or cancel each other. When
light waves are made to vibrate in a single plane, made to travel in only one direction and of
the wavelength and focused towards a point, a laser beam is obtained. It is called coherent
light. Lasers involve IR, visible and UV regions, concentrate great energy in a point area and
can be projected over long distances.
Typical areas of laser applications are military, microsurgery, medicine, dentistry,
material processing, stack emission analysis to detect air pollution, blood analysis, laser
drilling & welding, communications, construction, embryology, geodesy, holography,
business offices etc.
Hazards and Controls: It is necessary to understand type of laser, its power density,
the method of usage and its operational aspects to consider laser hazards and controls. It is
not the power but the point source of great brightness which poses hazard. There are two
types of hazards - One from the laser itself and the other from equipment.
The solid-state lasers produce high power outputs and can cause skin burns and eye
damage if safety rules are not followed. Other hazards are thermal effect, electric shock,
ozone effect, high gas pressures in the flash lamp when it is fired (explosion hazard),
cryogenic cool burns due to liquid nitrogen and helium, oxygen deficiency if N or He leaks
into atmosphere and hazards from viewing, operation and reflections.
The control measures include -
1. Minimization of ocular exposure to the direct laser beam and specular, mirror
type, reflections.
2. Education and training of personnel.
3. Shields to prevent accidental exposures.
4. Specially designed eyewear (a major control).
5. Periodical eye examination.
6. A warning sign to be attached to laser equipment.
7. Laser unit in a separate room.
8. Diffuse or retroreflective card targets should be used for short ranges.
9. Laser beam should not be aimed at flat glass, mirror surfaces or flammable
material.
10. Appointment of Laser Safety Officer.
All these need a specialized occupational health services at workplace. Depending on
classified hazards like fire, explosion, toxic and corrosive effects, fully equipped firefighting
team, medical team and trained personnel with special protective equipment are also
essential.
Even if an occupational disease has not occurred, the hazardous exposure at workplace can
reduce the life span slowly and unknowingly.
 CHAPTER 1:ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS:

EMS Audit- ISO 14001: 2015:

ISO 14001 is an internationally agreed standard that sets out the requirements for an
environmental management system. It helps organizations improve their environmental
performance through more efficient use of resources and reduction of waste, gaining a
competitive advantage and the trust of stakeholders.
ISO 14001 is the business improvement tool that helps organizations implement a flexible
and robust environmental management system, making them more resilient and sustainable.
It brings environmental management into the heart of an organization, complementing
business strategy and helping improve environmental performance over time. Incorporating
the latest environmental thinking including lifecycle perspective it helps provide greater
protection for the environment. It’s a framework which helps you focus on the increasing
expectations of customers and other stakeholders, as well as regulatory requirements. It’s
flexible and agile so you can make it work for your business. That’s how ISO 14001:2015
really adds value.
ISO 14001 was revised in 2015 to bring it up to date with the needs of modern businesses and
the latest environmental thinking. It’s based on Annex SL, the new high-level structure
(HLS) which is a common framework for all ISO management systems. This helps keep
consistency, align different management system standards, offer matching sub-clauses
against the top-level structure and apply common language across all standards. It makes it
easier for organizations to incorporate their environmental management system, into core
business processes, make efficiencies, and get more involvement from senior management.
Key requirements of ISO 14001:2015
Clause 1: Scope This clause relates to the scope or coverage of the standard to help
organizations achieve the intended outcomes of its EMS.
Clause 2: Normative reference There are no normative references, for example other
additional requirements in other standards, that have to be considered. The clause is retained
in order to maintain the same numbering scheme as all the other management system
standards.
Clause 3: Terms and definitions at first sight, the listing of terms and definitions seems
confusing as they are not in alphabetical order. Instead, the approach stipulated by ISO is that
terms and definitions are in the order that they appear in the standard. It may be easier to use
this listing in conjunction with the alphabetical listing in Annex C. An organization will also
need to identify the ‘interested parties’ relevant to their EMS and their needs. These could
include customers, communities, suppliers and non-government organizations and may
change over time. Finally, the last requirement is to establish, implement, maintain and
continually improve the EMS in accordance with the requirements of the standard. Key
requirements of ISO 14001:2015
Clause 4: Context of the organization This is a new clause that establishes the context of the
EMS and how the business strategy supports this. ‘Context of the organization’ is the clause
that underpins the rest of the standard. It gives an organization the opportunity to identify and
understand the factors and parties that can affect, either positively or negatively, the EMS.
Firstly, the organization will need to determine external and internal issues that are relevant
to its purpose i.e. what are the relevant issues, both inside and out, that have an impact on or
affect its ability to achieve the intended outcome(s) of the EMS. Importantly, issues should
include not only environmental conditions that the organization affects but also those that it is
affected by.
Clause 5: Leadership This clause is all about the role of “top management” which is the
person or group of people who directs and controls the organization at the highest level. The
purpose is to demonstrate leadership and commitment by integrating environmental
management into business processes. Top management must demonstrate a greater
involvement in the management system and need to establish the environmental policy,
which can include commitments specific to an organization’s context beyond those directly
required, such as the ‘protection of the environment’. There is greater focus on top
management to commit to continual improvement of the EMS. Communication is key and
top management have a responsibility to ensure the EMS is made available, communicated,
maintained and understood by all parties. Finally, top management need to assign relevant
responsibilities and authorities, highlighting two particular roles concerning EMS
conformance to ISO 14001 and reporting on EMS performance.
Clause 6: Planning This clause focuses on how an organization plans actions to address both
risks and opportunities which have been identified in Clause 4. It focuses the organization on
the development and use of a planning process, rather than a procedure to address both a
range of factors and the risk associated with such factors. Consideration of risks needs to be
proportionate to the potential impact they may have, and opportunities could include
substitute raw materials for example. For the first time, there is an explicit reference to
abnormal and emergency situations. Even more importantly, the reference to a consideration
of a life cycle perspective and the clause notes highlights that significant aspects can give rise
to risks that are both beneficial and adverse. Another key area of this clause is the need to
establish measurable environmental objectives. Finally, this clause covers what is referred to
as “planning of changes”. This has to be done in a systematic manner. Organizations should
consider identifying who is involved, when changes are to take place and the potential
consequences of change.
Clause 7: Support This clause is all about the execution of the plans and processes that
enable an organization to meet their EMS. Simply expressed, this is a very powerful
requirement covering all EMS resource needs. Organizations will need to determine the
necessary competence of people doing work that, under its control, affects its environmental
performance, its ability to fulfil its compliance obligations and ensure they receive the
appropriate training. In addition, organizations need to ensure that all people doing work
under the organization’s control are aware of the environmental policy, how their work may
impact this and implications of not conforming with the EMS. Finally, there are the
requirements for ‘documented information’ which relate to the creation, updating and control
of specific data.
Clause 8: Operation This clause deals with the execution of the plans and processes that
enable the organization to meet their environmental objectives. There are specific
requirements that relate to the control or influence exercised over outsourced processes and
the requirement to consider certain operational aspects ‘consistent with a life cycle
perspective’. These 6 means giving serious consideration to how actual or potential
environmental impacts happening upstream and downstream of an organization’s site-based
operations are influenced or (where possible) controlled. Finally, the clause also covers the
procurement of products and services, as well as controls to ensure that environmental
requirements relating to design, delivery, use and end-of-life treatment of an organization’s
products and services are considered at an appropriate stage.
Clause 9: Performance Evaluation This is all about measuring and evaluating your EMS to
ensure that it is effective and it helps you to continually improve. You will need to consider
what should be measured, the methods employed and when data should be analysed and
reported on. As a general recommendation, organizations should determine what information
they need to evaluate environmental performance and effectiveness. Internal audits will need
to be carried out, and there are certain “audit criteria” that are defined to ensure that the
results of these audits are reported to relevant management. Finally, management reviews
will need to be carried out and “documented information” must be kept as evidence.
Clause 10: Improvement This clause requires organizations to determine and identify
opportunities for continual improvement of the EMS. The requirement for continual
improvement has been extended to ensure that the suitability and adequacy of the EMS—as
well as its effectiveness— are considered in the light of enhanced environmental
performance. There are some actions that are required that cover handling of corrective
actions. Firstly, organizations need to react to the nonconformities and act. Secondly, they
need to identify whether similar nonconformities exist or could potentially occur. This clause
requires organizations to determine and identify opportunities for continual improvement of
the EMS. There is a requirement to actively look out for opportunities to improve processes,
products or services; particularly with future customer requirements in mind.

Aspects and impact of Environment Management:

The identification of environmental aspects is an important step towards recognizing their
impacts on our planet. This proves helpful in setting and formulating objectives, targets, and
other programs that may be directed towards solving environmental problems.
1. Definition of Environmental Aspect Environmental Aspect is an element of an
organization's activities, products or services that can interact with the environment. There
are two types of environmental aspects:
(i) Direct Environmental Aspect Activities over which a company can be expected to have an
influence and control. For example, emissions from processes.
(ii) Indirect Environmental Aspect Actual or Potential activities over which the organization
can be expected to have an influence, but no control. For example, supply chain-controlled
aspects, customer-controlled aspects, aspects managed elsewhere within the same company.
2. Identification of Environmental Aspects:
(a) Identify Activities, Services and Products.
(b) Draw up an inventory of all operations and processes, identify releases (normal,
abnormal, accidental, and emergency situations).
(c) Consider direct and indirect environmental aspects.
(d) Consider:
• Emissions to air.
• Release to water.
• Waste Management.
• Contamination of land.
• Impact on communities.
• Use of raw materials and natural resources.
• Other local environmental and community issues.

3. Records of Environmental Aspects:

• Review based on sound understanding of environmental issues associated with the process.
• Check that both Direct and Indirect Environmental Aspects have been included.
• Check the method of assigning significance.
• Check that both actual and potential aspects have been included.
• Check that legislative requirements have been taken in view. Environmental Aspect and
Impact: The Basics In the study of environment, it is essential to identify each possible
environmental aspect and impact of it on our surroundings. The various environmental
aspects each have a number of different impacts on the environment.

Potential impacts must also be identified.

1. Commonly Used Definitions in the Study of Environmental Aspect and Impact
1.1. Environmental Impact Any change to the environment whether adverse or beneficial
(wholly or partially) resulting from an organization's activities products or services.
1.2. Significant Impact The activity that results in substantial breach of statutory regulations
under abnormal conditions. Knowledge of environmental aspect and impact is necessary in
order to have a thorough awareness of the world we live in.

2. Identification of Environmental Aspect and Impact Inputs and Outputs of a manufacturing

process
3. Cause and Effect Activity Spray Painting Aspect Emissions of Solvent to air Impact
Global Warming plus Ozone Depletion Activity At start-up of spray painting Aspect
Emissions of Solvent to water Impact Water Pollution Knowledge of environmental aspect
and impact is necessary in order to have a thorough awareness of the world we live in
Activity Spray on to the ground for 5 seconds Aspect Contamination of land Impact Land
Pollution
4. Potential Environmental Impacts Let us now list out a number of environmental aspects.
We shall discuss each environmental aspect and impact that each has on the environment
4.1 Natural Resources Possible Aspect Over Consumption Impact Depletion of minerals, raw
materials, and energy sources Possible Aspect Habitat Destruction Impact Depletion of living
resources
4.2 Air Possible Aspect CO2, CH4 fossil fuel combustion Impact Global warming Possible
Aspect CFCs, halons, other chlorinated compounds Impact Ozone layer depletion Possible
Aspect SO2 NOx NH3 Impact Acid precipitation Possible Aspect Automobile, bus, truck
emissions Impact Rising ground level ozone Possible Aspect Industrial emissions :
evaporation Impact Exposure to hazardous gases Possible Aspect Energy installations Impact
Exposure to smoke Possible Aspect Nuclear installation, wastes, natural sources Impact
Exposure to radioactivity
4.3 Land Possible Aspect Hazardous or radioactive waste, air deposition Impact
Contamination Possible Aspect Mining, construction, drainage Impact Disturbance and soil
erosion, loss of soil cover, water logging, disturbs groundwater, loss of habitats
4.4 Visual, Noise, Nuisance Possible Aspect Construction Impact Visual Possible Aspect
Production, processes, waters Impact Dust Possible Aspect Machinery, traffic Impact Odour,
noise, vibration.

Environmental Policy

Industry is committed to running its business in a responsible, environmentally sound and

sustainable manner. We recognise that our supply chain, processes and products have both
direct and indirect environmental impacts. We seek to identify these and to find effective
ways of eliminating or reducing them. Our aim is to achieve continuous improvement in our
environmental performance. Throughout our global operations we regard compliance with
the law as the minimum standard to be achieved and will put in place additional
environmental programmes to go beyond compliance where appropriate. Environmental
Objectives Our environmental objectives have been chosen, and are regularly reviewed, to
ensure that our actions effectively implement our environmental policy; they are:
• To take significant environmental aspects and impacts into account throughout our
operations, maintaining a functioning environmental management system at each factory.
• To ensure that environmental issues are properly assessed and considered when key
decisions are taken about supply chains, processes and new product development.
• To establish and measure the significant environmental impacts of our operations, set
targets for performance improvements and monitor progress against those targets in areas
including but not limited to energy, greenhouse gas emissions, water usage / quality and
waste.
• To use energy and natural resources wisely and efficiently, eliminate and minimise waste,
and re-use and recycle where practical.
• To make a real and meaningful contribution to mitigating climate change and global water
scarcity, by reducing greenhouse gas emissions and water impact across the complete
lifecycle of our products and their packaging, reflecting national and international
government agendas when setting targets.
• To engage with our suppliers, customers and other stakeholders on environmental issues,
including the sustainability of our raw and packaging material supply chains (via the
Responsible Sourcing of Natural Raw Materials Policy and Global Manufacturing Standard
Policy, both available.
• To ensure that employees have a level of knowledge and understanding appropriate to their
environmental responsibilities and are aware of actions they can take to reduce their impacts.
• To conduct an annual review, including progress against targets, and to make that review
publicly available in our annual Sustainability Report. The Chief Executive Officer (CEO) is
the Board member with specific responsibility for the Company’s environmental policy and
performance. This responsibility is delegated operationally through the Company’s line
management structure, which includes a Global Sustainability Director responsible for
coordinating environmental performance across the Company.
ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES OR ENVIRONMENTAL
MANAGEMENT PLAN (EMP)
Preparation of environmental management plan is required for formulation, implementation
and monitoring of environmental protection measures during and after commissioning of
projects. The plans should indicate the details as to how various measures have been or are
proposed to be taken including cost components as may be required. Cost of measures for
environmental safeguards should be treated as an integral component of the project cost and
environmental aspects should be considered at various stages of the projects:
a) Conceptualization: preliminary environmental assessment
b) Planning: detailed studies of environmental impacts and design of safeguards
c) Execution: implementation of environmental safety measures
d) Operation: monitoring of effectiveness of built-in safeguards

The management plans should be necessarily based on considerations of resource

conservation and pollution abatement, some of which are:
a) Liquid Effluents
b) Air Pollution
c) Solid Wastes
d) Noise and Vibration
e) Occupational Safety and Health
f) Prevention, maintenance and operation of Environment Control Systems
g) House-Keeping
h) Human Settlements
i) Transport Systems
j) Recovery - reuse of waste products
k) Vegetal Cover
l) Disaster Planning
m) Environment Management Cell

a) Liquid Effluents
i. Effluents from the industrial plants should be treated well to the standards as
prescribed by the Central/State Water Pollution Control Boards.
ii. Soil permeability studies should be made prior to effluents being discharged into
holding tanks or impoundments and steps taken to prevent percolation and ground
water contamination.
iii. Special precautions should be taken regarding flight patterns of birds in the area.
Effluents containing toxic compounds, oil and grease have been known to cause
extensive death of migratory birds. Location of plants should be prohibited in such
type of sensitive areas.
iv. Deep well burial of toxic effluents should not be resorted to as it can result in re-
surfacing and ground water contamination. Re-surfacing has been known to cause
extensive damage to crop and livestock.
v. In all cases, efforts should be made for re-use of water and its conservation.
b) Air Pollution
i. The emission levels of pollutants from the different stacks, should conform to the
pollution control standards prescribed by Central or State Boards.
ii. Adequate control equipment should be installed for minimising the emission of
pollutants from the various stacks.
iii. In-plant control measures should be taken to contain the fugitive emissions.
iv. Infrastructural facilities should be provided for monitoring the stack emissions and
measuring the ambient air quality including micro-meteorological data (wherever
required) in the area.
v. Proper stack height as prescribed by the Central/State Pollution Control Boards
should be provided for better dispersion of pollutants over a wider area to minimise
the effect of pollution.
vi. Community buildings and townships should be built up-wind of plant with one-half to
one-kilometre greenbelt in addition to physiographical barrier.

c) Solid Wastes
i. The site for waste disposal should be checked to verify permeability so that no
contaminants percolate into the ground water or river/lake.
ii. Waste disposal areas should be planned down-wind of villages and townships.
iii. Reactive materials should be disposed of by immobilising the reactive materials with
suitable additives.
iv. The pattern of filling disposal site should be planned to create better landscape and be
approved by appropriate agency and the appropriately pre-treated solid wastes should
be disposed according to the approved plan.
v. Intensive programs of tree plantation on disposal areas should be undertaken.

d) Noise and Vibration

i. Adequate measures should be taken for control of noise and vibrations in the industry.
ii. Occupational Safety and Health
iii. Proper precautionary measures for adopting occupational safety and health standards
should be taken.
iv. Prevention, maintenance and operation of Environment Control Systems
v. Adequate safety precautions should be taken during preventive maintenance and shut
down of the control systems.
vi. A system of inter-locking with the production equipment should be implemented
where highly toxic compounds are involved.

e) House - Keeping

Proper house-keeping and cleanliness should be maintained both inside and outside of the
industry.
f) Human Settlements
i. Residential colonies should be located away from the solid and liquid waste dumping
areas. Meteorological and environmental conditions should be studied properly before
selecting the site for residential areas in order to avoid air pollution problems.
ii. Persons who are displaced or have lost agricultural lands as a result of locating the
industries in the area, should be properly rehabilitated.

g) Transport Systems
i. Proper parking places should be provided for the trucks and other vehicles by the
industries to avoid any congestion or blocking of roads.
ii. Siting of industries on the highways should be avoided as it may add to more road
accidents because of substantial increase in the movements of heavy vehicles and
unauthorised shops and settlements coming up around the industrial complex.
iii. Spillage of chemicals/substances on roads inside the plant may lead to accidents.
Proper road safety signs both inside and outside the plant should be displayed for
avoiding road accidents.

h) Recovery - reuse of waste products

Efforts should be made to recycle or recover the waste materials to the extent possible. The
treated liquid effluents can be conveniently and safely used for irrigation of lands, plants and
fields for growing non-edible crops.
i) Vegetal Cover

Industries should plant trees and ensure vegetal cover in their premises. This is particularly
advisable for those industries having more than 10 acres of land.
j) Disaster Planning

Proper disaster planning should be done to meet any emergency situation arising due to fire,
explosion, sudden leakage of gas etc. Firefighting equipment and other safety appliances
should be kept ready for use during disaster/emergency situation including natural calamities
like earthquake/flood.
k) Environment Management Cell

Each industry should identify within its setup a Department/Section/Cell with trained
personnel to take up the model responsibility of environmental management as required for
planning and implementation of the projects.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT

(EIA) PROCESS The first phase of an environmental assessment is called an Initial

Environmental Examination (IEE) and the second is Environmental Impact Studies (EIS) or
simply detailed EIA.
a) Initial Environmental Examination (IEE) IEE is carried out to determine whether
potentially adverse environmental effects are significant or whether mitigation
measures can be adopted to reduce or eliminate these adverse effects. The IEE
contains a brief statement of key environmental issues, based on readily available
information, and is used in the early (pre-feasibility) phase of project planning. The
IEE also suggests whether in-depth studies are needed. When an IEE is able to
provide a definite solution to environmental problems, an EIA is not necessary. IEE
also requires expert advice and technical input from environmental specialists so that
potential environmental problems can be clearly defined.

b) Environmental Impact Assessment(EIA): EIA is a procedure used to examine the

environmental consequences or impacts, both beneficial and adverse, of a proposed
development project and to ensure that these effects are considered in project design. The
EIA is therefore based on predictions. These impacts can include all relevant aspects of the
natural, social, economic and human environment. The study therefore requires a
multidisciplinary approach and should be done very early at the feasibility stage of a project.
In other words, a project should be assessed for its environmental feasibility. EIA should
therefore be viewed as an integral part of the project planning process. Unlike the
environmental audit (EA), which is conducted on existing projects, the EIA is applied to new
projects and the expansion aspects of existing projects.

4.1 Screening EIA process kicks off with project screening. Screening is done to determine
whether or not a proposal should be subject to EIA and, if so, at what level of detail.
Guidelines for whether or not an EIA is required are country specific depending on the laws
or norms in operation. Legislation often specifies the criteria for screening and full EIA.
Development banks also screen projects presented for financing to decide whether an EIA is
required using their set criteria. The output of the screening process is often a document
called an Initial Environmental Examination or Evaluation (IEE) (Section 4.1). The main
conclusion will be a classification of the project according to its likely environmental
sensitivity. This will determine whether an EIA is needed and if so, to what detail.
4.2 Scoping The aim of EIA is not to carry out exhaustive studies on all environmental
impacts for all projects. Scoping is used to identify the key issues of concern at an early stage
in the planning process (Ahmed & Sammy, 1987). The results of scoping will determine the
scope, depth and terms of reference to be addressed within the Environmental statement.
Identify concerns and issues for consideration in an EIA Ensure a relevant EIA Enable those
responsible for an EIA study to properly brief the study team on the alternatives and on
impacts to be considered at different levels of analysis Determine the assessment methods to
be used Identify all affected interests Provide an opportunity for public involvement in
determining the factors to be assessed, and facilitate early agreement on contentious issues
Save time and money Establish terms of reference (TOR) for EIA study Scoping should be an
ongoing exercise throughout the course of the project. The following environmental tools can
be used in the scoping exercise

Checklists – Checklists are standard lists of the types of impacts associated with a particular
type of project. Checklists methods are primarily for organizing information or ensuring that
no potential impact is overlooked. They comprise list questions on features the project and
environments impacts. They are generic in nature and are used as aids in assessment.

Matrices - Matrix methods identify interactions between various project actions and
environmental parameters and components. They incorporate a list of project activities with a
checklist of environmental components that might be affected by these activities. A matrix of
potential interactions is produced by combining these two lists (placing one on the vertical
axis and the other on the horizontal axis). They should preferably cover both the construction
and the operation phases of the project, because sometimes, the former causes greater impacts
than the latter. However, matrices also have their disadvantages: they do not explicitly
represent spatial or temporal considerations, and they do not adequately address synergistic
impacts.

Networks – these are cause effect flow diagrams used to help in tracing the web relationships
that exist between different activities associated with action and environmental system with
which they interact. They are also important in identifying direct and cumulative impacts.
They are more complex and need expertise for their effective use.

Consultations – with decision-makers, affected communities, environmental interest groups

to ensure that all potential impacts are detected. However, there can be danger in this when
excessive consultation is done and some unjustifiable impacts included in the Tour.

4.3 Baseline data collection the term "baseline" refers to the collection of background
information on the biophysical, social and economic settings proposed project area.
Normally, information is obtained from secondary sources, or the acquisition of new
information through field samplings, interviews, surveys and consultations with the public.
The task of collecting baseline data starts right from the period of project inception; however,
a majority of this task may be undertaken during scoping and actual EIA. Baseline data is
collected for two main purposes to provide a description of the current status and trends of
environmental factors (e.g., air pollutant concentrations) of the host area against which
predicted changes can be compared and evaluated in terms of significance, and to provide a
means of detecting actual change by monitoring once a project has been initiated Achieng
EIA – General procedures Only baseline data needed to assist prediction of the impacts
contained in the Tour and scoping report should be collected.

4.4 Impact analysis and prediction Predicting the magnitude of a development likely impacts
and evaluating their significance is core of environmental assessment process (Morris &
Therivel, 1995). Prediction should be based on the available environmental baseline of the
project area. Such predictions are described in quantitative or qualitative terms.
4.4.1 Considerations in impact prediction Magnitude of Impact: This is defined by the
severity of each potential impact and indicates whether the impact is irreversible or,
reversible and estimated potential rate of recovery. The magnitude of an impact cannot be
considered high if a major adverse impact can be mitigated. Extent of Impact: The spatial
extent or the zone of influence of the impact should always be determined. An impact can be
site-specific or limited to the project area; a locally occurring impact within the locality of the
proposed project; a regional impact that may extend beyond the local area and a national
impact affecting resources on a national scale and sometimes trans-boundary impacts, which
might be international. Duration of Impact: Environmental impacts have a temporal
dimension and needs to be considered in an EIA. Impacts arising at different phases of the
project cycle may need to be considered. An impact that generally lasts for only three to nine
years after project completion may be classified as short-term. An impact, which continues
for 10 to 20 years, may be defined as medium-term, and impacts that last beyond 20 years are
considered as long-term. Significance of the Impact: This refers to the value or amount of the
impact. Once an impact has been predicted, its significance must be evaluated using an
appropriate choice of criteria. The most important forms of criterion are: Specific legal
requirements e.g. national laws, standards, international agreements and conventions, relevant
policies etc. Public views and complaints Threat to sensitive ecosystems and resources e.g.
can lead to extinction of species and depletion of resources, which can result, into conflicts.
Geographical extent of the impact e.g. has trans- boundary implications. Cost of mitigation
Duration (time period over which they will occur) Likelihood or probability of occurrence
(very likely, unlikely, etc.) Reversibility of impact (natural recovery or aided by human
intervention) Number (and characteristics) of people likely to be affected and their locations
Cumulative impacts e.g. adding more impacts to existing ones. Uncertainty in prediction due
to lack of accurate data or complex systems. Precautionary principle is advocated in this
scenario.
4.4.2 Impact prediction methodologies Several techniques can be used in predicting the
impacts. The choices should be appropriate to the circumstances. These can be based on:
Professional judgment with adequate reasoning and supporting data. This technique requires
high professional experience. Experiments or tests. These can be expensive. EIA – General
procedures 9 Achieng Past experience Numerical calculations & mathematical models. These
can require a lot of data and competency in mathematical modelling without which hidden
errors can arise Physical or visual analysis. Detailed description is needed to present the
impact. Geographical information systems, Risk assessment, and Economic valuation of
environmental impacts
4.5 Analysis of alternatives Analysis of alternative is done to establish the preferred or most
environmentally sound, financially feasible and benign option for achieving project
objectives. The World Bank directives requires systematic comparison of proposed
investment design in terms of site, technology, processes etc in terms of their impacts and
feasibility of their mitigation, capital, recurrent costs, suitability under local conditions and
institutional, training and monitoring requirements (World bank 1999). For each alternative,
the environmental cost should be quantified to the extent possible and economic values
attached where feasible, and the basic for selected alternative stated. The analysis of
alternative should include a NO PROJECT alternative.
4.6 Mitigation and impact management Mitigation is done to avoid, minimize or offset
predicted adverse impacts and, where appropriate, to incorporate these into an environmental
management plan or system. For each potential adverse impact, the plan for its mitigation at
each stage of the project should be documented and costed, as this is very important in the
selection of the preferred alternative. The objectives of mitigation therefore are to: find better
alternatives and ways of doing things; enhance the environmental and social benefits of a
project avoid, minimise or remedy adverse impacts; and ensure that residual adverse impacts
are kept within acceptable levels.

Environmental Impact Statement (EIS)

The final EIA report is referred to as an Environmental Impact Statement (EIS).
Most national environmental laws have specified what the content of EIS should have.
Multilateral and bilateral financial institutions have also defined what should be contained in
an EIS. Ideally, the content of an EIS should have the following: Executive Summary Policy,
Legal and Administrative Framework
Description of the environment Description of the Proposed Project in detail Significant
Environmental Impacts Socio-economic analysis of Project Impacts Identification and
Analysis of Alternatives Mitigation Action/Mitigation Management
Plan Environmental Management Plan Monitoring Program Knowledge gaps
Public Involvement List of References Appendices including
o Reference documents, photographs, unpublished data
o Terms of Reference
o Consulting team composition
o Notes of Public Consultation sessions

EIA RELATED STUDIES

Social Impact Assessment (SIA) Social Impact Assessment (SIA) includes the processes of
analysing, monitoring and managing the intended and unintended social consequences, both
positive and negative, of planned interventions and any social change processes invoked by
those interventions (Vanclay, 1999). The analysis should include the use of land, culture, the
main economic activities e.g. tourism, agriculture, employment levels and impact on service
provision e.g. education, water use, traffic, energy use etc. Its primary purpose is to bring
about a more sustainable and equitable biophysical and human environment. Social Impact
Assessment assumes that social, economic and biophysical impacts are interconnected. Social
Impact Assessment (SIA) is therefore done to ensure that there is no mismatch between the
development and socio-cultural and economic of the project area.

Health Impact Assessment (HIA) Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social
well-being and not merely absence of disease or infirmity (WHO, 1946). In most EIAs, HIA
is usually included under SIA. HIA is now emerging as a key component of EIA because
health is determined by a multiplicity of factors including socio-economic and environmental
factors. There is no clear definition about where health concerns end and where
environmental or social concerns begin. HIA is a broad concept that may be interpreted in
different ways by a range of different users but all imply an interest in the safeguarding and
enhancement of human health and a concern that human activities and decisions, in the form
of development projects, plans, programs and policies can affect human health in both
positive and negative ways. EIA – General procedures 15 Achieng

Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) SEA is undertaken much earlier in the

decision-making process than EIA - it is therefore seen as a key tool for sustainable
development. „Strategic Environmental Assessment aims to incorporate environmental and
sustainability considerations into strategic decision-making processes, such as the
formulation of policies, plans and programs. ‟

1 ENVIRONMENTPOLLUTIONS AND CONTROL MEASURES

1.1 AIR POLLUTION AND CONTROL MEASURES

1) WHO defines air pollution as the contamination of the indoor or outdoor environment
by any chemical, physical or biological agent that modifies the natural characteristics
of the atmosphere.
2) It may cause diseases, allergies or death of humans; it may also cause harm to other
living organisms such as animals and food crops, and may damage the natural or built
environment. Human activity and natural processes can both generate air pollution.
3) Air Pollution is condition when the quality of air deteriorates to an extent that it
becomes difficult to breathe. For example, the emissions from industries and motor
vehicles pollute the air to an extent that causes damage to living organisms.
4) CAUSES/SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION: MANMADE CAUSES
i. Rapid industrialization
ii. Fast urbanization
iii. Rapid growth in population
iv. Growth of vehicles on the roads and
v. Activities of human beings have disturbed the natural balance of the
atmosphere like deforestation, installation of thermal plants, chemical and
petrochemical plants.
vi. Greenhouse gases

NATURAL CAUSES Volcanic eruption, Forest fires, Marsh gas emission,

Biological decay, Deflation of sand and dust, Radioactive materials, Micro-organisms
such as algae, fungi, bacteria, yeast, moulds, spores are transported by wind to distant
places causing air pollution.
5) Air pollutants refer to the abnormal substances (solids, liquids, and gases) that are
present in air in intolerable limits.

Classification of air pollutants: Air pollutants can also be divided into two categories:
primary pollutant and secondary pollutant.
i. Primary pollutants: Primary pollutants are emitted directly from the sources.
The example of primary pollutant includes carbon dioxide (CO2), carbon
monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide, nitric-oxide, ammonia, hydrogen sulphide,
and radioactive substances. Industrial fumes and smokes, ash, dust, mist, are
other primary sources of air pollution.
ii. Secondary pollutants: The secondary pollutants are not emitted from the
sources.
They are formed when primary pollutants interact with atmospheric
constituents. Example includes sulphur-trioxide (SO3), nitrogen-trioxide,
ozone (O3), hydrocarbons, acid rain, etc.

6) Major Air Pollutants The pollutants that contribute major portion of global air
pollution are:

i. Sulphur Oxides (Sox): These substances are produced by industry,

particularly the industrial combustion of fossil fuels. They are also produced
naturally when volcanoes erupt.
ii. Nitrous oxides(N2O): These oxides are released into the atmosphere when
industrial combustion occurs at high temperatures.
 iii. Carbon monoxide (CO): When fuels (especially wood, oil, coal and natural
gas) do not burn ‘cleanly’ (i.e. their combustion is incomplete), they can emit
carbon monoxide. One of the main sources of CO is exhaust fumes from
vehicles such as cars.
iv. Carbon dioxide (CO2): This noxious gas is another pollutant released when
fossil fuels are burnt.
v. Suspended particulates matter: Small particles can be released into the air
by aerosol use and by the combustion of fossil fuels (for example, soot is
released when coal is burned).
vi. Lead is a solid and highly toxic metal. Its compounds are emitted into the
atmosphere as particulate matter.
vii. Hydrocarbons Lower hydrocarbons accumulate due to decay of vegetable
matter.
viii. Chromium is a solid toxic metal emitted into the atmosphere as particulate
matter.
ix. Ozone is a highly reactive gas with an unpleasant odour occurring in the
stratosphere where it protects mankind from the harmful ultra-violet rays from
the Sun. However, on earth, it is a pollutant.
x. Photochemical smog is a brownish smoke that frequently forms on clear,
sunny days over large cities with significant amounts of automobile traffic.

7) EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION

i. Acid rain: Acid compounds in the air dissolve into the rain and make the rain
acidic. When it falls, acid rain can erode buildings and poison the earth and
sea.
ii. Smog: Particulates can cause thick, gloomy clouds in the air. This can
severely limit visibility, and is a particular problem in big cities where vehicle
use is very heavy.
iii. Respiratory problems in humans: Sulphides, nitrous oxides and carbon
monoxide can all cause respiratory illness in humans in high quantities or over
long periods of time, these pollutants can also be fatal.
iv. Global warming: Greenhouse gases are a group of pollutants (for instance
CO and SO) which form a layer in the atmosphere above the earth which traps
in the sun’s rays and causes them to reflect back onto the earth. This warms up
the earth and is known as the greenhouse effect because it essentially turns the
earth into a giant greenhouse filled with heat.
v. The acidification of the oceans: If the air is polluted, these pollutants can
dissolve into the oceans and saturate them with carbon, particulates, sulphides
and nitrates. In this way, air pollution turns into water pollution as well,
spoiling the habitats of marine and freshwater life.
vi. Freak weather: Global warming does not just cause global temperatures of
earth and sea to rise. It also causes freak weather events such as huge
blizzards, forest fires, tsunamis and so on. This disrupts agriculture, destroys
 animals’ habitats and causes poverty, drought and the displacement of vast
numbers of human beings across the face of the earth.

8) EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS

i. Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
Health effects include nose and throat irritation, ling damage, bronchitis,
asthma, reproductive problems and cancer.
Environmental Effects include reduced visibility and acid deposition. Acid
deposition may lead to damaged trees, soils and aquatic life in lakes.
ii. Carbon monoxide:
Health effects include reduced ability of red blood cells to carry oxygen to
body cells and tissues. This leads to headache and anaemia. At high levels it
causes coma, irreversible brain damage and death.
iii. Sulphur Dioxide
Health effects involve breathing problems for healthy people.
Environmental effects involve reduced visibility and acid deposition on trees,
lakes, soils and monuments leading to their deterioration and adverse effect on
aquatic life.
iv. Nitrogen Dioxide:
Health effects include lung irritation and damage. Environmental effects
involve acid deposition leading to damage of trees, lakes, soil and ancient
monuments. NO2 can damage fabrics.
v. Lead
Health effects: Lead accumulates in the body and brain leading to nervous
system damage and mental retardation (especially in children), digestive and
other health problems. Lead containing chemicals are known to cause cancer
in test animals.

Environmental Effects: It can harm wildlife.

vi. Hydrocarbons Human effects: They are carcinogenic

9) Control of Air Pollution:

i. Industrial estates should be established at a distance from residential areas.
ii. Use of tall chimneys shall reduce the air pollution in the surroundings and
compulsory use of filters and electrostatic precipitators in the chimneys.
iii. Removal of poisonous gases by passing the fumes through water tower
scrubber or spray collector.
iv. Use of high temperature incinerators for reduction in particulate ash
production.
 v. Development and employment of non-combustive sources of energy, e.g.,
nuclear power, geothermal power, solar power, tidal power, wind power, etc.
vi. Use of non-lead antiknock agents in gasoline.
vii. Attempt should be made to develop pollution free fuels for automobiles, e.g.,
alcohol, hydrogen, battery power. Automobiles should be fitted with exhaust
emission controls.
viii. Industrial plants and refineries should be fitted with equipment for removal
and recycling of wastes.
ix. Growing plants capable of fixing carbon monoxide, e.g. Phaseolus vulgaris,
Coleus blumei, Daucus carota, Ficus variegata
x. Growing plants capable of metabolising nitrogen oxides and other gaseous
pollutants, e.g., Vitis, Pimis, Jttniperus, Quercus, Pyrus, Robinia pseudo-
acacia, Viburnum, Crataegus, Ribes, Rhamnus.
xi. Afforestation of the mining area on priority basis.

xii. Encouraging people to use public transport, walk or use a cycle as opposed to
private vehicles
xiii. On a larger scale, governments are taking measures to limit emissions of
carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. The Paris Agreement, a
voluntary agreement among 118 nations ratified on November 4, 2016, is one
effort being enacted on a global scale to combat climate change. As a part of
the agreement, each country agreed to take measures to combat climate
change, with the ultimate goal of keeping the post-industrial global
temperature rise below two degrees Celsius.

10) Control of SPM by Gravitation

Equipment used: Gravitational Settling Chamber

A typical gravitational chamber is shown below. The dust laden gas enters at the inlet
and due to the sudden increase in cross-section the particulate matter settles at the
bottom and can be removed from the dust hoppers as shown
The clean gas free from particulate matter exits from the outlet
 IMPORTANT FACTS:
i. Simple to construct and maintain
ii. Efficient to remove particles of diameter greater than 50 mm from gas streams
iii. They are used as pre-cleaners before passing gases through high efficiency
collection devices
iv. They rely on gravitational settling and are the simplest and oldest mechanical
collectors for removal of particulates from gas streams
v. Flow within the chamber must be uniform without macroscopic mixing
vi. Dust removal system must be sealed to prevent production of turbulence due
to air from leaking into chamber
vii. Efficiency of the equipment increases with increased residence time of the
waste gas. Hence, the equipment is operated at lowest possible gas velocity
viii. The size of the unit depends on: gas velocity which should preferably be less
than 0.3 m/s

1.2 WATER POLLUTION AND CONTROL MEASURES

1) Water pollution may be defined as “the alteration in physical, chemical and biological
characteristics of water which may cause harmful effects on humans and aquatic life.”
2) Point and non-point sources of water pollution:
i. Point sources: These are pollutants that are discharged at specific locations
through pipes, ditches or sewers into bodies of surface waters.
Ex: Factories, sewage treatment plants, abandoned underground mines and oil
tankers.
ii. Non-point sources These pollutants cannot be traced to a single point of
discharge. They are large land areas or air-sheds that pollute water by runoff,
subsurface flow or deposition from the atmosphere.
Ex: Acid deposition, runoff of chemicals into surface water from croplands
3) Causes of water pollution
i. Industrial process: When manufacturers and factories are simply allowed to
pour toxic chemicals into water bodies before treatment, the water becomes
 polluted. The oxygen levels in the water also decreases. The toxic chemicals
include: lead, sulphuric acid, mercury and used oil.
ii. Inorganic Industrial waste: Inorganic wastes such as acids, mercury, lead
and heavy metals can destroy the normal body processes. The presence of
these toxic and corrosive substances in water is dangerous to living things.
Factories and other industries dump waste products into water at an alarming
rate.
iii. Agricultural fertilizers: By a process known as leaching, agricultural
chemicals such as fertilizers and pesticides can wash into rivers and lakes,
poisoning them.
iv. Untreated sewage from households: Dye, lotion, soap, hair oil, shampoo,
powder, deodorant, moisturizer and many other such products also contribute
in water pollution. These products go to the sewage without any
treatment. Untreated sewage from households can contaminate different water
bodies in the process. When sewage pipes break, there is a chance that the
wastes will contaminate drinking water. Sometimes, poorly treated sewage is
released into water bodies. Domestic cleaning products can be very dangerous
pollutants.
v. Garbage: Plastics are non-biodegradable. Mass plastics clog water bodies and
contaminate water.
vi. Urbanization: Urbanization is a key factor in increasing the amounts of water
pollution.
vii. Dumping solid waste: Humans often carelessly dump their trash in the sea or
near rivers.
viii. Oil spills: Accidental oil spills have a devastating effect on seas.
ix. Dissolved gases: Polluting gases in the air can dissolve into salt and fresh
water and pollute it.
x. Boat fuels: Fossil fuels used in the shipping industry are one of the largest
causes of both air and water pollution.
xi. Heated water from power plants: Some power plants release the heated
water into water bodies. This reduces the oxygen content in water. Power
plants normally use heated water to cool their machines.

4) Control measures of water pollution

i. Stop using harmful chemicals at home: opt for environmentally friendly
household cleaners.
ii. Prevent industrial waste reaching water: Dispose of industrial waste by
burying or neutralizing it instead.
iii. Sewage treatment: Household water should be properly treated to make it
environmentally safe. Raw sewage should never be pumped into water. This
may seem like a convenient way of disposing of it but it is highly dangerous
for health. Effective sewage treatment processes should be put in place.
iv. Treatment of industrial wastes before discharge: Factories should treat
wastes before discharge and toxic substances should be converted into
harmless materials.
v. Recycle: Recycle domestic and commercial waste safely rather than dumping
it in the sea or near rivers.
vi. Promote a love for waterways: That way, everyone in the community will be
motivated to stop pollution. When we all work together, we can achieve great
things.
 vii. Go organic: Organic agriculture uses far fewer chemical pesticides and
fertilizers.
viii. Adherence to water laws: Laws and legislation regarding water pollution
should be strictly followed. There should be heavy penalties for those who fail
to adhere to the rules.
ix. Avoid using paper bags: Carry a shopping bag whenever you expect to go
shopping. This will minimize the chances of you using a paper bag. You can
also buy a portable shopping bag and always have it with you.
x. Improve oil tanker safety: Avoiding oil spills would remove a key cause of
environmental pollution.
xi. Routine cleaning: Wells, ands and lakes should be regularly cleaned and
treated to ensure that they remain safe for human use. There should also be
system of regularly testing pond and lake water.
xii. Qualified and experienced people must be consulted from time to time for
effective control of water pollution.
xiii. Public awareness must be initiated regarding adverse effects of water pollution
using the media.
xiv. Basic and applied research in public health engineering should be encouraged.

5) Treatment of Domestic Sewage:

Domestic sewage can be purified even to make it suitable for drinking; however, the
process is expensive. Usually, treatment of sewage to reduce its organic matter
content is adopted.
In this treatment, three steps are involved:
Step 1: Primary Treatment: In this step the following are affected:
(a) Large objects are trapped.
(b) Dust, grease, scum is removed.
(c) Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is removed.
(d) Suspended matter is made to settle down by passing water through the gut
chamber.
Step 2: Secondary Treatment: In this step, following are affected:
(a) BOD is further reduced.
(b) By aeration using a trickling filter, aerobic organisms are grown to
decompose pollutants.
(c) The water at the end of this step can be used for irrigation and in industries.
Step 3: Tertiary Treatment: In this expensive step:
(a) Organic chemicals and nutrients are removed.
(b) The dissolved organic salts are removed using coagulation or distillation or
reverse osmosis.
(c) Pathogens are destroyed by disinfection.
The water after this treatment is fit for groundwater recharge. After chlorination and
proper check, it can be used for drinking.

1.3 SOIL POLLUTION AND CONTROL MEASURES

CHAPTER NUMBER 31, PARTS NO. 5.1LAND (SOIL) POLLUTION, CAUSES,
EFFECTS AND CONTROL OF LAND (SOIL) POLLUTION

1.4 PLASTIC POLLUTION AND CONTROL MEASURES

1) Plastic pollution is the introduction of plastic products into the environment which
then upset the existing ecosystems in different ways. These pollutants cause
 environmental degradation and also affect different living organisms and their habitats
negatively.
2) When plastic products accumulate in the environment, they begin to cause problems
for wildlife, humans, and other living organisms. They create conditions that are not
favourable for healthy living and proper growth. This is what is essentially referred to
as plastic pollution.
3) PLASTIC: A material that is made from plastic can easily be shaped or deformed.
Plastics are synthetic materials that are made from synthetic resins or organic
polymers. Examples of these polymers include nylon, PVC, and polyethylene.
4) Plastics are categorized into two groups, those that go through a chemical change
process in their constituents when subjected to heat (thermosetting polymers) and
those that do not (thermoplastics)
5) Plastics are mainly composed of petrochemicals that when burnt or melted, cause
environmental pollution. Plastic pollutants can also be classified in terms of size. This
creates three categories of pollutants namely micro, meso, and macro debris
6) Process of plastic pollution
These pollutants can build up in water sources and make it difficult for marine life to
move around freely in their habitat. They can also reduce the flow of air within water
bodies, a factor that endangers the lives of organisms that reside in these habitats.
Some marine organisms ingest micro debris made of plastics and suffer from
poisoning because of the chemical components. On the other hand, plastics can be an
eyesore when they are strewn all over the place. They can also trap water and act as
breeding places for disease-causing organisms like mosquitoes. Plastics that degrade
in water sources can cause pollution by making the water obtained from such places
unfit for human consumption. The burning of materials made of plastic also causes
pollution. These are some of the ways in which plastic pollution occurs in the
environment.
7) Common Causes of Plastic Pollution
The biggest contributing factor has to be human activities because they are the ones
that manufacture plastics and then introduce them into the environment. Some of the
common causes of this type of pollution include:
i. Plastic bags from shopping: When you buy items from the retail store,
chances are that they’ll be packaged in plastic bags. Most of them are
thermoplastics that are produced in large quantities. When these plastics have
been used, they are usually thrown away or discarded because the next time
you go back to the store, your items will be packaged in new plastic bags.
Many people shop regularly and that means that the number of plastic bags
introduced into the environment also increase at a faster pace. Since most of
the plastics are also low cost and thin, they can only be used a couple of times
before they tear. These shopping bags are major polluters of the environment
and it’s common to see them thrown around.
ii. Plastic Toys: Most toys are usually made of plastic. This is usually taken as a
safety measure because kids can easily injure themselves with metallic toys.
As we all know, these young fellas are not very responsible people and the
 toys are usually damaged almost immediately after they’ve been purchased. A
kid can go through many toys in a month unless the parent just decides to let
him or her play with the broken one. There are also companies that sell
products such as cereals and include free toys as part of marketing. Parents
then feel obliged to buy them because they come with gifts for the kids. When
all these are summed up, we have ecosystems full of plastic toys and with no
proper place or method to dispose of them. What happens next is
environmental pollution.
iii. Pet Bottles: Pet bottles are also common plastic pollutants. These bottles are
normally used for feeding or administering medication. They are changed
regularly or when the one being used is damaged. The damaged bottles are
then disposed of and they end up polluting the environment in one way or the
other. Apart from the feeding bottles, there are also feeding plates or troughs
made of plastic.
iv. Failure to recycle: Failure to recycle or reuse plastic materials is another
major cause of plastic pollution. As mentioned earlier, someone will use a
plastic bag once and then throw it away because he or she knows that she’ll
get a new one on the next shopping trip. This results in so many plastic papers
in the environment. It doesn’t help that garbage collection companies do not
also encourage their clients to put recyclable waste separately from those that
need to be disposed of. The failure to recycle is one of the main reasons why
plastic pollution is such a major concern the world over because it seems that
the more the world population increases, the bigger the problem becomes.
v. Using Plastic Disposables: People who host parties and use plastic disposable
cups, plates, forks and knives are the main culprits here. As much as they
make work easier because they eliminate the need to wash utensils after the
party, it’s also detrimental to the environment. These plastic disposables are
usually thrown away after the party and end up causing plastic pollution in
several ways.
vi. Plastic Fishing Nets: Commercial fishing is a very important economic
activity. This is because fish is a source of white meat with numerous health
benefits. Individuals, companies, and even nations engage in commercial
fishing because it is an important source of income and revenue. The only
problem is that in large scale fishing especially in trolling operations, the nets
are usually made of plastic materials. They remain submerged for long periods
and leak toxins into the ocean waters. They can also break apart and stay in the
water causing more pollution in the process.
vii. Poor Disposal of Plastic Waste: Plastics do not degrade easily because of the
type of materials that they are made of. That’s the reason why when you
dispose of a plastic bottle or paper bag in your compound, chances are that
even one year down the line it will still be there. We can use lots of materials
made of plastic but when we properly dispose of them, pollution is reduced.
Poor plastic waste disposal is, therefore, a major cause of pollution. Many
 people are very careless with the way they dispose of their plastic wastes and
that has presented a big challenge as far as having a clean planet is concerned.

8) Effects of Plastic Pollution

Plastic pollution has so many negative effects on human, plant, and marine life
as well as other living organisms. Here are some of them:
i. Affects Human life and Health: Plastics are mainly made from
petrochemicals. It, therefore, goes without saying that they are not good for
human health and can cause problems in different ways. When plastics
degrade in water sources, they release toxins that can cause poising or
cancerous diseases. Several health practitioners have cautioned against using
plastics, especially when handling hot consumables. Plastic pollution can
cause diseases that are very costly to treat and difficult to manage. Children
can also ingest plastic materials that have been carelessly disposed of and this
can result in choking or even death. Plastic bottles can sometimes trap water
and provide ideal breeding places for germs and mosquitoes. This can result in
several health problems for people that live near such places.
i. Degrades Quality of Land and Affects Agriculture: Plastic papers strewn
all over the place are an eyesore. They make the surrounding appear untidy
and unpleasant. When they break down, they release chemicals into the
ground that make land unproductive and unconducive for plant growth. They
can also make the area unsuitable for habitation by microorganisms. Plastic
pollution, therefore, affects agriculture by degrading the quality of soil and, in
turn, affects the balance that is required for an ecosystem to thrive.
ii. Poses Threat to Animal Health: Cattle are very notorious when it comes to
eating plastic bags. Since these materials are not digestible by the stomach,
they can cause stomach upsets and poisoning due to the chemicals released
from the components of plastic. This is what happens when we fail to dispose
of plastics properly and scatter them all over the place. Unlike humans,
animals can eat anything, the issue of whether it’s edible or not
notwithstanding.
iii. Disrupts Marine life: Aquatic life is also not spared when it comes to the
effects of plastic pollution. Commercial fishing where plastic nets are used
introduce toxins into the ocean and pollutes the water. This is harmful to the
marine life. Organisms that live in water can also ingest plastic materials and
die because of the toxins contained in them. This would cause the loss of
biodiversity and upset the ecosystem due to the interdependence of the
different inhabitants.
iv. Air Pollution: Burning plastics causes air pollution. That’s because this action
introduces pollutants into the atmosphere through smoke and debris. When
inhaled, the smoke from burning plastics can cause breathing complications.
The pollutants can also affect the ozone layer and contribute to global
warming. Since plastics are mainly composed of petrochemicals, burning them
 can also cause acid rain as the chemicals released ascend into the higher
atmosphere.
v. Blocks the Drainage System: Yes, plastics are a nuisance when it comes to
having a free-flowing drainage system. They can cause blockage and prevent
the flow of waste material. When this happens, the air can be polluted due to
the bad smell of decomposing materials. It would also cause a host of bacterial
diseases. Unblocking a drainage system is not that easy. You will have to part
with some money when the problem hits home just to get the system working
properly again. It’s much worse when it’s on a larger scale because that would
require the relevant authorities to come up with a proper plan to find a
solution. This could take time. Blocked drainage systems are also very risky
during the rainy season. They inhibit the easy flow and drainage of rain water.
This can cause flooding, especially in urban centres.
vi. Loss of Tourism: Tourists are mainly people who just want to have a good
time and gain new experiences. Nobody wants to travel to a foreign place just
to interact with dirty environments and probably contract infections and
diseases. Plastics around seashores make the beaches unsightly and
unattractive to tourists. This can lead to a fall in the number of them that visit
a place and subsequently loss of income for the locals. Dirty tourists’ places
basically kill tourism.
9) Preventive and Control Measures
The number one instigator of pollution has always been mankind. Our actions
introduce plastics into the ecosystem and cause pollution. That means that we
can also be proactive and enforce preventive and control measures so that we
do not have to deal with the bad effects. What then can we do so that we avoid
the negative effects of plastic pollution? Here are some of the preventive and
control measures that can help reduce this menace:
i. Find Alternatives to Plastics: We can reduce plastic pollution by using
alternatives to plastics. People can actually stop using plastic bags and
disposable utensils. Instead of going to the retail store and having your
purchases packaged in plastic bags, you can choose to carry your own bag that
is large enough and reusable. The business community can also play a vital
role by using other alternatives to plastics when packaging goods. Using bags
made of paper is a smart way to reduce plastic pollution. When we stop using
plastics and find alternatives, we reduce the risk of pollution and make the
environment cleaner. It’s all about everyone being proactive enough to do
what needs to be done to conserve the environment.
ii. Making use of Reusable Water Bottles: Using disposable water bottles is a
major cause of plastic pollution. They are thrown away after use and that just
adds dirt in the ecosystem because more bottles will have to be manufactured.
An ideal thing to do would be to make use of reusable water bottles. When the
water in the container has been used up, it is taken to the respective company
for a refill. In this way, a smaller number of plastics are manufactured and the
environment is conserved. There shouldn’t be much debate around this
 because using these types of bottles also saves you a lot of money as opposed
to buying new ones from the store. With one move, you conserve the
environment and reduce your monthly expenses. That is a really smart way to
live.
iii. Proper Waste Disposal: We looked at one of the main causes of plastic
pollution as lack of proper waste disposal methods. People just throwing
around plastic materials without much thought about the consequences of their
actions. To stop this from happening, we can adopt proper waste disposal
methods. Individuals should strive to dispose of plastic materials only in
designated areas like dustbins. This prevents several problems like drainage
blockage and air pollution. Cultivating a culture of being responsible goes a
long way in reducing the effects of pollution.
iv. Recycling: Garbage processing is actually one of the best ways to ensure that
unnecessary waste materials are not loaded into the environment. Instead of
throwing away plastic bottles, we can collect them and give them to
companies that engage in the recycling of plastics. At home, people can have
separate bins for collecting wastes. One of those can be dedicated to the
collection of waste products for recycling. Companies can also offer
incentives by paying for these types of garbage so that people are motivated to
give them out for recycling.
v. Government Policies: Every business person’s major concern is to make
profits. What happens is that companies manufacture very thin plastic bags
that tear easily because they are low cost and are bought in bulk. This is the
type of business that gives them high profits. The government can play its role
by banning the manufacture of such plastic bags and putting in place policies
that promote a clean environment. Thick bags that do not tear easily are
expensive and that will encourage people to reuse them. Companies can be
compelled to adhere to certain standards failure to which there would be
penalties. This would also lead to retail stores opting for alternative packaging
methods like papers. Policies to encourage the recycling of wastes and
cleaning of the environment can also be helpful.
vi. Community Education: Knowledge is power. A person is more likely to
conserve the environment when he or she is made aware of the dangers of not
doing so. Educating people about the effects of plastic pollution and ways in
which it can be prevented or controlled is a step in the right direction because
it raises awareness. This can be done by community-based organizations or
government agencies tasked with environmental conservation. Another way in
which this can be achieved is by running ads in the media or campaigns that
aim at sensitizing people about the benefits of conserving the environment. At
the family level, parents and their children can educate one another about
plastic pollution. They can then do what is necessary to prevent or control it.
ECOSYSTEM AND COMPONENT OF ECOSYSTEM

Aquatic plant systems are engineered and constructed systems that use aquatic plants in
the treatment of industrial or domestic wastewater. They are designed to achieve a
specific wastewater treatment goal. Aquatic plant systems can be divided into two
categories:
• Systems with floating aquatic plants such as water hyacinth, duckweed, and
pennywort
• Systems with submerged aquatic plants such as waterweed, water milfoil, and
watercress
The use of aquaculture as a means of treating wastewater involves both natural and
artificial wetlands and the production of algae and higher plants (submersed and
immersed) to remove contaminants such as nitrogen compounds, BOD, hydrocarbons,
and heavy metals from the wastewater. Floating aquatic plants such as water hyacinth
(Eichhornia crassipes) and duckweed (Lemna spp.) appear to be some of the most
promising aquatic plants for the treatment of wastewater.
These systems are basically shallow ponds covered with floating plants that detain
wastewater at least one week. The main purpose of the plants in these systems is to
provide a suitable habitation for bacteria that remove the vast majority of dissolved
nutrients.

ADVANTAGES
 The cost of plant seeding and wetlands is very low, in most cases negligible.
 These technologies are traditional, rudimentary, and easy to implement— ideal for
rural areas.
  Wetland systems are easy to build, simple to operate, and require little or no
maintenance.
 Most small-scale wetland treatment systems require relatively small land areas.
 Wetland technologies reduce nutrient contamination of natural systems.
 Heavy metals absorbed by the plants in wetland treatment systems are not returned
to the water.
 Water-hyacinth-based and other wetland systems produce plant biomass that can be
used as a fertilizer, animal feed supplement, or source of methane.

DISADVANTAGES
 In some places, plant seeds may not be readily available.
 Temperature (climate) is a major limitation because effective treatment is linked to
the active growth phase of the immersed (surface and above) vegetation.
 Herbicides and other materials toxic to the plants can affect their health and lead to
a reduced level of treatment.
 Duckweed is prized as food by waterfowl and fish, and can be seriously depleted by
these species.
 Winds may blow duckweed to the windward shore unless windscreens or deep
trenches are employed.
 Plants die rapidly when the water temperature approaches the freezing point;
therefore, greenhouse structures may be necessary in cooler climates.
 Water hyacinth is sensitive to high salinity, which restricts the removal of
potassium and phosphorus to the active growth period of the plants.
 Metals such as arsenic, chromium, copper, mercury, lead, nickel, and zinc can
accumulate in water hyacinth plants and limit their suitability as fertilizer or feed
materials.
 Water hyacinth plants may create small pools of stagnant surface water that can
serve as mosquito breeding habitats; this problem can generally be avoided by
maintaining mosquitofish or similar fishes in the system.
 The spread of water hyacinth must be closely controlled by barriers because the
plant can spread rapidly and clog previously unaffected waterways.
 Water hyacinth treatment may prove impractical for large-scale treatment plants
because of the land area required.
 Evapotranspiration in wetland treatment systems can be 2 to 7 times greater than
evaporation alone.
 Harvesting the water hyacinth or duckweed plants is essential to maintain high
levels of system performance.

Components of Ecosystem
Biotic Components
They are the living components of an ecosystem. It includes biotic factors such as producers,
consumers, and decomposers.

 Producers include all autotrophs (plants), they produce their own food by utilizing the
source of energy obtained from the sunlight. All living beings are dependent on plants
for both oxygen and food.
  Consumers include primary consumers and secondary consumers. Top carnivores and
apex predators make up the tertiary consumers.
 Decomposers include saprophytes (fungi and bacteria), that converts the dead matter
into nitrogen and carbon dioxide. They are essential for recycling of nutrients to be
used again by the producers.
Abiotic Components
They are the non-living component of an ecosystem. It includes air, water, soil, minerals,
sunlight, temperature, nutrients, etc. Sunlight is the basic source of energy in the ecosystem.

Effluent Treatment Plant

Effluent Treatment Plant or ETP is one type of waste water treatment method which is
particularly designed to purify industrial waste water for its reuse and its aim is to release safe
water toenvironment from the harmful effect caused by the effluent.

Industrial effluents contain various materials, depending on the industry. Some effluents
contain oils and grease, and some contain toxic materials (e.g., cyanide). Effluents from food
and beverage factories contain degradable organic pollutants. Since industrial waste water
contains a diversity of impurities and therefore specific treatment technology called ETP is
required.

The ETP Plant works at various levels and involves various physical, chemical, biological
and membrane processes to treat waste water from different industrial sectors like chemicals,
drugs, pharmaceutical, refineries, dairy, ready mix plants & textile etc.
Benefits of ETP:
1. To clean industry effluent and recycle it for further use
2. To reduce the usage of fresh water in industries
3. To preserve natural environment against pollution
4. To meet the standards for emission of pollutants set by the Government & avoid heavy
penalty
5. To reduce expenditure on water acquisition

2. Industrial Effluent Treatment Process:

The treatment of different effluents varies with the type of effluent. Wastewater enters the
effluent or sewage treatment plant and goes through several processes before effluent goes
into the environment. Industrial effluent treatment plant process includes the following
stages:
a. Preliminary Treatment: Its objective is physical separation of large sized contaminants.
For example, cloth, paper, plastics, wood logs etc. This level/process include:

Screening: This is the first unit operation that occurs in waste water treatment plants. A
screen is a device with uniform openings and its purpose is to remove large floating solids.
Sedimentation: It is a physical water treatment process using gravity to remove suspended
solids from water.
Grit Chamber: The wastewater that moves into the grit chamber removes the dense
inorganic solids such as gravel, metal fragments and sand which have made their way into
the sewers. Removal of grit can prevent damaging of pumps & operational difficulties.
Clarifiers: These are tanks built with mechanical means for continuous removal of solids
being deposited by sedimentation before biological treatment.

b. Primary Treatment: Its aim is removal of floating and settleable materials such as
suspended solids and organic matter. In this treatment both physical and chemical methods
are used. It includes:

Flocculation: Flocculation is a physical process and does not involve the neutralization of
charge. It involves the addition of destabilized particles together into large aggregates so
that they can be easily separated from the water.
Coagulation: is a process in which coagulants are added for the purpose of rapid settlement
of minute solid particles in a liquid into larger mass. It permits particle removal by
sedimentation and for filtration.
Neutralization: The main purpose of this process helps in maintaining the pH range of 6-9
to meet the requirements of different processing units in ETP system.
Primary Clarifiers: These are used to slow the velocity of the water to a point where
organic solids will settle to the bottom of the tank and it contain an equipment that is used
to remove floating solids and greases from the surface.

c. Secondary or Biological Treatment: The objective of this treatment is the further

treatment of the effluent from primary treatment to remove the suspended solids and residual
organics. In this step biological and chemical processes are involved.
Activated Sludge Process: This is used for treating industrial waste water using air and a
biological floc composed of bacteria.
Aerated Lagoons: Is a treatment pond provided with artificial aeration to promote he
biological oxidation of waste water.
Trickling Filters: Trickling filters, also known as sprinkling filters, are commonly used for
the biological treatment of domestic sewage and industrial waste water.
Rotating Biological Contactor: It involves allowing the wastewater to come in contact with
a biological medium in order to remove pollutants in the wastewater before discharge of
the treated wastewater to the environment.

d. Tertiary/advanced/disinfection treatment: The purpose of tertiary treatment is to

provide a final treatment stage to raise the effluent quality to the desired level before it is
reused, recycled or discharged to the environment.

Chemical Coagulation and sedimentation: It is used to increase the removal of solids from
effluent after primary and secondary treatment.
Filtration: The clarified wastewater is first passed through the adjacent filtration plant
which contains large filter blocks to ensure high quality water.
Reverse Osmosis: In this process, pressure is used to force effluent through a membrane that
retains contaminants on one side and allows the clean water to pass to the other side.
UV Disinfection: It is considered as an ideal disinfectant for industrial waste water. It leaves
no residual disinfectant in the water by ensuring the water quality. It does not produce any
disinfection by-products.

3. Effluent Treatment Plant Design:

The design of ETP depends on quality and quantity of waste water discharged from the
different industries and land availability. If the availability of land in your industry is less,
then Common Effluent Treatment Plant (CETP) is preferred over Effluent Treatment Plant
(ETP).
Sludge Dying Bed:

Sludge Drying Bed is unit used for dewatering of sludge in sewage treatment plant. The
present SDB was made and developed in around 1950 (www. marysvilleohio.org ,2000) and
same design is working even in present era. At that time, the environmental conditions were
not like present conditions. As sewage treatment system was designed and commissioned far
away from locality or village. The area was not the important factor, so fumes and gases
were absorbed by flora and fauna surrounding the plant
From the survey and reports (www.neurope.eu, 2011), it was found that treatment work is
progressing well but the collection and treatment compliance rates could still be improved.
Same kind of data has been observed (www.sratx.org, 1999), in this survey which was
conducted in US, which indicates that water and wastewater treatment systems needs
improvement, particularly with regard to expanding local technical expertise on water
supply, treatment and quality issues. There are also problems in wastewater treatment system
designing as reported by Bielefeldt (2006).
According to CPCB (2005) there exists a large gap between sewage generation and its
treatment. To overcome this problem, we have to redesign or modify the conventional
designs
of sewage treatment plants.
The neural network is mainly used in this application to fill in data gaps. This is particularly
useful for input data in different models (Booty et. al., 2001).
A better control of WWTP can be achieved by developing a robust mathematical tool for
predicting the plant performance based on past observations of certain key parameters
(Hamed et. al., 2003).
In every sewage treatment plant, sludge drying bed is an important part as it reduces the
amount of sludge generated during treatment. The sludge drying bed usually emits a foul
smell which has very adverse impact over nearby surrounding or environment. In my newly
developed model, we have undergone a process of re- construction/ modification of sludge
drying bed.

2. Materials and methods

Keeping in mind the present condition and review of literature, following methodology has
been adopted:

2.1 Study of Problem associated with Sludge Drying Bed

The physical and physiological characters were studied during visit of the STP plant. It
includes topography, temperature round the year, seasonal factor and solar radiation around
the plant. This has helped in developing the fish bone Diagram of SDB

The sketch of hypothetical model was made with a mindset

of keeping it economy and suitability for environmental
conditions of studied area.

2.2.2 Computer Aided Design Model

Model has been developed for the best sketch after testing
through Poke - Yoke standard procedure tool of quality
control. Cad Model of proposed sketch had made for
simulating the data using the blender software in CAE
Linux.
2.3 Testing of Model
The Proposed model has undergone simulation process so
that the real condition could be tested under the lab
conditions. The De-novo Technique of artificial neural
networking along with Fish bone diagram has been used to
achieve the pop and corns of present SDB.

3. Results & Discussion

The analysis of the result also leads to the fact that the
present model is highly effective and can cope with the
present conditions.
The Fish bone diagram has helped in getting the real
condition of SDB of sewage treatment plant.

Fig 1: Fish Bone Diagram of Sludge Drying Bed

Fig 2: CAD Design for Present SDB (left) and Proposed SDB (right)

After testing of proposed model in the De Bono Technique

along with open foam software in Linux leads to following
results
1)The generated lab scale model is very useful in
controlling the odour of sludge drying bed.
2)The more amount of sludge can be dried in same time
as compared to drying bed.
3)Designing is economical and cheaper with almost no
adverse effect on environment.
4)There is no requirement for the re- construction of
sludge drying bed as the modification can be applied
over the present system.
5)Reduces the dew wetting of sludge during dusk and
dawn.
6)Reduces the wetting of sludge during rainy season.
7)Improve the overall efficiency of sewage treatment
plant.

CHAPTER 2: Environmental Important Regulations

THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION

STATEMENT OF OBJECTS AND REASONS OF ACT 47 OF 1987

1. The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, was enacted under Art. 253 of the
Constitution to implement the decisions taken at the United Nations Conference on Human
Environment held at Stockholm in June 1972, in which India participated.
2. The Air Act is implemented by the Central and State Governments and the Central and
State Boards. Over the past few years, the implementing agencies have experienced some
administrative and practical difficulties in effectively implementing the provisions of this Act
and has brought these to the notice of Government. The ways and means to remove these
difficulties have been thoroughly examined in consultation with the concerned Central
Government departments, the State Government and the Central and State Boards.
Considering the views expressed. Government have decided to make certain amendments to
the Act in order to remove such difficulties.
3. The Bill, inter alia, seeks to make the following amendments in the Act, namely: (i) The
Central Board is proposed to be empowered to exercise the powers and perform the functions
of a State Board in specific situations, particularly when a State Board fails to act and comply
with the directions issued by the Central Board. It is also proposed to recover the cost of the
exercise of such powers and the performance of such functions by the Central Board from the
person or persons concerned, if the State Board is empowered to recover such costs under the
provisions of the Act, as arrears of land revenue or of public demand. (ii) It is proposed to
make it obligatory on the part of a person to obtain the consent of the relevant Board even
while establishing an industrial plant. (iii) It is proposed to empower the Boards to obtain
information regarding discharge of pollution in excess of specified standards by the industries
operating even outside the air pollution control areas. (iv) In order to prevent effectively air
pollution, the punishments provided in the Act are proposed to be made stricter. (v) In order
to elicit public co-operation, it is proposed that any person should be able to complain to the
Courts regarding violations of the provisions of the Act after giving a notice of sixty days to
the Board or the officer authorized in this behalf. (vi) It is proposed to omit the Schedule to
the Act so as to make the Act applicable to all the industries causing air pollution. (vii) It is
proposed to empower the Boards to give directions to any person, officer or authority
including the power to direct closure or regulation of offending establishment or stoppage or
regulation of supply of services such as, water and electricity. (viii) It is proposed to
empower the Boards to approach courts to pass orders restraining any person from causing air
pollution. (ix) For increasing the financial resources of the Boards, it is proposed to empower
them to raise money by means of obtaining loans and issue of decent.

Central Pollution Control Board – The Central Pollution Control Board constituted under
Sec. 3 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), shall,
without prejudice to the exercise and performance of its powers and functions under that Act,
exercise the powers and perform the functions of the Central Pollution Control Board for the
prevention and control of air pollution under this Act.

State Pollution Control Boards constituted under Sec.4 of Act 6 of 1974 to be State Boards
under this Act. –
In any State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974 (6 of 1974), is in force and the State Government has constituted for that State a State
Pollution Control Board under Sec. 4 of that Act, such State Board shall be deemed to be the
State Board for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution constituted under Sec. 5 of this
Act, and accordingly that State Pollution Control Board shall, without prejudice to the
exercise and performance of its powers and functions under that Act, exercise the powers and
perform the functions of the State Board for the prevention and control of air pollution under
this Act.]

Constitution of state boards. –

(1) In any State in which the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution), Act 1974 (6 of
1974), is not in force or that Act is in force but the State Government has not constituted a
[State Pollution Control Board] under that Act, the State Government shall, with effect from
such date as it may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint, constitute a State Board
for the Prevention and Control of Air Pollution under such name as may be specified in the
notification, to exercise the powers conferred on, and perform the functions assigned to that
Board under this Act.
(2) A State Board constituted under this Act shall consist of the following members, namely;
(a) a Chairman, being a person having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of
matters relating to environmental protection to be nominated by the State Government:
provided that the Chairman may be either whole-time or part-time as the State Government
may think fit; (b) such number of officials, not exceeding five, as the State Government may
think fit, to be nominated by the State Government to represent that Government; (c) such
number of persons, not exceeding five, as the State Government may think fit, to be
nominated by the State Government from amongst the members of the local authorities
functioning within the State;
(d) such number of non-officials, not exceeding three, as the State Government may think fit
to be nominated by the State Government to represent the interests of agriculture, fishery or
industry or trade or labour or any other interest, which in the opinion of that Government,
ought to be represented; (e) two persons to represent the companies or corporations owned,
controlled or managed by the State Government, to be nominated by that Government; (f) a
full-time member-secretary having such qualifications, knowledge and experience of
scientific, engineering or management aspects of pollution control as may be prescribed, to
be appointed by the State Government:]
(3) Every State Board constituted under this Act shall be a body corporate with the name
specified by the State Government in the notification issued under sub-section (1), having
perpetual succession and a common seal with power, subject to the provisions of this Act, to
acquire and dispose of property and to contract, and may be the said name sue or be sued.

Functions of Central Board –

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the performance of its
functions under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974), the
main functions of the Central Board shall be to improve the quality of air and to prevent,
control or abate air pollution in the country.
(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing functions, the
Central Board may
(a) advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the improvement of the quality
of air and the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
(b) plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution;
(c) co-ordination the activities of the State Board and resolve disputes among them;
(d) provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor
investigations and research relating to problems of air pollution and prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution;
(dd) perform such of the functions of any State Board as may be specified in an order made
under subsection (2) of Sec. 18;
(e) plan and organize the training of person engaged or to engaged in programmes for the
prevention, control or abatement of air pollution on such terms and conditions as the Central
Board may specify;
(f) organize through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention,
control or abatement of air pollution;
(g) collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to air pollution and the
measures devised for its effective prevention, control or abatement and prepare manuals,
codes or guides relating to prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
(h) lay down standards for the quality of air;
(i) collect and disseminate information in respect of matters relating to air pollution;
(j) perform such other function as may be prescribed.
(3) The Central Board may establish or recognize a laboratory or laboratories to enable the
Central Board to perform its functions under this section efficiently.
(4) The Central Board may
(a) delegate any of its functions under this Act generally or specially to any of the
Committees appointed by it;
(b) do such other things and perform such other acts as it may think necessary for the proper
discharge of its functions and generally for the purpose of carrying into effect the purposes of
this Act.

Functions of State Boards –

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, and without prejudice to the performance of its
functions, if any, under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of
1974), the functions of a State Board shall be:
(a) to plan a comprehensive programme for the prevention, control or abatement of air
pollution and to secure the execution thereof;
(b) to advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or
abatement of air pollution;
(c) to collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution;
(d) to collaborate with the Central Board in organizing the training of persons engaged or to
be engaged in programmes relating to prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and to
organize mass-education programme relating thereto;
(e) to inspect, at all reasonable times, any control equipment, industrial plant or
manufacturing process and to give, by order, such directions to such persons as it may
consider necessary to take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution;
(f) to inspect air pollution control areas to such intervals as it may think necessary, assess the
quality of air therein and take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution in
such areas;
(g) to lay down, in consultation with the Central Board and having regard to the standards for
the quality of air laid down by the Central Board, standards for the quality of air laid down by
the Central Board, standards for emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere from industrial
plants and automobiles or for the discharge of any air pollutant into the atmosphere from any
other source whatsoever not being a ship or an aircraft; Provided that different standards for
emission may be laid down under this clause for different industrial plants having regard to
the quality and composition of emission of air pollutions into the atmosphere from such
industrial plants;
(h) to advise the State Government with respect to the suitability of any premises or location
for carrying or any industry which is likely to cause air pollution;
(i) to perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may, from time to time, be
entrusted to it by the Central Board or the State Government;
(j) to do such other things and to perform such other acts as it may think necessary for the
proper discharge of its functions and generally for the purpose of carrying into effect the
purpose of this Act.
(2) A State Board may establish or recognize a laboratory or laboratories to enable the State
Board to perform its functions under this section efficiently

WATER (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1974

Constitution of Central Board

(1) The Central Government shall, with effect from such date (being a date not later than six
months of the commencement of this Act in the States of Assam, Bihar, Gujarat, Haryana,
Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Tripura and West Bengal and in the Union Territories) as it may, by notification in the
Official Gazette, appoint, constitute a Central Board to be called the 4 [Central Pollution
Control Board] to exercise the powers conferred on and perform the functions assigned to
that Board under this Act. 3
(2) The Central Board shall consist of the following members, namely,- (a) a full-time
Chairman, being a person having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of 5
[matters relating to environmental protection] or a person having knowledge and experience
in administering institutions dealing with the matters aforesaid, to be nominated by the
Central Government; (b) 6 [such number of officials, not exceeding five], to be nominated by
the Central Government to represent that government; (c) such number of persons, not
exceeding five to be nominated by the Central Government, from amongst the members of
the State Boards, of whom not exceeding two shall be from those referred to in clause (c) of
sub-section (2) of section 4; (d) 7 [such number of non-officials, not exceeding three], to be
nominated by the Central Government, to represent the interests of agriculture, fishery or
industry or trade or any other interest which, in the opinion of the Central Government, ought
to be represented; (e) two persons to represent the companies or corporations owned,
controlled or managed by the Central Government, to be nominated by that government; 8
[(f) a full-time member-secretary, possessing qualifications, knowledge and experience of
scientific, engineering or management aspects of pollution control, to be appointed by the
Central Government.]
(3) The Central Board shall be a body corporate with the name aforesaid having perpetual
succession and a common seal with power, subject to the provisions of this Act, to acquire,
hold and dispose of property and to contract, and may, by the aforesaid name, sue or be sued.

4. Constitution of State Boards

(1) The State Government shall, with effect from such date 9 [***] as it may, by notification
in the Official Gazette, appoint, constitute a 10[State Pollution Control Board,] under such
name as may be specified in the notification, to exercise the powers conferred on and perform
the functions assigned to that Board under this Act.
(2) A State Board shall consist of the following members, namely,- (a) a 11[***] Chairman,
being, a person having special knowledge or practical experience in respect of 5 [matters
relating to environmental protection] or a person having knowledge and experience in
administering institutions dealing with the matters aforesaid, to be nominated by the State
Government: 2[PROVIDED that the Chairman may be either whole-time or part-time as the
State Government may think fit;] (b) 6 [such number of officials, not exceeding five,] to be
nominated by the State Government to represent that government; (c) 12[such number of
persons, not exceeding five,] to be nominated by the State Government from amongst the
members of the local authorities functioning within the State; (d) 7 [such number of non-
officials, not exceeding three] to be nominated by the State Government to represent the
interests of agriculture, fishery or industry or trade or any other interest which, in the opinion
of the State Government, ought to be represented; (e) two persons to represent the companies
or corporations owned, controlled or managed by the State Government, to be nominated by
that government; 4 8 [(f) a full-time member-secretary, possessing qualifications, knowledge
and experience of scientific, engineering or management aspects of pollution control, to be
appointed by the State Government.]
(3) Every State Board shall be a body corporate with the name specified by the State
Government in the notification under sub-section (1), having perpetual succession and a
common seal with power, subject to the provisions of this Act, to acquire hold and dispose of
property and to contract, and may, by the said name, sue or be sued.
(4) Notwithstanding anything contained in this section, no State Board shall be constituted for
a Union Territory and in relation to a Union Territory, the Central Board shall exercise the
powers and perform the functions of a State Board for that Union Territory: PROVIDED that
in relation to any Union Territory the Central Board may delegate all or any of its powers and
functions under this sub-section to such person or body of persons as the Central Government
may specify.

Functions of Central Board

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, the main function of the Central Board shall be to
promote cleanliness of streams and wells in different areas of the States.
(2) In particular and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing function, the Central
Board may perform all or any of the following functions, namely, -
(a) advise the Central Government on any matter concerning the prevention and control of
water pollution;
(b) co-ordinate the activities of the State Boards and resolve disputes among them;
(c) provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor
investigations and research relating to problems of water pollution and prevention, control or
abatement of water pollution;
(d) plan and organise the training of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes for the
prevention, control or abatement of water pollution on such terms and conditions as the
Central Board may specify;
(e) organise through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention and
control of water pollution; 15[(ee) perform such of the functions of any State Board as may
be specified in an order made under sub-section (2) of section 18;] 10
(f) collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water pollution and
the measures devised for its effective prevention and control and prepare manuals, codes or
guides relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents and disseminate
information connected therewith;
(g) lay down, modify or annul, in consultation with the State Government concerned, the
standards for a stream or well: PROVIDED that different standards may be laid down for the
same stream or well or for different streams or wells, having regard to the quality of water,
flow characteristics of the stream or well and the nature of the use of the water in such stream
or well or streams or wells; (h) plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for
the prevention, control or abatement of water pollution;
(i) perform such other functions as may be prescribed.

(3) The Board may establish or recognise a laboratory or laboratories to enable the Board to
perform its functions under this section efficiently, including the analysis of samples of water
from any stream or well or of samples of any sewage or trade effluents.

Functions of State Board

(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, the functions of a State Board shall be-
(a) to plan a comprehensive programme for the prevention, control or abatement of pollution
of streams and wells in the State and to secure the execution thereof;
(b) to advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or
abatement of water pollution;
(c) to collect and disseminate information relating to water pollution and the prevention,
control or abatement thereof;
(d) to encourage, conduct and participate in investigations and research relating to problems
of water pollution and prevention, control or abatement of water pollution;
(e) to collaborate with the Central Board in organising the training of persons engaged or to
be engaged in programmes relating to prevention, control or abatement of water pollution and
to organise mass education programmes relating thereto;
(f) to inspect sewage or trade effluents, works and plants for the treatment of sewage and
trade effluents and to review plans, specifications or other data relating to plants set up for the
treatment of water, works for the purification thereof and the system for the disposal of
sewage or trade effluents or in connection with the grant of any consent as required by this
Act;
(g) to lay down, modify or annul effluent standards for the sewage and trade effluents and for
the quality of receiving waters (not being water in an interstate stream) resulting from the
discharge of effluents and to classify waters of the State;
(h) to evolve economical and reliable methods of treatment of sewage and trade effluents,
having regard to the peculiar conditions of soils, climate and water resources of different
regions and more especially the prevailing flow characteristics of water in streams and wells
which render it impossible to attain even the minimum degree of dilution;
(i) to evolve methods of utilisation of sewage and suitable trade effluents in agriculture; 11
(j) to evolve efficient methods of disposal of sewage and trade effluents on land, as are
necessary on account of the predominant conditions of scant stream flows that do not provide
for major part of the year the minimum degree of dilution;
(k) to lay down standards of treatment of sewage and trade effluents to be discharged into any
particular stream considering the minimum fair-weather dilution available in that stream and
the tolerance limits of pollution permissible in the water of the stream, after the discharge of
such effluents;
(l) to make, vary or revoke any order- (i) for the prevention, control or abatement of
discharges of waste into streams or wells; (ii) requiring any person concerned to construct
new systems for the disposal of sewage and trade effluents or to modify, alter or extend any
such existing system or to adopt such remedial measures as are necessary to prevent, control
or abate water pollution;
(m) to lay down effluent standards to be complied with by persons while causing discharge of
sewage or sullage or both and to lay down, modify or annul effluent standards for the sewage
and trade effluents;
(n) to advise the State Government with respect to the location of any industry the carrying
on of which is likely to pollute a stream or well;
(o) to perform such other functions as may be prescribed or as may, from time to time, be
entrusted to it by the Central Board or the State Government.

(2) The Board may establish or recognise a laboratory or laboratories to enable the Board to
perform its functions under this section efficiently, including the analysis of samples of water
from any stream or well or of samples of any sewage or trade effluents.

Environmental Protection Act:

GENERAL POWERS OF THE CENTRAL GOVERNMENT

3. Power of Central Government to take measures to protect and improve environment –
(1) Subject to the provisions of this Act, the Central Government, shall have the power to
take all such measures as it deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of protecting and
improving the quality of the environment and preventing controlling and abating
environmental pollution. (2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the
provisions of subsection (1), such measures may include measures with respect to all or any
of the following matters, namely:- (i) co-ordination of actions by the State Governments,
officers and other authorities- (a) under this Act, or the rules made thereunder, or (b) under
any other law for the time being in force which is relatable to the objects of this Act; (ii)
planning and execution of a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control and
abatement of environmental pollution; (iii) laying down standards for the quality of
environment in its various aspects; (iv) laying down standards for emission or discharge of
environmental pollutants from various sources whatsoever: Provided that different standards
for emission or discharge may be laid down under this clause from different sources having
regard to the quality or composition of the emission or discharge of environmental pollutants
from such sources; (v) restriction of areas in which any industries, operations or processes or
class of industries, operations or processes shall not be carried out or shall be carried out
subject to certain safeguards; (vi) laying down procedures and safeguards for the prevention
of accidents which may cause environmental pollution and remedial measures for such
accidents; (vii) laying down procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous
substances; (viii) examination of such manufacturing processes, materials and substances as
are likely to cause environmental pollution; (ix) carrying out and sponsoring investigations
and research relating to problems of environmental pollution; (x) inspection of any premises,
plant, equipment, machinery, manufacturing or other processes, materials or substances and
giving, by order, of such directions to such authorities, officers or persons as it may consider
necessary to take steps for the prevention, control and abatement of environmental pollution;
(xi) establishment or recognition of environmental laboratories and institutes to carry out the
functions entrusted to such environmental laboratories and institutes under this Act; (xii)
collection and dissemination of information in respect of matters relating to environmental
pollution; (xiii) preparation of manuals, codes or guides relating to the prevention, control
and abatement of environmental pollution; (xiv) such other matters as the Central
Government deems necessary or expedient for the purpose of securing the effective
implementation of the provisions of this Act. (3) The Central Government may, if it considers
it necessary or expedient so to do for the purpose of this Act, by order, published in the
Official Gazette, constitute an authority or authorities by such name or names as may be
specified in the order for the purpose of exercising and performing such of the powers and
functions (including the power to issue directions under section 5) of the Central Government
under this Act and for taking measures with respect to such of the matters referred to in sub-
section (2) as may be mentioned in the order and subject to the supervision and control of the
Central Government and the provisions of such order, such authority or authorities may
exercise and powers or perform the functions or take the measures so mentioned in the order
as if such authority or authorities had been empowered by this Act to exercise those powers
or perform those functions or take such measures. 4. Appointment of officers and their
powers and functions - (1) Without prejudice to the provisions of sub-section (3) of section 3,
the Central Government may appoint officers with such designation as it thinks fit for the
purposes of this Act and may entrust to them such of the powers and functions under this Act
as it may deem fit. (2) The officers appointed under sub-section (1) shall be subject to the
general control and direction of the Central Government or, if so directed by that
Government, also of the authority or authorities, if any, constituted under subsection (3) of
section 3 or of any other authority or officer. 5. Power to give directions - Notwithstanding
anything contained in any other law but subject to the provisions of this Act, the Central
Government may, in the exercise of its powers and performance of its functions under this
Act, issue directions in writing to any person, officer or any authority and such person, officer
or authority shall be bound to comply with such directions. Explanation - For the avoidance
of doubts, it is hereby declared that the power to issue directions under this section includes
the power to direct- (a) the closure, prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or
process; or (b) stoppage or regulation of the supply of electricity or water or any other
service. 6. Rules to regulate environmental pollution - (1) The Central Government may, by
notification in the Official Gazette, make rules in respect of all or any of the matters referred
to in section 3. (2) In particular, and without prejudice to the generality of the foregoing
power, such rules may provide for all or any of the following matters, namely:- (a) the
standards of quality of air, water or soil for various areas and purposes; (b) the maximum
allowable limits of concentration of various environmental pollutants (including noise) for
different areas; (c) the procedures and safeguards for the handling of hazardous substances;
(d) the prohibition and restrictions on the handling of hazardous substances in different areas;
(e) the prohibition and restriction on the location of industries and the carrying on process
and operations in different areas; (f) the procedures and safeguards for the prevention of
accidents which may cause environmental pollution and for providing for remedial measures
for such accidents.

PREVENTION, CONTROL, AND ABATEMENT OF ENVIRONMENTAL

POLLUTION

Persons carrying on industry operation, etc., not to allow emission or discharge of

environmental pollutants in excess of the standards –
No person carrying on any industry, operation or process shall discharge or emit or permit to
be discharged or emitted any environmental pollutants in excess of such standards as may be
prescribed.

Persons handling hazardous substances to comply with procedural safeguards –

No person shall handle or cause to be handled any hazardous substance except in accordance
with such procedure and after complying with such safeguards as may be prescribed.

Furnishing of information to authorities and agencies in certain cases –

(1) Where the discharge of any environmental pollutant in excess of the prescribed standards
occurs or is apprehended to occur due to any accident or other unforeseen act or event, the
person responsible for such discharge and the person in charge of the place at which such
discharge occurs or is apprehended to occur shall be bound to prevent or mitigate the
environmental pollution caused as a result of such discharge and shall also forthwith- (a)
intimate the fact of such occurrence or apprehension of such occurrence; and (b) be bound, if
called upon, to render all assistance, to such authorities or agencies as may be prescribed.
(2) On receipt of information with respect to the fact or apprehension on any occurrence of
the nature referred to in sub-section (1), whether through intimation under that sub-section or
otherwise, the authorities or agencies referred to in sub-section (1) shall, as early as
practicable, cause such remedial measures to be taken as necessary to prevent or mitigate the
environmental pollution.
(3) The expenses, if any, incurred by any authority or agency with respect to the remedial
measures referred to in sub-section (2), together with interest (at such reasonable rate as the
Government may, by order, fix) from the date when a demand for the expenses is made until
it is paid, may be recovered by such authority or agency from the person concerned as arrears
of land revenue or of public demand.

Water Cess Act:

 LEVY AND COLLECTION OF CESSES

1. There shall be levied and collected a cess for the purpose of the Water (Prevention and
Control of Pollution) Act, 1974(6 of 1974) and utilisation there under, theCess under sub-
section (1) shall be payable by-

a. Every person carrying on any 2[industry]; and

b. Every local authority, and shall be calculated on the basis of water consumed by such person
or local authority, as the case may be, for any of the purpose specified in column (1) of
Schedule II, at such rate, not exceeding the rate specified in the corresponding entry in
column (2) thereof, as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette,
from time to time, specify.

2. [(2A) Where any person carrying on any 2[industry] or any local authority
consuming water for domestic purpose liable to pay cess fails to comply with any of
the provisions of section 25 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974 (6 of 1974) or any of the standards laid so down by the Central Government
under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, cess shall be notwithstanding anything
contained in sub-section 2 of this section calculated and payable at such rate, not
exceeding the rate specified in column (3) of Schedule II, as the Central Government
may, by notification in the Official Gazette, from time to time specify.]

3. Where any local authority supplies water to any person carrying on any 2[industry] or
to any other local authority and such person or other local authority is liable to pay
cess under sub-section (2) or sub-section (2A) in respect of the water so supplied,
then, notwithstanding anything contained in that sub-section, the local authority first
mentioned shall not be liable to pay such cess in respect of such water.
Explanation—For the purpose of this section and section 4, "consumption of water"
includes supply of water. Some important Provision of the Water (P & C.P.) Cess Act.1977
read with amendment of 1992 & 2003 are submitted as under.

AFFIXING OF METERS

1. For the purpose of measuring and recording the quantity of water consumed, every person
carrying on any [industry] and every local authority shall affix meters of such standards and
at such places as may be prescribed and it shall be presumed that the quantity indicated by the
meter has been consumed by such person or local authority, as the case may be, until the
contrary is proved.

2. Where any person or local authority fails to affix any meter as required by sub-section (1),
the Central Government shall after notice to such person or local authority, as the case may
be, cause such meter to be affixed and the cost of such meter together with the cost for
affixing the meter may be recovered from such person or local authority by the Central
Government in the same manner as an arrear of land revenue.
Section – 5: - FURNISHING OF RETURNS

3[(1)] Every person carrying on any 1[industry] and every local authority, liable to
pay the cess under section 3, shall furnish such returns, in such form at such intervals and
containing such particulars to such officer or authority, as may be prescribed.

[(2) If a person carrying on any 1[industry] or a local authority, liable to pay the cess
under section 3, fails to furnish any return under sub-section (1), the officer or the authority
shall give a notice requiring such person or local authority to furnish such return before such
date as may be specified in the notice.]

Section -7: - REBATE.

Where any person or local authority, liable to pay the cess under this Act, installs any
plant for the treatment of sewage or trade effluent, such person or local authority shall from
such date as may be prescribed, be entitled to a rebate of twenty-five per cent of the cess
payable by such person or, as the case may be, local authority.
1[Provided that a person or local authority shall not be entitled to a rebate, if he or it

c. Consumes water in excess of the maximum quantity as may be prescribed in

this behalf for any 2[Industry] or local authority; or

d. fails to comply with any of the provisions of section 25 of the Water

(Prevention and control of Pollution) Act, 1974 (6 of 1974) or any of the standards laid down
by the Central Government under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 (29 of 1986).]

Section 10: - INTEREST PAYABLE FOR DELAY IN PAYMENT OF CESS.

If any person carrying on any 1[Industry] or any local authority fails to pay any
amount of cess payable under section 3 to the State Government within the date specified in
the order of assessment made under section 6, such person or local authority, as the case may
be, shall be liable to pay 2[interest on the amount to be paid at the rate of two per cent for
every month or part of a month comprised in the period from the date on which such payment
is due till such amount is actually paid.

Section 11: - PENALTY FOR NON-PAYMENT OF CESS WITHIN THE SPECIFIED

TIME.

If any amount of cess payable by any person carrying on any 1[industry] or any Local
authority under section 3 is not paid to the State Government within the date specified in the
order of assessment made under section 6, it shall be deemed to be in arrears and the
authority prescribed in this behalf may, after such inquiry as it deems fit, impose on such
 person or, as the case may be, Local authority, a penalty not exceeding the amount of cess in
arrears:

Provided that before imposing any such penalty, such person or, as the case may be,
the local authority shall be given as reasonable opportunity of being heard and if after such
hearing the said authority is satisfied that the default was for any good and sufficient reason,
no penalty shall be imposed under this section.

Section 12: - RECOVERY OF AMOUNT DUE UNDER THE ACT.

Any amount due under this Act. (including any interest or penalty payable under
section 10 or section 11, as the case may be) from any person carrying on any 3[industry] or
from any local authority may be recovered by the Central Government in the same manner as
an arrear of land revenue.

Section 15: - OFFENCES BY COMPANIES.

1. Where an offence under this Act. has been committed by a company, every person who, at
the time the offence was committed, was in charge of and was responsible to, the company
for the conduct of the business of the company as well as the company, shall be deemed to be
guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly:

Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such person liable
to any punishment, if he proves that the offence was committed without his knowledge or that
he exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.

2. Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section (1), where an offence under this Act has
been committed by a company and it is proved that the offence has been committed with the
consent or connivance of , or is attributable to any neglect on the part of, any director,
manager, secretary or other officer of the company, such director, manager, secretary or other
officer shall also be deemed to be guilty of that offence and shall be liable to be proceeded
against and punished accordingly.

Explanation: - For the purpose of this section: -

a. "Company" means anybody corporate and includes a firm or other association of individuals;
and

b. "Director", unrelation to firm, means a partner in the firm.

Further in exercise of the powers conferred by sub section (i) of section 16 of the
water (P&C pollution) cess Act. 1977 (36 of 1977) the central Government herby exempts all
industries consuming water less than ten kilo litters per day from the levy of Cess specified in
this notification.

Provided that no such exemption shall be applicable in case of industries generation

"Hazardous wastes" as defined in clause (i) of rule 3 of the Hazardous waste (Management of
Handling) Rules, 1989, made under section 6,8 and 25 of the Environment (Protection) Act,
1986 (29 of 1986

THE PUBLIC LIABILITY INSURANCE ACT, 1991

Liability to give relief in certain cases on principle of no fault. —

(1) Where death or injury to any person (other than a workman) or damage to any property
has resulted from an accident, the owner shall be liable to give such relief as is specified in
the Schedule for such death, injury or damage.
(2) In any claim for relief under sub-section (1) (hereinafter referred to in this Act as claim
for relief), the claimant shall not be required to plead and establish that the death, injury or
damage in respect of which the claim has been made was due to any wrongful act, neglect or
default of any person. Explanation. —For the purposes of this section, — (i) “workman” has
the meaning assigned to it in the Workmen’s Compensation Act, 1923 (8 of 1923); (ii)
“injury” includes permanent total or permanent partial disability or sickness resulting out of
an accident.

Duty of owner to take out insurance policies. —

(1) Every owner shall take out, before he starts handling any hazardous substance, one or
more insurance policies providing for contracts of insurance whereby he is insured against
liability to give relief under sub-section (1) of section 3: Provided that any owner handling
any hazardous substance immediately before the commencement of this Act shall take out
such insurance policy or policies as soon as may be and in any case within a period of one
year from such commencement.
(2) Every owner shall get the insurance policy, referred to in sub-section (1), renewed from
time to time before the expiry of the period of validity thereof so that the insurance policies
may remain in force throughout the period during which such handling is continued. 1 [(2A)
No insurance policy taken out or renewed by an owner shall be for an amount less than the
amount of the paid-up capital of the undertaking handling any hazardous substance and
owned or controlled by that owner, and more than the amount, not exceeding fifty crore
rupees, as may be prescribed. Explanation. — For the purposes of this sub-section, “paid-up
capital” means, in the case of an owner not being a company, the market value of all assets
and stocks of the undertaking on the date of contract of insurance. (2B) The liability of the
insurer under one assurance policy shall not exceed the amount specified in the terms of the
contract of insurance in that insurance policy. (2C) Every owner shall also, together with the
amount of premium, pay to the insurer, for being credited to the Relief Fund established
under section 7A, such further amount, not exceeding the sum equivalent to the amount of
premium, as may be prescribed. (2D) The insurer shall remit to the authority specified in sub-
section (3) of section 7A the amount received from the owner under sub-section (2C) for
being credited to the Relief Fund in such manner and within such period as may be prescribed
and where the insurer fails to so remit the amount, it shall be recoverable from insurer as
arrears of land revenue or of public demand.]
(3) The Central Government may, by notification, exempt from the operation of sub-section
(1) any owner, namely: —
(a) the Central Government;
(b) any State Government;
(c) any corporation owned or controlled by the Central Government or a State Government;
or
(d) any local authority: Provided that no such order shall be made in relation to such owner
unless a fund has been established and is maintained by that owner in accordance with the
rules made in this behalf for meeting any liability under sub-section (1) of section 3.

5. Verification and publication of accident by Collector. —

Whenever it comes to the notice of the Collector that an accident has occurred at any place
within his jurisdiction, he shall verify the occurrence 1.Ins. by Act 11 of 1992, s. 3 (w.e.f. 31-
1-1992). 4 of such accident and cause publicity to be given in such manner as he deems fit for
inviting applications under sub-section (1) of section 6.

Provisions as to other right to claim compensation for death, etc.— (1) The right to claim
relief under sub-section (1) of section 3 in respect of death of, or injury to, any person or
damage to any property shall be in addition to any other right to claim compensation in
respect thereof under any other law for the time being in force. (2) Notwithstanding anything
contained in sub-section (1), where in respect of death of, or injury to, any person or damage
to any property, the owner, liable to give claim for relief, is also liable to pay compensation
under any other law, the amount of such compensation shall be reduced by the amount of
relief paid under this Act.
9.Power to call for information. —Any person authorised by the Central Government may,
for the purposes of ascertaining whether any requirements of this Act or of any rule or of any
direction given under this Act have been compiled with, require any owner to submit to that
person such information as that person may reasonably think necessary.
10. Power of entry and inspection.—Any person, authorised by the Central Government in
this behalf, shall have a right to enter, at all reasonable times with such assistance as he
considers necessary, any place, premises or vehicle, where hazardous substance is handled
for the purpose of determining whether any provisions of this Act or of any rule or of any
direction given under this Act is being or has been compiled with and such owner is bound to
render all assistance to such person.

Offences by companies. —
(1) Where any offence under this Act has been committed by a company, every person who,
at the time the offence was committed, was directly in charge of, and was responsible to, the
company for the conduct of the business of the company, as well as the company, shall be
deemed to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished
accordingly: Provided that nothing contained in this sub-section shall render any such person
liable to any punishment provided in this Act, if he proves that the offence was committed
without his knowledge or that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of
such offence.

(2) Notwithstanding anything contained in sub-section

(1), where an offence under this Act has been committed by a company and it is proved that
the offence has been committed with the consent or connivance of, or is attributable to any
neglect on the part of, any director, manager, secretary or other officer of the company, such
director, manager, secretary or other officer shall also be deemed to be guilty of that offence
and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished accordingly. Explanation. —For the
purposes of this section, —
(a) “company” means anybody corporate and includes a firm or other association of
individuals;
(b) “director,” in relation to a firm, means a partner in the firm.

Offences by Government Departments.—Where an offence under this Act has been

committed by any Department of Government, the Head of the Department shall be deemed
to be guilty of the offence and shall be liable to be proceeded against and punished
accordingly: Provided that nothing contained in this section shall render such Head of the
Department liable to any punishment if he proves that the offence was committed without his
knowledge or that he exercised all due diligence to prevent the commission of such offence.

MANUFACTURE, STORAGE AND IMPORT OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICAL

RULES, 1989 (MSHIC Rule)

General responsibility of the occupier during industrial activity.

(1) This rule shall apply to, -

(a) an industrial activity in which a hazardous chemical, which satisfies any of the criteria
laid down in Part I of Schedule I and is listed in Column 2 of Part II of this Schedule is or
may be involved; and
(b) isolated storage in which there is involved a threshold quantity of a hazardous chemical
listed in Schedule 2 in Column 2 which is equal to or more than the threshold quantity
specified in the Schedule for that chemical in Column 3 thereof.
(2) An occupier who has control of an industrial activity in term of sub-rule (I) shall provide
evidence to show that he has, -
(a) identified the major accident hazards;
(b) taken adequate steps to –
(i) prevent such major accidents and o limit their consequences to persons and the
environment;
(ii) provide to the persons working on the site with the information, training and equipment
including antidotes necessary to ensure their safely.
5. Notification of Major accident.
(1) Where a major accident occurs on a site or in a pipe line, the occupier shall forthwith
notify the concerned authority as identified in Schedule S of that accident, and furnish
thereafter to the concerned authority a report relating to the accidents in instalments, if
necessary, in Schedule 6.
(2) The concerned authority shall on receipt of the report in accordance with sub-rule I of this
rule shall undertake a full analysis of the major accident and send the requisite information to
the Ministry of Environment and Forests through appropriate channel.
(3) Where an occupier has notified a major accident to the concerned authority under
respective legislation, he shall be deemed to have compiled with the requirements as per sub-
rule I of this rule.
6. Industrial activity to which rules 7 to 15 apply.
(1) Rules 7 to 15 shall apply to, -
(a) an industrial activity in which there is involved a quantity of hazardous chemical listed in
Column 2 of Schedule 3 which is equal to or more than the quantity specified in the entry for
that chemical in Columns 3 & 4 (Rules 10-12 only for Column 4) and
(b) isolated storage in which there is involved a quantity of a hazardous chemical listed in
Column 2 of Schedule 2 which is equate to or more than the quantity specified in the entry
for that chemical in Column 1
(2) For the purposes of rules 7 to 15, or
(a) "new industrial activity" means an industrial activity which-
(i) commences after the date of coming into operation of these rules; or
(ii) if commenced before that date is an industrial activity in which a modification has been
made which is likely to cover major accident hazards and that activity shall be deemed to
have commenced on the date on which the modification was made;
(b) an "existing industrial activity" means an industrial activity which is not a new industrial
activity
7. Notification of sites.
(1) An occupier shall not undertake any industrial activity unless he has submitted A written
report to the concerned authority containing the particulars specified in Schedule 7 at least 3
months before commencing that activity or before such shorter time as the concerned
authority may agree and for the purpose of this paragraph an activity in which subsequently
there is or is liable to be a threshold quantity or more of an additional hazardous chemical
shall be deemed to be a different activity and shall be notified accordingly
(2) No report under sub-rule (I) need to be submitted by the occupier if he submits a report
under rule 10(1)
8. Updating of the site notification following changes in the threshold quantity.
Where an activity has been reported in accordance with rule 7(1) and the occupier makes a
change in it (including an increase or decrease in the maximum threshold quantity of a
hazardous chemical to which this rule applies which is or is liable to be at the site or in the
pipeline or at the cessation of the activity, which affects the particulars specified in that report
or any subsequent report made under this rule the occupier shall forthwith furnish a further
report to the concerned authority.
9. Transitional provisions.
(a) at the date of coming into operation of these rules an occupier is in control of an existing
industrial activity which is required to be reported under rule 7(1); or
(b) within 6 months after that date an occupier commence any such new industrial activity; it
shall be a sufficient compliance with that rule if he reports to the concerned authority as per
the particulars in Schedule 7 within 3 months after the date of coming into operation of these
rules or within such longer time as the concerned authority may agree in writing.
10. Safety reports.
(1) Subjects to the following paragraphs of this rule, an occupier shall not undertake any
industrial activity to which this rule applies, unless he has prepared a safely report on that
industrial activity containing the information specified in Schedule 8 and has sent a copy of
that report to the concerned authority at least ninety days before commencing that activity.
(2) In the case of a new industrial activity which an occupier commences, or by virtue of sub-
rule (2) (a) (ii) of rule 6 is deemed to commence, within 6 months after coming into operation
of these rules, it shall be sufficient compliance with sub-rule (I) of this rule if the occupier
sends to the concerned authority a copy of the report required in accordance with that sub-
rule within ninety days after the date of coming into operation of these rules.
(3) In The case of an existing industrial activity, until five years from the date of coming into
operation of these rules, it shall be a sufficient compliance with sub-rule (I) of this rule in the
occupier on or before ninety days from the date of the coming into operation of 1hcse rules
sends to the concerned authority in information specified in Schedule 7 relating to that
activity.
Requirements for further information to be sent to the authority.

(1) Where, in accordance with rule 10, an occupier has sent a safely report relating to
an industrial activity to the concerned authority, the concerned authority may, by a
notice served on the occupier, requires him to provide such additional information as is
specified in the notice and the occupied shall send that information to the concerned
authority within such lime as is specified in The notice or within such extended time as
the authority may subsequently specify

Preparation of on-site emergency plan by the occupier.

(1) An occupier shall prepare and keep up-to-date an on-site emergency plan detailing
how major accidents will be dealt with on the site on which the industrial activity is
carried on and that plan shall include the name of the person who is responsible for
safety on the site and the names of those who are authorised to act in accordance with
the plan in case of an emergency

(2) The occupier shall ensure that the emergency plan prepared in accordance with sub-
rule (I) lakes into account any modification made in the industrial activity and that
every person on the site who is affected by the plan-is informed of its relevant
provisions.

(3) The occupier shall prepare the emergency plan required under sub-rule

(a) in the case of a new industrial activity before that activity is commenced;
(b) in the case of an existing industrial activity within 90 days of coming into operation
of these rules.

Preparation of off-site emergency plan by the authority.

(1) It shall be the duty of the concerned authority as identified in Column 2 of Schedule
5 to prepare and keep up-to-date an adequate off-site emergency plan detailing how
emergencies relating to a possible major accident on that site will be dealt with and in
preparing that plan the concerned authority shall consult the occupier, and such other
persons as it may deem necessary.

(2) For the purpose of enabling The concerned authority to prepare the emergency plan
required under sub-rule (1), the occupier shall provide the concerned authority with
such information relating to the industrial activity under his control as the concerned
authority may require, including the nature, extent and likely effects off-site of possible
major accidents and the authority shall provide the occupier with any information from
the off-site emergency plan which relates to his duties under rule 13.

(3) The concerned authority shall prepare its emergency plan required under sub-rule
(1), -

(a) in the case of a new industrial activity, before that activity is commenced;

(b) in the case of an existing industrial activity, within six months of coming into
operation of these rules.

Information to be given to persons liable to be affected by a major accident.

(1) The occupier shall take appropriate steps to inform persons outside the site either
directly or through District Emergency Authority who are likely to be in an area which
may be affected by a major accident about-

(a) the nature of the major accident hazard; and

(b) the safety measures and the "Do’s’ and ‘Don’ts" which should be adopted in the
event of a major accident

(2) The occupier shall take the steps required under sub-rule (I) to inform persons about
an industrial activity, before that activity is commenced, except, in the case of an
existing industrial activity in which case the occupier shall comply with the
requirements of sub-rule (I) within 90 days of coming into operation of these rules.

Disclosures of information.

(1) Where for the purpose of evaluating information notified under rule 5 or 7 to 15,
the concerned authority discloses that information to some other person that other
person shall not use that information for any purpose except for the purpose of the
concerned authority disclosing it, and before disclosing the information the concerned
authority shall inform that other person of his obligations under this paragraph.
Collection, Development and Dissemination of Information.

(1) This rule shall apply to an industrial activity in which a hazardous chemical which
satisfies any of the criteria laid down in part I of Schedule I and is listed in Column 2
of Part II of this Schedule is or may be involved.

(2) An occupier, who has control of an industrial activity in term of sub-rule 1 of this
rule, shall arrange to obtain or develop information in the form of safety data sheet as
specified in Schedule 9. The information shall be accessible upon request for reference.

(3) The occupier while obtaining or developing a safety data sheet as specified in
Schedule 9 in respect of a hazardous chemical handled by him shall ensure that the
information is recorded accurately and reflects the scientific evidence used in making
the hazard determination. In case, any significant information regarding hazard of a
chemical is available, it shall be added to the material safety data sheet as specified in
Schedule 9 as soon as practicable.

(4) Every container of a hazardous chemical shall be clearly labelled or marked to

identify, -

(a) the contents of the container,

(b) the name and address of manufacturer or importer of the hazardous chemical;

(c) the physical, chemical and toxicological data as per the criteria given at Part I of
Schedule 1.

(5) In terms of sub-rule 4 Of this rule where it is impracticable to label a chemical in

view of the size of the container or the nature of the package, provision should be made
for other effective means like tagging or accompanying documents.

Import of hazardous chemicals

(1) This rule shall apply to a chemical which satisfies any of the criteria laid down in
Part I of Schedule I and is listed in Column 2 of Part II of this Schedule.

(2) Any person responsible for importing hazardous chemicals in India shall provide at
the time of import or within thirty days from the date of import to the concerned
authorities as identified in Column 2 of Schedule 5 the information pertaining to-

(i) the name and address of the person receiving the consignment in India;

(ii) the port of entry in India;

(iii) mode of transport from the exporting country to India

(iv) The quantity of chemical(s) being imported; and

 (v) complete product safety information.

(3) If the concerned authority at the State is satisfied that the chemical being imported
is likely to cause major accident, it may direct the importer to take such steps including
stoppage of such imports as the concerned authority at the State may deem it
appropriate.

(4) The concerned authority at the State shall simultaneously inform the concerned Port
Authority to take appropriate steps regarding safe handling and storage of hazardous
chemicals while off-loading the consignment with the port premises.

(5) Any person importing hazardous chemicals shall maintain the records of the
hazardous chemicals imported as specified in Schedule 10 and the records so
maintained shall be open for inspection by the concerned authority at the State or the
Ministry of Environment and Forests or any officer appointed by them in this behalf.

(6) The importer of the hazardous chemical of a person working on his behalf shall
ensure that transport of hazardous chemicals from port of entry to the ultimate
destination is in accordance with the Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989 framed under
the provisions of the Motor Vehicles Act, 198

ROLE OF CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD, STATE POLLUTION

CONTROL BOARDS

The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 has been enacted for the purpose
of prevention and control of water pollution. “It came into being at a time when the country
had already prepared itself for industrialization and urbanization. The need was keenly felt
for the treatment of domestic and industrial effluents, before they were discharged into rivers
and streams.” The availability of clean drinking water was becoming a rare phenomenon due
to unrestricted and ever-growing pollution of streams, rivers and other water sources. It was
therefore, expedient to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the
maintaining or restoring of the wholesomeness of water. In order to achieve this object, the
Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 provides for the establishment of
Central and State Pollution Control Boards and enumerates the powers and functions of such
Boards.1 The Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 represents India’s first
real attempt to comprehensively deal with an environmental issue. Water is a subject
mentioned in Entry 17, List II of the Seventh Schedule, i.e. a State subject. Thus, the Union
Government had to enact the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 under
the provisions of article 252(1) of the Constitution, which permits the Central Government to
enact laws on subjects exclusively within state domain, if it can garner consent from two or
more states.
An act to provide for the prevention and control of water pollution and the maintaining or
restoring of wholesomeness of water, for the establishment, with a view to carrying out the
purposes aforesaid, of Boards for the prevention and control of water pollution, for conferring
on and assigning to such Boards powers and functions relating thereto and for matters
connected therewith.

The statement of objects and reasons of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,
1974 states that the problem of pollution of rivers and streams has assumed considerable
importance and urgency and it seeks to ensure that the domestic and industrial effluents are
not allowed to be discharged into water courses without adequate treatment

FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD

The mandate of the Central Pollution Control Board is to set environmental standards in
India, lay down ambient standards and coordinate the activities of State Pollution Control
Boards.

FUNCTIONS OF CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD

The mandate of the Central Pollution Control Board is to set environmental standards in
India, lay down ambient standards and coordinate the activities of State Pollution Control
Boards.

According to section 16 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, the
Central Board has been assigned to discharge the functions as follows:
(a) Advise the Central Government the Central Pollution Control Board can advise the
Central Government on any matter concerning the prevention and control of water pollution.
(b) Co-Ordination with State Board Central Pollution Control Board is to Co-ordinate the
activities of the State Boards and resolve dispute among them.
(c) Technical Assistance/Guidance to State Boards Central Pollution Control Board is to
provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and sponsor
investigations and research relating to problem of water pollution and prevention, control or
abatement of water pollution.
(d) Training Programme Central Pollution Control Board is to plan and organize the training
of persons engaged or to be engaged in programmes for the prevention, control or abatement
of water pollution.
(e) Organising Comprehensive Programme Central Pollution Control Board is to organise
through mass media a comprehensive programme regarding the prevention and control of
water pollution. Role of Central Pollution Control Board, State Pollution Control Board and
NGOs 115
(f) Functions as State Board by the Amending Act, 1988, the Central Board can perform such
of the functions of any State Board as may be specified in an order made under section 18(2)
of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 i.e., “power to give directions”-
“every State Board shall be bound by such directions in writing as the Central Government or
the State Government may give to it.
(g) Publication of Statistical/Technical Data Central Pollution Control Board is to Collect,
compile and publish technical and statistical relating to water pollution and the measures
devised for its effective prevention and control and prepare manuals, codes or guides relating
to treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents and disseminate information
connected therewith.
(h) Laying Down Standard for A Stream/Well Central Pollution Control Board is to lay
down, modify or annul, in consultation with the State Government concerned the standards
for a stream or well. (i) Execution of Programme at National Level Central Pollution Control
Board is to plan and cause to be executed by a nationwide programme for the prevention,
control or abatement of water pollution.

FUNCTIONS OF STATE POLLUTION CONTROL BOARDS

In terms of section 17 of the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974, the State
Board has to perform the following functions
(a) Planning Comprehensive Programme, The State Pollution Control Board is to plan a
comprehensive programme for the prevention, control or abatement of pollution of streams
and wells in the state and to secure the execution thereof.
(b) Advisory functions The State Pollution Control Board is to advise the state government
on any matter concerning the prevention, control or abatement of water pollution.
(c) Dissemination of Information the State Pollution Control Board is to collect and
disseminate information relating to water pollution and the prevention, control or abatement
thereof.
(d) Investigation and research The State Pollution Control Board is to encourage, conduct and
participate in investigation and research relating to problems of water pollution and
prevention, control or abatement of water pollution.
(e) Organising training programme The State Pollution Control Board is to collaborate with
the Central Board in organising the training of persons engaged in programmes relating to
prevention, control or abatement of water pollution and to organise mass education
programmes relating
(f) Inspection of sewage/trade effluents plants The State Pollution Control Board is to inspect
sewage or trade effluents works and plants for the treatment of sewage and trade effluents,
and to review plans, specifications or other data relating to plants setup for the treatment of
water, works for the purification thereof and the system of the disposal of sewage or trade
effluents or in connection with the grant of any consent as required by the Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974.
(g) Lay down Standards for Causing Discharge of Water the State Pollution Control Board is
to lay down, modify or annul effluents standards for the sewage and trade effluents and for
the quality of receiving waters resulting from the discharge of effluents and to classify water
of the state.
(h) Economical Methods of Treatment of Sewage the State Pollution Control Board is to
evolve economical and reliable methods of treatment of sewage and trade effluents, having
regard to the peculiar conditions of soil, climate and water resources in different regions. (i)
Methods Regarding Utilization of Sewage the State Pollution Control Board is to evolve
methods of utilization of sewage and suitable trade effluents in agriculture.
(j) Methods of Disposal of Sewage the State Pollution Control Board is to evolve efficient
methods of disposal of sewage and trade effluents on land, as are necessary on account of the
predominant scant stream flows that do not provide for major part of the year, the minimum
degree of dilution. (k) Laying Down Standards for Treatment of Sewage the State Pollution
Control Board is to lay down the standards of treatment of sewage and trade effluents to be
discharged into any particular stream considering the minimum fair-weather dilution
available in that stream and the tolerance limits of pollution permissible in the water of the
streams after the discharge of suit effluents. (l) Advisory Functions the State Pollution
Control Board is to advise the state government about the location of any industry the
carrying out of which is likely to pollute a stream or well Besides the aforesaid statutory
functions, the State Board is also to perform functions as may be prescribed from time to
time, or may be entrusted to it by the Central Pollution Control Board or the State
Government.1

POWERS OF THE CENTRAL POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD

The Central Pollution Control Board is vested with the following powers:
1. The Central Pollution Control Board is empowered by Section 18 of the Water (Prevention
and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 to give directions to the State Pollution Control Boards.
2. The Central Pollution Control Board has powers to perform any of the functions of the
State Pollution Control Board in case of non-compliance of any directions given by the
Central Pollution The Central Pollution Control Board is empowered to issue directions under
section 33A of Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 to direct the closure,
prohibition or regulation of any industry, operation or process or the stoppage or regulation of
supply of electricity, water or any other service.

POWERS OF STATE POLLUTION CONTROL BOARD

The State Pollution Control Board has the following powers conferred on it by the Water
(Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974:
1. Power to obtain information (Section 20)
2. Power to take samples of effluents for analysis (Section 21)
3. Power of entry and inspection (Section 23)
4. Power to impose restriction on new outlets and new discharges (Section 25)
5. Power to refuse or withdraw consent for the establishment of any industry, etc. (Section
27)
6. Power to carry out certain works (Section 30)
7. Power to carry out emergency operations in case of pollution of stream or well (Section
32)
8. Power to make applications to the courts for restraining apprehended pollution of water in
streams or wells (Section 33)
9. Power to give directions (Section 33A)

Environmental Monitoring:

It involves the collection of one or more measurements that are used to assess the status of an
environment. However, the goals, sample collection strategies, and methods of analysis used
in monitoring must be well defined in advance to obtain robust results. In the preparation of a
sampling plan, goals, strategies, and methods must be considered in conjunction with an
understanding of the target environment, including the physical, chemical, and biological
variables and processes involved. Existing knowledge of the environment is used to help
develop the monitoring plan. Box 2.1 lists general definitions of the three components
associated with environmental monitoring. The reader may find these definitions self-evident,
but each component must be carefully considered in relation to the others, if environmental
monitoring efforts are to succeed.

Monitoring of atmosphere and water environment through air and wateranalysisto

manage,control andtreat thepollution issue in order to ensure the safety ofpeople
andtheenvironment.

Today, with the boomofthesocio-economic development, educational level, theneed for

agreen clean-living environment is increasing. However, thisis no longer aneedto
beeasilymet because the environmental pollution becomes an alerted global issue due to
the large amount of wastes discharged by the plants, factories, powerindustry, mining
industry, cement industry, shipbuilding and other industrial sectors. The wastes can be
biodegradable or cannot be destroyed within the next few hundred years. It is evident
that anthropogenicair pollution, both indoor air pollution and outdoor air pollution, is one
ofthe mostimportant issuesthat affectdevelopment in the world. The World
HealthOrganization (WHO) estimated that every year about 2.4 million people die
prematurelybecause of fine particles
when exposing to air pollution (WHO, 2002; WHO, 2006). The degradation of water
quality caused by human activities has harmful effects on human and ecosystemhealth. In
the developing countries every year threemillion people die from water-borne diseases
(IPCC, 2007).
The situation of global warming is evident due to theemission of airpollutants especially
the greenhouse gases such as CO2and CH4. These kinds of gasesare causingclimate
change because of their long atmospheric lifetime and trapping theheat in the atmosphere.
Global climate change affects human activities on land and the associated water run-of
caused bychange of precipitation patternscontributing to degraded water quality.

ENVIRONMENTAL COMPONENTS OF MONITORING

The five spheres of the Earth System include the atmosphere, hydrosphere, biosphere,
lithosphere, and cryosphere (De Blip et al., 2005). This concept is illustrated in Figure 1.
Environmental monitoring can be conducted on biotic and abiotic components of any of these
spheres, and can be helpful in detecting baseline patterns and patterns of change in the inter
and intra process relationships between and within these spheres. The interrelated processes
that occur between the five spheres are characterized as physical, chemical, and biological
processes. The sampling of air, water, and soil through environmental monitoring can
produce data that can be used to understand the state and composition of the environment and
its processes (Arriola et al., 2004; Wiersma, 2004). Environmental monitoring uses a variety
of equipment and techniques depending on the focus of the monitoring. For example, surface
water quality monitoring can be measured using remotely deployed instruments, handheld in-
situ instruments, or through the application of biomonitoring in assessing the benthic macro
invertebrate community (CBEMN, 2010). In addition to techniques and instruments that are
used during field work, remote sensing and satellite imagery can also be used to monitor
larger scale parameters such as air pollution plumes or global sea surface temperatures

Air Pollution:

Air pollution has significant influence on the concentration of constituents in the atmosphere
leading to effects like global warming and acid rains. To avoid such adverse imbalances in
the nature, an air pollution monitoring system is utmost important. This paper attempts to
develop an effective solution for pollution monitoring using wireless sensor networks (WSN)
on a real time basis namely real time wireless air pollution monitoring system. Commercially
available discrete gas sensors for sensing concentration of gases like CO and CO2 are
calibrated using appropriate calibration technologies. These pre-calibrated gas sensors are
then integrated with the wireless sensor motes for field deployment at the campus and the
Coimbatore city using multi hop data aggregation algorithm. A light weight middleware and
a web interface to view the live pollution data in the form of numbers and charts from the test
beds was developed and made available from anywhere on the internet Other parameters like
temperature and humidity were also sensed along with gas concentrations to enable data
analysis through data fusion techniques. Experimentation carried out using the developed
wireless air pollution monitoring system under different physical conditions show that the
system collects reliable source of real time fine-grain pollution data.

Existing Methods
Some of the existing instruments for air pollution monitoring are Fourier transform infrared
(FTIR) instruments, gas chromatographs and mass spectrometers. These instruments provide
fairly accurate and selective gas readings. A gas sensor that is compact, robust with versatile
applications and low cost could be an equally effective alternative. Some of the gases
monitoring technologies are electrochemical, infrared, catalytic bead, photo ionization and
solid-state. The existing monitoring system largely uses smart transducer interface module
(STIM) with semiconductor gas sensors which uses the 1451.2 standard. STIM was found to
an efficient monitoring system but for the power requirements and ability to expand for large
deployment. One of the large-scale sensor networks for monitoring and forecasting is
Environment Observation and Forecasting System (EOFS). Air pollution monitoring system
based on geo sensor network with control action and adaptive sampling rates proposed in also
cannot be vast deployment due to high cost.

Proposed Method:
Now in this project we are using locally available gas sensor for observing the polluted gases
like Carbon monoxide (CO), Carbon dioxide (CO2) and parameters like temperature,
humidity. By using this method people can view the level of pollution through wireless
system. It reduced cost, reliable and comfortable for any place where we are monitoring the
gases.

Carbon Monoxide (Co):

Nature and Sources of the Pollutant
Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless and poisonous gas formed when carbon in fuels
is not burned completely. It is a by-product of highway vehicle exhaust, which contributes
about 60 percent of all CO emissions nationwide. In cities automobile exhaust can cause as
much as 95 percent of all CO emissions. These emissions can result in high concentrations of
CO particularly in local areas with heavy traffic congestion. Other sources of CO emissions
include industrial processes and fuel combustion in sources such as boilers and incinerators.
Despite an overall downward trend in concentrations and emissions of CO some metropolitan
areas still experience high levels of CO.

Health and Environmental Effects:

Carbon monoxide enters the bloodstream and reduces oxygen delivery to the body's organs
and tissues. The health threat from exposure to CO is most serious for those who suffer from
cardiovascular disease. Healthy individuals are also affected but only at higher levels of
exposure. Exposure to elevated CO levels is associated with visual impairment, reduced work
capacity, reduced manual dexterity, poor learning ability and difficulty in performing
complex tasks. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)'s health-based national air quality
standard for CO is 9 parts per million (ppm) measured as an annual second-maximum 8-hour
average concentration.

Trends in Carbon Monoxide Level:

Long-term improvements continued between 1986 and 1995. National average CO
concentrations decreased 37 percent while CO emissions decreased 16 percent. Long-term air
quality improvement in CO occurred despite a 31 percent increase in vehicle miles travelled
in the U.S. during the past 10 years. Between 1994 and 1995, national average CO
concentrations decreased 10 percent, while total CO emissions decreased 7 percent.
Transportation sources (includes highway and off-highway vehicles) now account for 81
percent of national total CO emissions

Water monitoring
Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics
of water.[1] It is a measure of the condition of water relative to the requirements of one or
more biotic species and or to any human need or purpose.[2] It is most frequently used by
reference to a set of standards against which compliance, generally achieved
through treatment of the water, can be assessed. The most common standards used to assess
water quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human contact, and drinking water.
The water continuous automatic monitoring is mainly located in the river basin, major river
systems. There are 3 stations in operation in Vietnam for monitoring Hueriver, Red river and
Mekong river; and 6 stations ininstallation (EMC, 2012). By August 2011, there were118 of
total 174 industrial zones went into constructionand operation of central wastewater treatment
plants.

Industrial and domestic use

Dissolved minerals may affect suitability of water for a range of industrial and domestic
purposes. The most familiar of these is probably the presence of ions of calcium (Ca2+)
and magnesium (Mg2+) which interfere with the cleaning action of soap, and can form
hard sulphate and soft carbonate deposits in water heaters or boilers Hard water may be
softened to remove these ions. The softening process often substitutes sodium cations.[9] Hard
water may be preferable to soft water for human consumption, since health problems have
been associated with excess sodium and with calcium and magnesium deficiencies. Softening
decreases nutrition and may increase cleaning effectiveness. Various industries' wastes and
effluents can also pollute the water quality in receiving bodies of water
HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND WATER POLLUTION
Human activities can modify water quality in two ways. First, water quality is changed when
we add pollutants, including: • sediment from erosion; • nutrients from fertilizer and animal
waste; • heat from paved surfaces and industrial processes; • faecal bacteria from sewage,
farm animals, pets; • industrial chemicals; • heavy metals (includes lead, mercury, and
cadmium from industrial sources, mining, and smelting); • household cleaners; • oil and
gasoline; • litter and debris; • chemicals from the air; and • pesticides.
The second way we impact water quality is by changing ecological processes that naturally
purify water. Healthy aquatic ecosystems (wetlands, streams, bays, and oceans) all have
natural processes that purify water of wastes. For example, microorganisms decompose
organic wastes into nutrients that can be absorbed by plants. Wetlands act as natural filtering
systems as they trap sediment, thereby preventing sediment from reaching streams. Wetlands
also promote the decomposition of some toxic substances and waste. Healthy riparian
(streamside) areas also help naturally purify water. As long as streams and rivers are not
overloaded with wastes, they can use their natural recovery processes of dilution and bacterial
decay. But slowly degradable and nondegradable pollutants, like mercury, PCBs, and some
pesticides, cannot be eliminated by these natural processes. Mercury cannot ever be
degraded, even over thousands of years. Virginia's Department of Health advises people to
restrict or avoid eating fish from some rivers in Virginia due to mercury and PCB pollution.
FACTORS RELATED TO WATER POLLUTION
There are many factors related to water pollution, including the number of people living in a
watershed, how the land is used (agriculture, forested, urbanized, etc.), and the everyday
behaviour of the population. Many things we do every day can have an impact on water
quality. Human activities, such as urbanization, dam construction, forestry practices,
agricultural development, and roadbuilding, have a profound effect on the quality of our
water. When we fertilize our lawns, use pesticides, drive our cars, or use toxic chemicals we
have the potential to add pollution to surface water and groundwater. Whether we make our
living from mining,
WATER QUALITY MONITORING
5/9 forestry, farming, or construction, we have the capacity to add nutrients, sediments,
toxics, minerals, or acids to lakes and streams. Every land-use decision we make can either
improve water quality, or diminish it. Other pollutants enter water from atmospheric
deposition – when pollutants in the air fall on the land or water. Nitrogen is one of the most
common air deposition pollutants. In fact, according to the Alliance for the Chesapeake Bay,
it is estimated that roughly a quarter of the nitrogen entering the Chesapeake Bay is from air
sources. While there are some natural sources of emissions, most of these air-borne pollutants
come from fossil fuel burning, industrial processes, cars and other forms of transportation,
and fertilizer.

Environmental water quality, also called ambient water quality, relates to water bodies
such as lakes, rivers, and oceans. Water quality standards for surface waters vary significantly
due to different environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended human uses. Toxic
substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present a health hazard for
non-drinking purposes such as irrigation, swimming, fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial
uses. These conditions may also affect wildlife, which use the water for drinking or as a
habitat. Modern water quality laws generally specify protection of fisheries and recreational
use and require, as a minimum, retention of current quality standards.
There is some desire among the public to return water bodies to pristine, or pre-industrial
conditions. Most current environmental laws focus on the designation of particular uses of a
water body. In some countries these designations allow for some water contamination as long
as the particular type of contamination is not harmful to the designated uses. Given the
landscape changes (e.g., land development, urbanization, clearcutting in forested areas) in
the watersheds of many freshwater bodies, returning to pristine conditions would be a
significant challenge. In these cases, environmental scientists focus on achieving goals for
maintaining healthy ecosystems and may concentrate on the protection of populations
of endangered species and protecting human health.
Solid Waste Management:

Solid-waste management, the collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material that is
discarded because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful. Improper disposal of
municipal solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, and these conditions in turn can lead
to pollution of the environment and to outbreaks of vector-borne disease—that is, diseases
spread by rodents and insects. The tasks of solid-waste management present complex
technical challenges. They also pose a wide variety of administrative, economic, and social
problems that must be managed and solved.

Developments in waste management

A technological approach to solid-waste management began to develop in the latter part of

the 19th century. Watertight garbage cans were first introduced in the United States, and
sturdier vehicles were used to collect and transport wastes. A significant development in
solid-waste treatment and disposal practices was marked by the construction of the first
refuse incinerator in England in 1874. By the beginning of the 20th century, 15 percent of
major American cities were incinerating solid waste. Even then, however, most of the largest
cities were still using primitive disposal methods such as open dumping on land or in water.

Technological advances continued during the first half of the 20th century, including the
development of garbage grinders, compaction trucks, and pneumatic collection systems. By
mid-century, however, it had become evident that open dumping and improper incineration of
solid waste were causing problems of pollution and jeopardizing public health. As a
result, sanitary landfills were developed to replace the practice of open dumping and to
reduce the reliance on waste incineration. In many countries waste was divided into two
categories, hazardous and non-hazardous, and separate regulations were developed for their
disposal. Landfills were designed and operated in a manner that minimized risks to public
health and the environment. New refuse incinerators were designed to recover heat energy
from the waste and were provided with extensive air pollution control devices to satisfy
stringent standards of air quality. Modern solid-waste management plants in most developed
countries now emphasize the practice of recycling and waste reduction at the source rather
than incineration and land disposal.

Solid-Waste Collection

Collecting and transporting

Proper solid-waste collection is important for the protection of public health, safety, and
environmental quality. It is a labour-intensive activity, accounting for approximately three-
quarters of the total cost of solid-waste management. Public employees are often assigned to
the task, but sometimes it is more economical for private companies to do the work under
contract to the municipality or for private collectors to be paid by individual home owners. A
driver and one or two loaders serve each collection vehicle. These are typically trucking of
the enclosed, compacting type, with capacities up to 30 cubic metres (40 cubic yards).
Loading can be done from the front, rear, or side. Compaction reduces the volume of refuse
in the truck to less than half of its loose volume.

The task of selecting an optimal collection route is a complex problem, especially for large
and densely populated cities. An optimal route is one that results in the most efficient use of
labour and equipment, and selecting such a route requires the application of computer
analyses that account for all the many design variables in a large and complex network.
Variables include frequency of collection, haulage distance, type of service, and climate.
Collection of refuse in rural areas can present a special problem, since the population
densities are low, leading to high unit costs.

Refuse collection usually occurs at least once per week because of the rapid decomposition of
food waste. The amount of garbage in the refuse of an individual home can be reduced by
garbage grinders, or garbage disposals. Ground garbage puts an extra load on sewerage
systems, but this can usually be accommodated. Many communities now conduct source
separation and recycling programs, in which homeowners and businesses separate recyclable
materials from garbage and place them in separate containers for collection. In addition, some
communities have drop-off centres where residents can bring recyclables.

1.5 Transfer stations

If the final destination of the refuse is not near the community in which it is generated, one or
more transfer stations may be necessary. A transfer station is a central facility where refuse
from many collection vehicles is combined into a larger vehicle, such as a tractor-trailer unit.
Open-top trailers are designed to carry about 76 cubic metres (100 cubic yards) of
uncompacted waste to a regional processing or disposal location. Closed compactor-type
trailers are also available, but they must be equipped with ejector mechanisms. In a direct
discharge type of station, several collection trucks empty directly into the transport vehicle.
In a storage discharge type of station, refuse is first emptied into a storage pit or onto a
platform, and then machinery is used to hoist or push the solid waste into the transport
vehicle. Large transfer stations can handle more than 500 tons of refuse per day.

1.6 Solid-Waste Treatment and Disposal

Once collected, municipal solid waste may be treated in order to reduce the total volume and
weight of material that requires final disposal. Treatment changes the form of the waste and
makes it easier to handle. It can also serve to recover certain materials, as well as heat energy,
for recycling or reuse.
Importance in waste management

In communities where appropriate sites are available, sanitary landfills usually provide the
most economical option for disposal of nonrecyclable refuse. However, it is becoming
increasingly difficult to find sites that offer adequate capacity, accessibility, and
environmental conditions. Nevertheless, landfills will always play a key role in solid-waste
management. It is not possible to recycle all components of solid waste, and there will always
be residues from incineration and other treatment processes that will eventually require
disposal underground. In addition, landfills can actually improve poor-quality land. In some
communities properly completed landfills are converted into recreational parks, playgrounds,
or golf courses.

1.7 Recycling
Separating, recovering, and reusing components of solid waste that may still have economic
value is called recycling. One type of recycling is the recovery and reuse of heat energy, a
practice discussed separately in Incineration. Composting can also be considered a recycling
process, since it reclaims the organic parts of solid waste for reuse as mulch or soil
conditioner. Still other waste materials have potential for reuse. These include paper, metal,
glass, plastic, and rubber, and their recovery is discussed here.

Separation
Before any material can be recycled, it must be separated from the raw waste and sorted.
Separation can be accomplished at the source of the waste or at a central processing
facility. Source separation, also called curb side separation, is done by individual citizens
who collect newspapers, bottles, cans, and garbage separately and place them at the curb for
collection. Many communities allow “commingling” of nonpayer recyclables (glass, metal,
and plastic). In either case, municipal collection of source-separated refuse is more expensive
than ordinary refuse collection.
In lieu of source separation, recyclable materials can be separated from garbage at centralized
mechanical processing plants. Experience has shown that the quality of recyclables recovered
from such facilities is lowered by contamination with moist garbage and broken glass. The
best practice, as now recognized, is to have citizens separate refuse into a limited number of
categories, including newspaper; magazines and other wastepaper; commingled metals, glass,
and plastics; and garbage and other nonrecyclables. The newspaper, other paper wastes, and
commingled recyclables are collected separately from the other refuse and are processed at a
centralized material recycling facility, or MRF(pronounced “murf” in waste-management
jargon). A modern MRF can process about 300 tons of recyclable wastes per day.
At a typical MRF, commingled recyclables are loaded onto a conveyor. Steel cans (“tin” cans
are actually steel with only a thin coating of tin) are removed by an electromagnetic
separator, and the remaining material passes over a vibrating screen in order to remove
broken glass. Next, the conveyor passes through an air classifier, which separates aluminium
and plastic containers from heavier glass containers. Glass is manually sorted by colour, and
aluminium cans are separated from plastics by an eddy-current separator, which repels
the aluminium from the conveyor belt.
Reuse

Recovered broken glass can be crushed and used in asphalt pavement. Colour-sorted glass is
crushed and sold to glass manufacturers as cullet, an essential ingredient in
glassmaking. Steel cans are baled and shipped to steel mills as scrap, and aluminium is baled
or compacted for reuse by smelters. Aluminium is one of the smallest components of
municipal solid waste, but it has the highest value as a recyclable material. Recycling
of plastic is a challenge, mostly because of the many different polymeric materials used in its
production. Mixed thermoplastics can be used only to make lower-quality products, such as
“plastic lumber.”
In the paper stream, old newspapers are sorted by hand on a conveyor belt in order to remove
corrugated materials and mixed papers. They are then baled or loose-loaded into trailers for
shipment to paper mills, where they are reused in the making of more newspaper. Mixed
paper is separated from corrugated paper for sale to tissue mills. Although the processes of
pulping, de-inking, and screening wastepaper are generally more expensive than making
paper from virgin wood fibres, the market for recycled paper should improve as more
processing plants are established.
Rubber is sometimes reclaimed from solid waste and shredded, reformed, and remolded in a
process called devulcanization, but it is usually not as strong as the original material.
Shredded rubber can be used as an additive in asphalt pavements, and discarded tires may be
employed as swings and other recreational structures for use by children in “tire
playgrounds.” In general, the most difficult problem associated with the recycling of any
solid-waste material is finding applications and suitable markets. Recycling by itself will not
solve the growing problem of solid-waste management and disposal. There will always be
some unusable and completely valueless solid residue requiring final disposal.

2 ENVIRONMENT NOISE POLLUTION

1) Definition “Noise is defined as any undesirable human or machine created
noise which disturbs the activity or balance of human or animal life”.
2) Decibel: Decibel is defined as the logarithm to the base 10 to ratio of two
intensities
3) The Intensity of Sound is measured in terms of Sound pressure Level and
common unit is decibel Decibel (dB) = 10 log 10 (I/I0)
Thus, dB measures how much intense is the sound as compared to reference
intensity.
4) A weighing Scale (dB A)
• The sensitivity of human ears depends on the frequency or pitch of the sound.
We hear some frequency better than others. e.g. If a person hears two sounds of
same sound pressure but different intensity one sound may appear louder than
the other. This happens when we hear high frequency much better than lower
frequency noise.
5) Transport sector- aircraft, train, trucks, tractors, cars, three-wheeler and
motorcycle contribute to maximum noise
 Industrial and construction machinery-Factory equipment, generators, Pile
drivers, Pneumatic drills, road roller, and similar machinery
Special events- High volume sound from loudspeaker during pop music
performances, marriage, reception, religious festival, public meetings
6) Effects of noise pollution
I. On physical health

The most direct harmful effect of excessive noise is physical damage to the ear
and the temporary or permanent hearing loss often called a temporary threshold
shift (TTS). People suffering from this condition are unable to detect weak
sounds. However, hearing ability is usually recovered within a month of
exposure. Permanent loss, usually called noise induced permanent threshold
shift (NIPTS) represents a loss of hearing ability from which there is no
recovery. Below a sound level of 80 dBA haring loss does not occur at all.
However temporary effects are noticed at sound levels between 80 and 130
dBA. A sound level of 150 dBA or more can physically rupture the human
eardrum. The degree of hearing loss depends on the duration as well as the
intensity of the noise. For example, 1hour of exposure to a 100-dBA sound level
can produce a TTS that may last for about one day. However, in factories with
noisy machinery workers are subjected to high sound levels for several hours a
day. Exposure to 95 dBA for 8 hours every day for over a period of 10 years
may cause about 15 dBA of NIPTS. In addition to hearing losses excessive
sound levels can cause harmful effects on the circulatory system by raising
blood pressure and altering pulse rates.
II. Effects of noise pollution on mental health

Noise can also cause emotional or psychological effects such as irritability,

anxiety and stress. Lack of concentration and mental fatigue are significant
health effects of noise. It has been observed that the performance of school
children is poor in comprehension tasks when schools are situated in busy areas
of a city and
suffer from noise pollution. As noise interferes with normal auditory
communication, it may mask auditory warning signals and hence increases the
rate of accidents especially in industries. It can also lead to lowered worker
efficiency and productivity and higher accident rates on the job. Thus, noise is
just more than a mere nuisance or annoyance. It definitely affects the quality of
life. It is thus important to ensure mitigation or control of noise pollution
III. Effects of Noise Pollution on Wildlife and Marine Life
Our oceans are no longer quiet. Thousands of oil drills, sonars, seismic
survey devices, coastal recreational watercraft and shipping vessels are
now populating our waters, and that is a serious cause of noise pollution
for marine life. Whales are among the most affected, as their hearing
helps them orient themselves, feed and communicate. Noise pollution
thus interferes with cetaceans’ (whales and dolphins) feeding habits,
reproductive patterns and migration routes, and can even cause
 haemorrhage and death. Other than marine life, land animals are also
affected by noise pollution in the form of traffic, firecrackers etc., and
birds are especially affected by the increased air traffic.

7) Noise Control techniques

There are four fundamental ways in which noise can be controlled: Reduce
noise at the source, block the path of noise, increase the path length and protect
the recipient. In general, the best control method is to reduce noise levels at the
source.

Source reduction can be done by effectively muffling vehicles and machinery to

reduce the noise. In industries noise reduction can be done by using rigid sealed
enclosures around machinery lined with acoustic absorbing material. Isolating
machines and their enclosures from the floor using special spring mounts or
absorbent mounts and pads and using flexible couplings for interior pipelines
also contribute to reducing noise pollution at the source.
However one of the best methods of noise source reduction is regular and
thorough maintenance of operating machinery. Noise levels at construction sites
can be controlled using proper construction planning and scheduling techniques.
Locating noisy air compressors and other equipment away from the site
boundary along with creation of temporary barriers to physically block the noise
can help contribute to reducing noise pollution. Most of the vehicular noise
comes from movement of the vehicle tires on the pavement and wind resistance.
However,
poorly maintained vehicles can add to the noise levels. Traffic volume and
speed also have significant effects on the overall sound. For example, doubling
the speed increases the sound levels by about 9 dBA and doubling the traffic
volume (number of vehicles per hour) increases sound levels by about 3 dBA. A
smooth flow of traffic
also causes less noise than does a stop-and-go traffic pattern. Proper highway
planning and design are essential for controlling traffic noise. Establishing
lower speed limits for highways that pass through residential areas, limiting
traffic volume and providing alternative routes for truck traffic are effective
noise control measures. The
path of traffic noise can also be blocked by construction of vertical barriers
alongside the highway. Planting of trees around houses can also act as effective
noise barriers. In industries different types of absorptive material can be used to
control interior noise. Highly absorptive interior finish material for walls,
ceilings and floors
can decrease indoor noise levels significantly. Sound levels drop significantly
with increasing distance from the noise source. Increasing the path length
between the source and the recipient offers a passive means of control.
Municipal land-use ordinances pertaining to the location of airports make use of
the attenuating effect of distance on sound levels. Use of earplugs and earmuffs
can protect individuals effectively from excessive noise levels. Specially
 designed earmuffs can reduce the sound level reaching the eardrum by as much
as 40 dBA.
However very often workers tend not to wear them on a regular basis despite
company requirements for their use.

Effluent Monitoring:

Effluent Monitoring Systems provide continuous monitoring of compliance

parameters for the purpose of effluent permit reporting purposes or simply self-monitoring
purposes. Our monitoring systems can provide hardcopy recording via strip chart
recorders, or provide electronic data-logging, or retransmit via a network connection. Any
analytical parameter can be monitored including:
 pH (0-14)
 Flow (instant and total)
 Temperature
 Conductivity / Turbidity
 TSS and / or TDS
 Heavy Metals via colorimetric determination including (Fe, Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, Zn, etc.)

Recording Methods can include any conventional data recording device including:
 Circular Chart Recorders
 Strip Chart Recorders
 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems
 PLC retransmission to a Building Monitoring System (BMB).
Local and Remote Monitoring Options:
 Local SCADA system and automated report generation on a daily, weekly, and
monthly basis.
 Remote monitoring, control, and data logging via the Cloud (internet connection
required).
 Automated paging to cell phones of alerts or alarms.
 SCADA System Monitoring
Our final effluent monitoring systems are designed for permit compliance purposes but also
serve well for general system performance monitoring and alarming. For a typical pH
adjustment application most discharge permit requires continuous monitoring of effluent pH
and flow by a system that is independent of the primary pH control system. Our system meets
these requirements and more. Additionally, we can provide remote monitoring via an internet
connection (via the Cloud), electronic data logging, or conventional recording via a circular
chart paper recorder or a strip chart recorder.
In the example above final effluent pH, flow, and temperature are monitored from a pH
neutralization and bio-kill system for a Life Science lab. A SCADA system continuously
monitors the effluent monitoring system as well as the pH and bio-kill systems providing
continuous data monitoring, data logging, and supervisory control over the entire system.

Since the plant is not manned during off hours it is essential to be able to annunciate critical
alarms that directly impact system performance and safety. This is done by a remote paging
system that dials out via the cellular network and sends text messages and alerts to any
number of cell phones programmed into the system.

A composite sampler is provided as required by the discharge permit to collect a 24-hour

composite sample of the effluent stream once / month.

Many variations of the system depicted above are available including small systems that
monitor effluent pH only to systems that measure pH, flow, temperature, and heavy metals.

SCRUBBER SYSTEM

1) Scrubber systems (aka Chemical Scrubbers, Gas Scrubbers) are a diverse

group of air pollution control devices that can be used to remove some
particulates and/or gases from industrial exhaust streams.
2) Scrubber system injects a dry reagent or slurry into a dirty exhaust stream to
"wash out" acid gases. Scrubbers are one of the primary devices that control
gaseous emissions, especially acid gases.
3) Scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery from hot gases by flue-gas
condensation. They are also used for the high flows in solar, PV, or LED
processes.
4) There are several methods to remove toxic or corrosive compounds from
exhaust gas and neutralize it.
5) Combustion: Combustion is sometimes the cause of harmful exhausts, but, in
many cases, combustion may also be used for exhaust gas cleaning if the
temperature is high enough and enough oxygen is available.
6) Wet scrubbing
i. The exhaust gases of combustion may contain substances considered
harmful to the environment, and the scrubber may remove or neutralize
those. A wet scrubber is used for cleaning air, fuel gas or other gases of
various pollutants and dust particles.
ii. Wet scrubbing works via the contact of target compounds or particulate
matter with the scrubbing solution. Solutions may simply be water (for
dust) or solutions of reagents that specifically target certain compounds.
iii. Process exhaust gas can also contain water-soluble toxic and/or corrosive
gases like hydrochloric acid (HCl) or ammonia (NH3). These can be
removed very well by a wet scrubber.

iv. Removal efficiency of pollutants is improved by increasing residence time

in the scrubber or by the increase of surface area of the scrubber solution
by the use of a spray nozzle, packed towers or an aspirator. Wet scrubbers
may increase the proportion of water in the gas, resulting in a visible stack
plume, if the gas is sent to a stack.
v. Wet scrubbers can also be used for heat recovery from hot gases by flue-
gas condensation. In this mode, termed a condensing scrubber, water from
the scrubber drain is circulated through a cooler to the nozzles at the top of
the scrubber. The hot gas enters the scrubber at the bottom. If the gas
temperature is above the water dew point, it is initially cooled by
evaporation of water drops. Further cooling cause water vapours to
condense, adding to the amount of circulating water.
vi. The condensation of water releases significant amounts of low temperature
heat (more than 2 gigajoules (560 kWh) per ton of water that can be
recovered by the cooler for e.g. district heating purposes.
vii. Excess condensed water must continuously be removed from the
circulating water. The gas leaves the scrubber at its dew point, so even
though significant amounts of water may have been removed from the
cooled gas, it is likely to leave a visible stack plume of water vapour.
 7) Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization (FGD)
i. Scrubbers or flue gas desulfurization (FGD) systems use chemical and
mechanical processes to remove sulphur dioxide (SO2) from gas produced
by burning coal.
ii. Exhaust gas from a coal-fired unit’s steam generator is routed through
absorber vessels where chemical reactions take place, and SO2 is removed.
The illustration below depicts a limestone forced oxidation FGD system.
iii. In the absorbers flue gas passes through a mixture or slurry of pulverized
limestone and water, which is
sprayed into the flue gas stream.
iv. SO2 reacts with the slurry and
forms calcium sulphate or
gypsum, which is managed in a
landfill or used to produce
drywall.
v. Sulphur dioxide is a gas that
forms when the sulphur in coal is
burned. Sulphur dioxide (SO2)
dissolves easily in water and,
when limestone is present, forms
calcium sulphate or gypsum. SO2
is a precursor of acidic deposition
(acid rain) associated with the
acidification of soils, lakes and
streams.
vi. Current wet scrubber technology can consistently achieve 95% removal of
SO2 from flue gas
vii. An FGD system neither uses nor produces harmful chemicals, but it does
produce a significant amount of a solid waste product. This product is
gypsum, which can be used in drywall or it can be safely managed in a
landfill.
8) Capture Mechanisms
Particulates contact liquid droplets in wet scrubbers through several mechanisms.
Impaction is the primary capture mechanism. When waste gas approaches a water
droplet, it flows along streamlines around the droplet. Particles with sufficient inertial
force maintain their forward trajectory and impact the droplet. Due to their mass,
particles with diameters greater than 10 µm are generally collected using impaction.
Turbulent flow enhances capture by impaction.
Particles dominated by fluid drag forces follow the streamlines of the waste gas.
However, particles that pass sufficiently close to a water droplet are captured by
interception, capture due to the surface tension of the water droplet.
 9) Venturi Scrubbers
i. A venturi scrubber has a “converging-diverging” flow channel. In this type of
system, the cross-sectional area of the channel decreases then increases along
the length of the channel.
Below Figure presents a
venturi scrubber. The
narrowest area is referred
to as the “throat”.
ii. In the converging section,
the decrease in area
causes the waste gas
velocity and turbulence to
increase. The scrubbing
liquid is injected into the
scrubber slightly upstream
of the throat or directly
into the throat section.
iii. The scrubbing liquid is
atomized by the
turbulence in the throat, improving gas-liquid contact.
iv. The gas-liquid mixture then decelerates as it moves through the diverging
section, causing additional particle-droplet impacts and agglomeration of the
droplets. The liquid droplets are then separated from the gas stream in an
entrainment section, usually consisting of a cyclonic separator and mist
eliminator.

10) Scrubberworking principles A scrubber generally consists of: 

The exhaust gas cleaning unit serves as a contact chamber that enables
the exhaust gas stream from an engine or boiler to be intimately mixed with
water, either seawater, freshwater, or both. In the contact chamber, SOx is
converted to sulphuric acid. Due to space and access limitations, the exhaust
gas cleaning units tend to be high up in the ship, in or around the funnel area.
The wash water treatment plant differs by scrubber type and design.
Generally, physical separation techniques are used to capture suspended
solids, if captured. The treatment process typically includes a multicyclone, or
a cyclonic separator similar to that used to separate water from residual fuel
prior to delivery to the engine. Heavier particles may also be trapped in a
settling or sludge tank for disposal.
Sludge handling to retain sludge removed by the wash water treatment process
for disposal shoreside.

11) Dry scrubbers do not use any liquids in process but exhaust gases are cleaned
with hydrated lime-treated granulates. There is not any discharge to the sea
 from the system. As a result of the process a gypsum, which is used to
manufacture wallboard, is generated. An advantage of a dry scrubber is its
lower energy consumption compared to a wet scrubber.
12) SCRUBBER OPERATION Dry scrubbers use granulates with caustic lime
(Ca (OH)2) which reacts with sulphur dioxide (SO2) to form calcium sulphite:
SO2 + Ca (OH)2 → CaSO3 + H2O.
Calcium sulphite is then air-oxidized to form calcium sulphate dehydrate or
gypsum: CaSO3 + ½O2 → CaSO4.
Reaction with sulphur trioxide (SO3) is: SO3 + Ca (OH)2 → CaSO4 + H2O.
Which with water forms: CaSO4 • 2H2O (Gypsum).
A dry scrubber works by feeding dry pellets of hydrated lime treated granulates
through a packed bed absorber. The hydrated lime reacts with the hot exhaust gas
and absorbs the SOx components to form pellets of gypsum.

CHAPTER 3: WASTE MANAGEMENT

1. STATUTORY PROVISION FOR BIO MEDICAL WASTE (BMW)

1) This Bio-Medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2016 rules shall apply to
all persons who generate, collect, receive, store, transport, treat, dispose, or handle bio
medical waste in any form including hospitals, nursing homes, clinics, dispensaries,
veterinary institutions, animal houses, pathological laboratories, blood banks, ayush 2
hospitals, clinical establishments, research or educational institutions, health camps,
medical or surgical camps, vaccination camps, blood donation camps, first aid rooms
of schools, forensic laboratories and research labs.
2) These rules shall not apply to radioactive wastes, hazardous chemicals, solid wastes,
the lead acid batteries, hazardous waste, E-Waste.
3) "bio-medical waste" means any waste, which is generated during the diagnosis,
treatment or immunisation of human beings or animals or research activities
pertaining thereto or in the production or testing of biological or in health camps.
4) major accident means accident occurring while handling of bio-medical waste having
potential to affect large masses of public and includes toppling of the truck carrying
bio-medical waste, accidental release of bio-medical waste in any water body but
exclude accidents like needle prick injuries, mercury spills.
5) Duties of the Occupier
 safe, ventilated and secured location for storage of segregated biomedical
waste in coloured bags or containers in the manner as specified in Schedule I,
 pre-treat the laboratory waste, microbiological waste, blood samples and blood
bags through disinfection or sterilisation on-site in the manner as prescribed
by WHO or NACO
 dispose of solid waste other than bio-medical waste in accordance with the
provisions of respective waste management rules
  provide training to all its health care workers and others, involved in handling
of bio medical waste at the time of induction and thereafter at least once every
year.
 immunise all its health care workers and others, involved in handling of bio-
medical waste for protection against diseases including Hepatitis B and
Tetanus.
 report major accidents including accidents caused by fire hazards, blasts
during handling of biomedical waste.
 establish a system to review and monitor by forming a committee and the
Committee shall meet once in every six months and the record of the minutes
of the meetings of this committee shall be submitted along with the annual
report.
6) Treatment and disposal
 Bio-medical waste shall be treated and disposed of in accordance with
Schedule I, and in compliance with the standards provided in Schedule-II by
the health care facilities and common bio-medical waste treatment facility.
 Waste generated shall be pre-treated by equipment’s like autoclave or
microwave before handing over to common bio-medical waste treatment
facility for treatment, processing and final disposal.
 Treatment equipment’s viz. incinerator, autoclave or microwave, plasma
pyrolysis, shredder and effluent treatment plant.
 The chlorinated plastic bags shall not be used for storing and transporting of
bio-medical waste.
7) Segregation, packaging, transportation and storage
 The bio-medical waste shall be segregated into containers or bags at the point
of generation in accordance with Schedule I
 The vehicles used for transportation of bio-medical waste shall comply with
the conditions if any stipulated by the State Pollution Control Board or
Pollution Control Committee in addition to the requirement contained in the
Motor Vehicles Act, 1988
 Untreated human anatomical waste, animal anatomical waste, soiled waste
and, biotechnology waste shall not be stored beyond a period of forty –eight
hours.

2. E-WASTE MANAGEMENT
1) The e-waste (Management) Rules, 2015 rules shall apply to every manufacturer,
producer, consumer, bulk consumer, collection centres, dealers, e-retailer,
refurbished, dismantler and recycler involved in manufacture, sale, transfer, purchase,
collection, storage and processing of e-waste or electrical and electronic equipment
listed in Schedule I,
2) Collection of e-waste generated during the manufacturing of any electrical and
electronic equipment and channelizing it for recycling or disposal.
3) Obtain the authorization form from the concerned State Pollution Control. form-1
4) Maintain records of the e-waste generated, handled and disposed in Form-2 and make
such records available for scrutiny by the concerned State Pollution Control Board.
5) Fluorescent and other mercury containing lamps, where recyclers are not available,
channelization may be from collection centre to Treatment, Storage and Disposal
Facility.
6) A pre-treatment is necessary to immobilise the mercury and reduce the volume of
waste to be disposed of for disposal in Treatment, Storage and Disposal Facility
7) ensure that no damage is caused to the environment during storage and transportation
of e-waste
8) Every manufacturer, producer, bulk consumer, collection centre, dealer, refurbished,
dismantler and recycler may store the e-waste for a period not exceeding one hundred
and eighty days and shall maintain a record of collection, sale, transfer and storage of
wastes and make these records available for inspection [RULE: 15- procedure for
storage of e-waste]
9) The transportation of e-waste shall be carried out as per the manifest system whereby
the transporter shall be required to carry a document (three copies) prepared by the
sender, giving the details as per Form-6. [RULE: 19- Transportation of e-waste]
10) Provided that the transportation of waste generated from manufacturing or recycling
destined for final disposal to a treatment, storage and disposal facility shall follow the
provisions under Hazardous Wastes (Management, Handling and Transboundary
Movement) Rules, 2008.
11) Storing of E-Waste in landfills - environmental & health hazard
Incineration - environmental & health hazard
Reusing and recycling-limited life span, hazardous in unorganised sector
12) Government assist by encouraging setting up of integrated Transport, Storage and
Disposal Facilities (TSDF) for hazardous waste management on Public Private
Partnership (PPP) mode
13) The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change has notified E-Waste
(Management) Rules, 2016. The rules - for the first time in India - introduced
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).
14) The EPR is an environment protection strategy that makes the producer responsible
for the entire life cycle of the product, especially for take back, recycle and final
disposal of the product.
15) DISPOSING E-WASTE
 Donate working older equipment to schools’ colleges or government entities
in need.
 If PCs are out of order then return it to the manufacturers. (HCL and Wipro in
India have best take back service).
 Send waste goods to authorised recycling facility for proper disposal.
Fig1-WAYS OF TREATING E-
WASTE

Fig 2-FLOWSHEET OF RECYCLER OR RECYCLING UNITS

3. BATTERY WASTE MANAGEMENT

1) The Batteries (Management and Handling) Rules, 2001, shall apply to every
manufacturer, importer, re-conditioner, assembler, dealer, recycler, auctioneer,
consumer and bulk consumer.
2) ‘Battery'- means lead acid battery which is a source of electrical energy and contains
lead metal and 'used batteries' -means used, damaged and old lead acid batteries or
components.
3) Responsibilities of manufacturer, importer, assembler and re-conditioner:
 ensure that used batteries collected are sent only to the registered recyclers
 ensure that necessary arrangements are made with dealers for safe
transportation from collection centres to the premises of registered recyclers
 create public awareness through advertisements, publications, posters or by
other means
4) Responsibilities of consumer or bulk consumer:
  Responsibilities of consumer or bulk consumer to ensure that used batteries
are to disposed properly dealer, manufacturer, importer, assembler, registered
recycler, reconditioned or at the designated collection centres.
5) Duties of Central Pollution Control Board: - The Central Pollution Control Board
shall compile and publish the data received every year from the State Boards. It shall
review the compliance of the rules periodically to improve the collection and
recycling of used. lead batteries and apprise the Ministry of Environment and Forests,
Government of India.
6) Improper handling and recycling of lead would cause risk health of the workers and
environmental impacts in surrounding area. It is therefore essential to ensure that
secondary production of lead is done in environmentally sound manner in the
facilities registered by Central or State Pollution Control Boards.
7) The various steps involved in recycling of Lead bearing Wastes are as follows;
A. Battery-Breaking Processes:
After draining the acid there are two modes of
dismantling/breaking of batteries before battery plates are processed for smelting.
The first mode is manual where the battery is cut from the top, plates are removed
and left-over acid is drained. The second mode is where the battery is mechanically
broken along with the casing.

a. The facilities required for manual dismantling include suction hood, connected to
the pollution control device, arrangement for washing of the plastics component
before being sent for recycling and acidic water neutralization facility. The capacity
for manual breaking of batteries should be restricted to 5000 MTA.

b. Facilities required for mechanical breaking include arrangements for noise control
and dust and fume extraction system and acidic collection / neutralization facilities.

B. Lead-Smelting Processes:
The smelting process to recycle lead scrap requires the use of
Mandir Bhattis and Rotary furnaces sweat furnace etc. The pollution control
system required for both types of furnaces include cooling chambers, cyclone
separators, bag filter, alkaline scrubber followed by exhaust blower and chimney of
30m height (minimum).
C. Lead Sweat Furnaces:
Small amounts of lead are recycled using lead sweat furnaces. Some
major materials that are recycled in sweat furnaces are lead-coated power and
communications cable, lead sheet and pipe, and other products, which contain lead
as a coating or as part of a complex part. The process is executed at relatively lower
temperatures and produces both metal for refining and dross; the dross is recycled to
smelters.
8) The overall process including the streams that are required to be connected to the
requisite Air Pollution Control Devices (APCD). Waste slag should be stored in
impervious pit under a shed and disposed at common HW disposal facilities at regular
 intervals as per Hazardous and other Waste (Management, Handling, Transboundary
Movement) Rules 2008which is superseded by the hazardous and other wastes
(management and Transboundary Movement) rules 2016.

4. HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT

1) The Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary Movement)
Rules, 2016, this rule shall apply to the management of hazardous and other wastes.
2) “Hazardous waste” means any waste which by reason of characteristics such as
physical, chemical, biological, reactive, toxic, flammable, explosive or corrosive,
causes danger or is likely to cause danger to health or environment.
3) “manifest” means transporting document prepared and signed by the sender
authorised in accordance with the provisions of these rules
4) “Recycling” means reclamation and processing of hazardous or other wastes in an
environmentally sound manner for the originally intended purpose or for other
purposes
“Reuse” means use of hazardous or other waste for the purpose of its original use or
other use
“Recovery” means any operation or activity wherein specific materials are recovered.
5) “Transboundary movement” means any movement of hazardous or other wastes from
an area under the jurisdiction of one country to or through an area under the
jurisdiction of another country or to or through an area not under the jurisdiction of
any country, provided that at least two countries are involved in the movement.
6) “Treatment” means a method, technique or process, designed to modify the physical,
chemical or biological characteristics or composition of any hazardous or other waste
so as to reduce its potential to cause harm.
7) management of hazardous and other wastes, an occupier shall follow the following
steps, namely
a) prevention;
b) minimization;
c) reuse;
d) recycling;
e) recovery;
f) utilisation including co-processing;
g) Safe disposal.
8) The hazardous and other wastes generated in the establishment of an occupier shall be
sent or sold to an authorised actual user or shall be disposed of in an authorised
disposal facility.
9) The hazardous and other wastes shall be transported from an occupier’s establishment
to an authorised actual user or to an authorised disposal facility in accordance with the
provisions of these rules.
10) Duties of occupier:
a) Contain contaminants and prevent accidents and limit their consequences on
human beings and the environment.
 b) Provide persons working in the site with appropriate training, equipment and
the information necessary to ensure their safety.
11) Department of Industry in the State or any other government
agency authorised in this regard by the State Government, to ensure earmarking or
allocation of industrial space or shed for recycling, pre-processing and other
utilisation of hazardous.
12) The occupiers of facilities may store the hazardous and other wastes for a period not
exceeding ninety days and shall maintain a record of sale, transfer, storage, recycling,
recovery, pre-processing, co-processing and utilisation of such wastes.
13) The transport of the hazardous and other waste shall be in accordance with the
provisions of these rules and the rules made by the Central Government under the
Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 and the guidelines issued by the Central Pollution Control
Board from time to time in this regard.
14) Disposal of hazardous waste

Historically, some hazardous wastes were disposed of in regular landfills. This

resulted in unfavourable amounts of hazardous materials seeping into the ground.
These chemicals eventually entered to natural hydrologic systems. Many landfills
now require countermeasures against groundwater contamination. For example, a
barrier has to be installed along the foundation of the landfill to contain the hazardous
substances that may remain in the disposed waste. Currently, hazardous wastes must
often be stabilized and solidified in order to enter a landfill and must undergo
different treatments in order to stabilize and dispose them. Most flammable materials
can be recycled into industrial fuel. Some materials with hazardous constituents can
be recycled, such as lead acid batteries.
a) Recycling
Some hazardous wastes can be recycled into new products. Examples may include
lead-acid batteries or electronic circuit boards. When heavy metals in these types
of ashes go through the proper treatment, they could bind to other pollutants and
convert them into easier-to-dispose solids, or they could be used as pavement
filling. Such treatments reduce the level of threat of harmful chemicals, like fly
and bottom ash[citation needed], while also recycling the safe product.
b) Portland cement
Another commonly used treatment is cement based solidification and stabilization.
Cement is used because it can treat a range of hazardous wastes by improving
physical characteristics and decreasing the toxicity and transmission of
contaminants. The cement produced is categorized into 5 different divisions,
depending on its strength and components. This process of converting sludge into
cement might include the addition of pH adjustment agents, phosphates, or
sulphur reagents to reduce the settling or curing time, increase the compressive
strength, or reduce the leach ability of contaminants.
c) Hazardous waste landfill (sequestering, isolation, etc)
Hazardous waste may be sequestered in a hazardous waste landfill or permanent
disposal facility. "In terms of hazardous waste, a landfill is defined as a disposal
 facility or part of a facility where hazardous waste is placed or on land and which
is not a pile, a land treatment facility, a surface impoundment, an underground
injection well, a salt dome formation, a salt bed formation, an underground mine,
a cave, or a corrective action management unit
d) Pyrolysis
Some hazardous waste types may be eliminated using pyrolysis in an ultra-high
temperature electrical arc, in inert conditions to avoid combustion. This treatment
method may be preferable to high temperature incineration in some circumstances
such as in the destruction of concentrated organic waste types, including PCBs,
pesticides and other persistent organic pollutants

5. HAZARDOUS WASTE

1) Hazardous waste is waste that has substantial or potential threats to public health or
the environment.
2) Characteristic hazardous wastes are materials that are known or tested to exhibit one
or more of the following four hazardous traits:
IgnitabilityReactivityCorrosivityToxicity.
3) Hazardous wastes may be found in different physical states such as gaseous, liquids,
or solids. A hazardous waste is a special type of waste because it cannot be disposed
of by common means like other by-products of our everyday lives. Depending on the
physical state of the waste, treatment and solidification processes might be required.
4) Ignitability Wastes that are hazardous due to the ignitability characteristic include
liquids with flash points below 60 °C, non-liquids that cause fire through specific
conditions, ignitable compressed gases and oxidizers
5) Corrosivity Wastes that are hazardous due to the corrosivity characteristic include
aqueous wastes with a pH of less than or equal to 2, a pH greater than or equal to 12.5
or based on the liquids ability to corrode steel.
6) Reactivity Wastes that are hazardous due to the reactivity characteristic may be
unstable under normal conditions, may react with water, may give off toxic gases and
may be capable of detonation or explosion under normal conditions or when heated.
7) Toxicity Wastes that are hazardous due to the toxicity characteristic are harmful when
ingested or absorbed.
8) Listed hazardous waste

F - Waste from nonspecific sources; Examples: Spent solvent wastes Electroplating

wastes

K - Waste from specific sources Examples: Wood Preservation Organic Chemical

Manufacturing

P, U – Commercial Chemical Products

6. TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE

1) The transport of the hazardous and other waste shall be in accordance with the
provisions of these rules and the rules made by the Central Government under the
 Motor Vehicles Act, 1988 and the guidelines issued by the Central Pollution Control
Board from time to time in this regard.
2) Transporters participate in manifest system. Vehicles must be properly marked.
Transporter cannot make decisions on where to deliver waste.
3)

7. MANIFEST SYSTEMS
1) Under rule 19 of The Hazardous and Other Wastes (Management and Transboundary
Movement) Rules, 2016, sender of the hazardous waste shall prepare seven copies of
the manifest in Form 10 comprising of colour code indicated below and all seven
copies shall be signed by the sender.
2) Copy 1 (White) To be forwarded by the sender to the State Pollution Control
Board after signing all the seven copies.
Copy 2 (Yellow) To be retained by the sender after taking signature on it from the
transporter and the rest of the five signed copies to be carried by the transporter.
Copy 3 (Pink) To be retained by the receiver (actual user or treatment storage
and disposal facility operator) after receiving the waste and the remaining four copies
are to be duly signed by the receiver.
Copy 4 (Orange) To be handed over to the transporter by the receiver after
accepting waste.
Copy 5 (Green) To be sent by the receiver to the State Pollution Control Board.
Copy 6 (Blue) To be sent by the receiver to the sender.
Copy 7 (Grey) To be sent by the receiver to the State Pollution Control Board
of the sender in case the sender is in another State
3) The key feature of regulations pertaining to waste transport is the “cradle-to
grave” manifest system, which monitors the journey of hazardous waste from its point
of origin to the point of final disposal. The manifest system helps to eliminate the
problem of midnight dumping.
4) It also provides a means for determining the type and quantity of hazardous waste
being generated, as well as the recommended emergency procedures in case of an
accidental spill.
5) A manifest is a record-keeping document that must be prepared by the generator of
the hazardous waste, such as a chemical manufacturer. The generator has primary
responsibility for the ultimate disposal of the waste and must give the manifest, along
with the waste itself, to a licensed waste transporter.
6) A copy of the manifest must be delivered by the transporter to the recipient of the
waste at an authorized TSDF. Each time the waste changes hands, a copy of the
manifest must be signed. Copies of the manifest are kept by each party involved, and
additional copies are sent to appropriate environmental agencies.
7) In the event of a leak or accidental spill of hazardous waste during its transport, the
transporter must take immediate and appropriate actions, including notifying local
authorities of the discharge.
 8) An area may have to be diked to contain the wastes, and efforts must be undertaken to
remove the wastes and reduce environmental or public health hazards.

8. TREM CARD
1) A Tremcard is a Transport Emergency Card. It must be carried in the cab of the
vehicle that is transporting dangerous goods by road. It contains instructions and
information that the driver can refer to in the event of an incident involving the
hazardous load. TREM Cards list the nature of the carried substances, associated
hazard(s), and what actions should be taken in the event of an emergency. They also
include a contact name and telephone number for the relevant emergency services in
the event of an accident.
2) Transport Emergency Cards must be visible in the vehicle at all times during the
transportation of hazardous substances. Upon delivery, TREM Cards are removed
from view. The consignor is required under regulations to either supply the cards or
give enough information for the operator to obtain the correct ones. However, the
carrier also has a legal obligation to ensure that cards are appropriate to the load.
 TRANSPORT EMERGENCY (TREM) CARD [Form 9]
[To be carried by the transporter during transportation of hazardous and other wastes,
provided
by the sender of waste]
1. Characteristics of hazardous and other wastes:
S. No. Type of Physical Chemical Exposure First Aid
waste properties constituents hazards requirements

2. Procedure to be followed in case of fire:

3. Procedure to be followed in case of spillage/accident/explosion:
4. For expert services, please contact:
(i) Name and Address:
(ii) Telephone No.:

(Name, contact number and signature of sender)

Date……………….
Place……………….

9. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

1) Solid waste is the unwanted or useless solid materials generated from combined
residential, industrial and commercial activities in a given area. It may be categorised
according to its origin (domestic, industrial, commercial, construction or
institutional); according to its contents (organic material, glass, metal, plastic paper
etc); or according to hazard potential (toxic, non-toxin, flammable, radioactive,
infectious etc).
2) Management of solid waste reduces or eliminates adverse impacts on the environment
and human health and supports economic development and improved quality of life.
A number of processes are involved in effectively managing waste for a municipality.
These include monitoring, collection, transport, processing, recycling and disposal.
3) Reduce, Reuse, Recycle
Methods of waste reduction, waste reuse and recycling are the preferred options when
managing waste. There are many environmental benefits that can be derived from the
use of these methods. They reduce or prevent greenhouse gas emissions, reduce the
release of pollutants, conserve resources, save energy and reduce the demand for
waste treatment technology and landfill space. Therefore, it is advisable that these
methods be adopted and incorporated as part of the waste management plan.
4) Waste reduction and reuse
Waste reduction and reuse of products are both methods of waste prevention. They
eliminate the production of waste at the source of usual generation and reduce the
demands for large scale treatment and disposal facilities. Methods of waste reduction
include manufacturing products with less packaging, encouraging customers to bring
their own reusable bags for packaging, encouraging the public to choose reusable
products such as cloth napkins and reusable plastic and glass containers, backyard
composting and sharing and donating any unwanted items rather than discarding
them. All of the methods of waste prevention mentioned require public participation.
In order to get the public onboard, training and educational programmes need to be
undertaken to educate the public about their role in the process. Also, the government
may need to regulate the types and amount of packaging used by manufacturers and
make the reuse of shopping bags mandatory.
5) Recycling refers to the removal of items from the waste stream to be used as raw
materials in the manufacture of new products. Thus, from this definition recycling
occurs in three phases: first the waste is sorted and recyclables collected, the
recyclables are used to create raw materials. These raw materials are then used in the
production of new products. The sorting of recyclables may be done at the source (i.e.
within the household or office) for selective collection by the municipality or to be
dropped off by the waste producer at a recycling centre. The pre-sorting at the source
requires public participation which may not be forthcoming if there are no benefits to
be derived. Also, a system of selective collection by the government can be costly. It
would require more frequent circulation of trucks within a neighbourhood or the
importation of more vehicles to facilitate the collection.
6) Waste Collection
Waste from our homes is generally collected by our local authorities through regular
waste collection, or by special collections for recycling. Within hot climates such as
that of the Caribbean the waste should be collected at least twice a week to control fly
breeding, and the harbouring of other pests in the community. Other factors to
consider when deciding on frequency of collection are the odours caused by
decomposition and the accumulated quantities. Descriptions of the main types of
collection systems are given in the table below.
7) Treatment & Disposal
Waste treatment techniques seek to transform the waste into a form that is more
manageable, reduce the volume or reduce the toxicity of the waste thus making the
waste easier to dispose of. Treatment methods are selected based on the composition,
quantity and form of the waste material. Some waste treatment methods being used
today include subjecting the waste to extremely high temperatures, dumping on land
or land filling and use of biological processes to treat the waste. It should be noted
that treatment and disposal options are chosen as a last resort to the previously
mentioned management strategies reducing, reusing and recycling of waste
8) Thermal treatment
This refers to processes that involve the use of heat to treat waste. Listed below are
descriptions of some commonly utilized thermal treatment processes.
Incineration
Incineration is the most common thermal treatment process. This is the combustion of
waste in the presence of oxygen. After incineration, the wastes are converted to
carbon dioxide, water vapour and ash.
This method may be used as a means of recovering energy to be used in heating or the
supply of electricity. In addition to supplying energy incineration technologies have
the advantage of reducing the volume of the waste, rendering it harmless, reducing
transportation costs and reducing the production of the greenhouse gas methane
Pyrolysis and Gasification
Pyrolysis and gasification are similar processes they both decompose organic waste
by exposing it to high temperatures and low amounts of oxygen. Gasification uses a
low oxygen environment while pyrolysis allows no oxygen. These techniques use heat
and an oxygen starved environment to convert biomass into other forms. A mixture of
combustible and non-combustible gases as well as pyrrolinones liquid is produced by
these processes. All of these products have a high heat value and can be utilised.
9) Dumps and Landfills
10) COMPOSTING
11) Integrated Solid Waste Management
Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) takes an overall approach to creating
sustainable systems that are economically affordable, socially acceptable and
environmentally effective. An integrated solid waste management system involves the
use of a range of different treatment methods, and key to the functioning of such a
system is the collection and sorting of the waste. It is important to note that no one
single treatment method can manage all the waste materials in an environmentally
effective way. Thus, all of the available treatment and disposal options must be
evaluated equally and the best combination of the available options suited to the
particular community chosen. Effective management schemes therefore need to
operate in ways which best meet current social, economic, and environmental
conditions of the municipality.
10. EFFLUENT TREATMENT PLANT
1) ETP (Effluent Treatment Plant) is a process design for treating the industrial waste
water for its reuse or safe disposal to the environment.
 Influent: Untreated industrial waste water.
 Effluent: Treated industrial waste water.
 Sludge: Solid part separated from waste water by ETP.
2) Need of ETP
 To clean industry effluent and recycle it for further use
 To reduce the usage of fresh/potable water in Industries.
 To cut expenditure on water procurement.
 To meet the Standards for emission or discharge
of environmental pollutants from various Industries set by
the Government and avoid hefty penalties.
 To safeguard environment against pollution and contribute in
sustainable development.

3) Design of ETP
 The design and size of the ETP depends upon:
 Quantity and quality of the industries discharge effluent.
 Land availability.
 Monetary considerations for construction, operation & maintenance.
 Area dimension depends on:
  Quality of wastewater to be treated,
 Flow rate
 Type of biological treatment to be used.
 In case of less available land CETP (Common Effluent Treatment
Plant) is preferred over ETP.
4) Treatment Levels & Mechanisms of ETP
 Treatment levels:
 Preliminary
 Primary
 Secondary
 Tertiary (or advanced)
 Treatment mechanisms
 Physical
 chemical
 biological
5) Preliminary Treatment level
Purpose: Physical separation of big sized impurities like cloth, plastics, wood logs,
paper, etc
Common physical unit operations at Preliminary level are:
 Screening: A screen with openings of uniform size is used to remove
large solids such as plastics, cloth etc. Generally maximum 10mm is
used.
 Sedimentation: Physical water treatment process using gravity to
remove suspended solids from water.
 Clarification: Used for separation of solids from fluids.

6) Primary Treatment Level

Purpose: Removal of floating and settleable materials such as suspended
solids and organic matter.
Methods: Both physical and chemical methods are used in this
treatment level.
Chemical unit processes:
Chemical unit processes are always used with physical operations and
may also be used with biological treatment processes.
Chemical processes use the addition of chemicals to the wastewater to
bring about changes in its quality.
Example: pH control, coagulation, chemical precipitation and oxidation.
pH Control:
To adjust the pH in the treatment process to make wastewater pH neutral.
For acidic wastes (low pH): NaOH, Na2CO3, CaCO3or Ca (OH)2.
For alkali wastes (high pH): H2SO4, HCl.
Chemical coagulation and Flocculation:
  Coagulation refers to collecting the minute solid particles dispersed in a liquid
into a larger mass.
 Chemical coagulants like Al2(SO4)3 {also called alum} or Fe2(SO4)3 are
added
to wastewater to improve the attraction among fine particles so that they come
together and form larger particles called flocs.
 A chemical flocculent (usually a polyelectrolyte) enhances the flocculation
process by bringing together particles to form larger flocs, which settle out
more quickly.
 Flocculation is aided by gentle mixing which causes the particles to collide
7) Secondary Treatment Level

Methods: Biological and chemical processes are involved in this level.

Biological unit process
To remove, or reduce the concentration of organic and inorganic compounds.
Biological treatment process can take many forms but all are based around
microorganisms, mainly bacteria.
Aerobic Processes
Aerobic treatment processes take place in the presence of air (oxygen).
Utilizes those microorganisms (aerobes), which use molecular/free oxygen to
assimilate organic impurities i.e. convert them in to carbon dioxide, water and
biomass.
Anaerobic Processes
The anaerobic treatment processes take place in the absence of air (oxygen).
Utilizes microorganisms (anaerobes) which do not require air (molecular/free
oxygen) to assimilate organic impurities.
The final products are methane and biomass.
8) Activated sludge process
9) Tertiary / Advanced Treatment
Purpose: Final cleaning process that improves wastewater quality before it
is reused, recycled or discharged to the environment.
Mechanism: Removes remaining inorganic compounds, and substances,
such as the nitrogen and phosphorus. Bacteria, viruses and parasites,
which are harmful to public health, are also removed at this stage.
Methods:
Alum: Used to help remove additional phosphorus particles and group
the remaining solids together for easy removal in the filters.
Chlorine contact tank disinfects the tertiary treated wastewater by
removing microorganisms in treated wastewater including bacteria,
viruses and parasites.
Remaining chlorine is removed by adding sodium bisulphate just before
it's discharged.
12) ETP Plant Operation
1. Screen chamber:
Remove relatively large solids to avoid abrasion of mechanical equipment’s and
clogging of hydraulic system.
2. Collection tank:
The collection tank collects the effluent water from the screening chamber,
stores and then pumps it to the equalization tank.
3. Equalization tank:
a. The effluents do not have similar concentrations at all the time; the pH will
vary time to time.
b. Effluents are stored from 8 to 12 hours in the equalization tank resulting in a
homogenous mixing of effluents and helping in neutralization.
It eliminates shock loading on the subsequent treatment system.
c. Continuous mixing also eliminates settling of solids within the equalization
tank.
d. Reduces SS, TSS.
4. Flash mixer:
Coagulants were added to the effluents:
 Lime: (800-1000 ppm) To correct the pH up to 8-9
 Alum: (200-300 ppm) To remove colour
 Poly electrolyte: (0.2 ppm) To settle the suspended matters & reduce SS,
TSS.
The addition of the above chemicals by efficient rapid mixing facilitates
homogeneous combination of flocculates to produce microflows.
5. Clarriflocculator:
In the clarriflocculator the water is circulated continuously by the stirrer.
 Overflowed water is taken out to the aeration tank.
 The solid particles are settled down, and collected separately and dried; this
reduces SS, TSS.
  Flocculation provides slow mixing that leads to the formation of macro flocs,
which then settles out in the clarifier zone.
 The settled solids i.e. primary sludge is pumped into sludge drying beds.
6. Aeration tank:
 The water is passed like a thin film over the different arrangements like
staircase shape.
 Dosing of Urea and DAP is done.
 Water gets direct contact with the air to dissolve the oxygen into water.
 BOD & COD values of water are reduced up to 90%.
7. Clarifier:
 The clarifier collects the biological sludge.
 The overflowed water is called as treated effluent and disposed out.
 The outlet water quality is checked to be within the accepted limit as
delineated in the norms of the Bureau of Indian standards.
 Through pipelines, the treated water is disposed into the environment river
water, barren land, etc.
8. Sludge thickener:
 The inlet water consists of 60% water + 40% solids.
 The effluent is passed through the centrifuge.
 Due to centrifugal action, the solids and liquids are separated.
 The sludge thickener reduces the water content in the effluent to 40% water +
60% solids.
 The effluent is then reprocessed and the sludge collected at the bottom.
9. Drying beds:
 Primary and secondary sludge is dried on the drying beds.

11. SEWAGE TREATMENT PLANT

1) OBJECTIVE: The object of sewage treatment is to stabilize the organic matter
present in sewage so as to produce an effluent liquid and a sludge, both of which
can be disposed of into the environment without causing health hazard.
2) Types of contaminants in Sewage:
a) ORGANIC [Biological treatment]
i. Dissolved (For example Sugar, Milk)
ii. Suspended (For example Vegetable matter, Food residue)
b) INORGANIC [Primary treatment]
i. Dissolved (For example Salt)
ii. Suspended (For example Plastic bags, Cans, Fibre, clothes)
3) Pollutants in sewage
  BOD (Bio Chemical Oxygen demand)
The BOD is an important measure of water quality. It is measure of the
amount of oxygen needed by bacteria and other organisms to oxidize the
organic matter present in a water sample over a period of 5 days at 20-
degree C.
 COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand)
COD Measures all organic carbon with the exception of some aromatics
(BENZENE, TOLUENE, PHENOL etc.) which are not completely
oxidized in the reaction.
COD is a chemical oxidation reaction
Ammonia will not be oxidized.
 Total Suspended Solids
Total suspended solids (TSS) include all particles suspended in water
which will pass through a filter.
As levels of TSS increase, a water body begins to lose its ability to
support a diversity of aquatic life.
Suspended solids absorb heat from sunlight, which increases water
temperature and subsequently decreases levels of dissolved oxygen
(warmer water holds less oxygen than cooler water)
4) Waste water Characteristics for Disposal
PH : 6-9
TSS : <50 mg/l
BOD : <30 mg/l
COD : <250 mg/l
Residual chlorine : <1.0 mg/l
Coliform : <10^3 counts/100ml
Waste water Characteristics for Reuse
PH : 6.5-8.5
TSS : <10 mg/l
BOD : <10 mg/l
COD : <150 mg/l
Residual chlorine : <1.0 mg/l
Coliform : <100 counts/100ml (desired nil)

5) Components of Sewage Treatment Plants

1. Pumping of Sewage 3. Secondary treatment
2. Primary Treatment 4.Tertiary Treatment
6) Pumping Station
Receiving Chamber, Coarse Screening, Wet Well (Raw Sewage Sump), Pump
House, Raw Sewage Pumps
7) Primary Treatment
1. Fine Screening This removes large floating, suspended and settleable solids.
 2. Grit Removal: process of removal of inorganic suspended solids using Gravity
separation
3. Primary Clarification

8) Secondary Treatment: -Biological treatment

Sewage Treatment
Method of Treatment- Aerobic, Anaerobic
a) Aerobic-Sewage treatment in the presence of Oxygen-MBBR, SBR-where
aerators/blowers are installed- generally no smell during treatment.
b) Anaerobic-Sewage treatment in the absence of Oxygen UASB No
aerators/blowers are required-foul smell during treatment.
9) VARIOUS SEWAGE TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
1. Activated Sludge Process (ASP)
2. Up flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB)
3. Moving Bed Bio Film Reactor (MBBR)
4. Sequential Batch Reactor (SBR)
Activated Sludge Process (ASP)
10) Activated Sludge Process (ASP)

1. Raw Effluent In 4. Treated water out

2. Aeration 5.Sludge Recirculation
3. Sedimentation 6.Sludge withdrawal

11) Activated Sludge Process (ASP) Technology

An activated sludge plant essentially consists of the following:
a) Aeration tank containing microorganisms in suspension in which reaction
takes place.
b) Activated sludge recirculation system.
c) Excess sludge wasting and disposal facilities.
d) Aeration systems to transfer oxygen
e) Secondary sedimentation tank to separate and thicken activated sludge.
12) Advantages
 Can sustain seasonal variation
 Less land requirement than UASB
Disadvantages
 High energy consumption
 Foaming, particularly in winter season, may adversely
affect the oxygen transfer, and hence performance
 Requires elaborate sludge digestion /drying/disposal
arrangement
 More land requirement than SBR & MBBR
 Nitrogen and Phosphorous removal require additional anoxic tank and > 3
times internal recirculation

13) Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket Reactor (UASB)

 The Up flow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket reactor (UASB) maintains a
high concentration of biomass through formation of highly settle able
microbial aggregates. The sewage flows upwards through a layer of
sludge.
 The sludge in the UASB is tested for pH, volatile fatty acids (VFA),
alkalinity, COD and SS. If the pH reduces while VFA increases, the
sewage should not be allowed into the UASB until the pH and VFA
stabilise.
 The reactor may need to be emptied completely once in five years,
while any floating material (scum) accumulated inside the gas
collector channels may have to be removed every two years to
ensure free flow of gas.
 All V-notches must be cleaned in order to maintain the uniform
withdrawal of UASB effluent coming out of each V-notch. The
irregular flow from each V-notch result in the escape of more solids
washout. Similarly, blocking of the V-notches of the effluent gutters
will lead to uneven distribution of sewage in the reactor
14) Advantages
Requires less power than aerobic processes
Biogas generated can be used as fuel or electricity.
Disadvantages
UASB alone does not treat the sewage to desirable limits, therefore downstream
aerobic treatment is compulsory
Requires very large space due to post treatment Recovery of biogas is not
sufficient to produce substantial electricity in case of municipal

15) MOVING BED BIO REACTOR (MBBR) PROCESS

Moving Bed Bio Reactor (MBBR) process is based on the bio-film of
organisms developed on carrier elements.
This media is floating in the Aeration tank and kept floating by air
from diffusers which are placed at the bottom of tank.
The process is intended to enhance the activated sludge process by
providing greater biomass in aeration tank and thus by reducing
volume of the tank
After aeration tank sedimentation tank is provided for settlement of
sloughed biomass Clear water clarifier overflows from weir and is further
subjected to
disinfection.
16) Sludge Handling
A. Sludge Drying Beds
Objective: Dewatering of sludge
Important Features
Conventional method of sludge drying; No power requirement; Substantial area is
required; Difficult to operate in monsoon; Labour intensive; Manual scrapping
and loading of dried sludge
B. Centrifuge
Objective: Dewatering of sludge @ 95% of the BOD removed in Kg.
Important Features
Advanced method of solid-liquid separation; less area; Power required for
pumping the sludge and operation of centrifuge; less time; efficient dewatering
 17) Tertiary Treatment
It is supplementary to primary and secondary treatment for the purpose of
removing the residual organic and inorganic substances for reuse of effluent
for the purposes of cooling systems, boiler feed, process water etc.

18) Chlorination
Objective: Disinfection of wastewater to kill pathogens
Important Features
- Simple & widely used method of disinfection
- Used for wastewater treatment
19) Other options for disinfection
• Chlorine produces carcinogenic disinfection by-products that are harmful to
human and aquatic life.
• It is banned in developed countries.
• Still used in India as it is cheap
• Other options are;
• Ultra Violet (UV) - like Aqua guard
• Ozone

12. Six R concept

1) Many consumers are trying to think of the environment and sustainability when
they buy things; they are thinking of ‘green’ issues. Designers and manufacturers
are required by law to try to reduce the environmental impact of the products they
create. Six keywords summarise approaches that can be taken by the consumer,
the designer, the manufacturer and the retailer:
 Rethink
 Refuse
 Reduce
 Reuse
 Recycle
 Repair, reprocess,
2) The 6 Rs include: reinvent/rethink, refuse, reduce, reuse/repair, recycle,
replace/rebuy. When we apply the 6 Rs to their lives we promote sustainable
practices. But we must make the conscious effort to do so.
1. Rethink/Reinvent: consider and question consumption habits

To make a difference, people must make a conscious effort to do so. That begins
by questioning our actions. We must ask ourselves, do we really need these
things? Is there another use for this? Can this be recycled? (Green Triangle Blog,
2012). These are just some of the basic questions that we should consider every
day. By investing more time in understanding personal consumption habits,
people will become increasingly self-aware of their effect on the environment.
This self-awareness may influence their behaviours, values and consumption
habits.

2. Refuse: make the choice to not generate waste

The most direct method of reducing the amount of trash is by refusing to

consume. This does not mean to stop generating trash altogether but rather to stop
consuming particular products. A person may decide not to buy certain items that
generate more waste than benefit. For example, a person may feel the need to buy
apples every time he goes to the store. However, he may not eat them and often
they go to waste. Knowing this, one may decide to quit purchasing apples which
will result reduces the amount of waste they produce.

Of course, there are other reasons why people may choose to make a conscious
effort to refrain from buying certain products. A person may decide to refuse a
product either because of the quality, a short shelf life or it cannot be easily
repaired, the company’s ethics, the chemicals involved, and so on. Whatever the
rationale behind declining product purchases the result is less trash. This lifestyle
operates from the value of learning to do without, to make do with what you have.

3. Reduce: make decisions that decrease the amount of waste produced

To cut trash, simply consume less. It is the idea that less is more. We can reduce
the amount of material, toxins and waste sent to landfills through various means:

 Buy only what we need, by avoiding impulse shopping or purchasing too much of
an item.
 Buy reusable or refillable items. An example of this is using a shopping bag rather
than plastic bag, a coffee mug and not wax paper cup.
 Buy in bulk or economy-size. An example of this is by purchasing economy size
cereal bags and not several smaller bags of cereal which would result in more
waste.
 Avoid single-serving sizes. An example of this is by making pudding in a large
bowl rather than purchasing single serving plastic cups of pudding.
 Products with less packaging. An example of this is by selecting a product in a
smaller cardboard box and not a product enclosed in plastic.

4. Re-Use/Repair: expand the shelf-lives of products

 By reusing what you already have or by reinventing new uses for the item, you
can extend the item’s product life. Before rushing out to the store to buy an item
make the decision to buy as a last recourse. For example, we can use pickle
jars for storage rather than buying a brand-new container. It’s the idea of being
creative with the things you have, to extend the life of a product. Even perishable
items can be reused through compost.
 If I no longer have a use for the item I can give away the item instead of throwing
it away. I can donate unwanted equipment, furniture, supplies, clothes to a non-
profit organization, schools, a shelter or charity. Also, I may able to reclaim some
of the value of my items through consignment stores or pawn shops. If there is no
other use for the product, then recycle.

5. Recycle: reclaim the raw materials

By separating items such as aluminium cans and plastic, we can reclaim the raw
materials from these items which would have otherwise been thrown away. While
recycling takes added effort compared to simply throwing the item in the garbage,
there are many benefits in doing so. Recycled materials typically require less
energy to process compared to developing new materials altogether. These items
are not left in the landfill to rot and decompose resulting in reduced air and water
pollution. Helps conserve natural resources and sustain the environment for future
generations. What can be recycled, though? There is an array of items, including
paper, aluminium, yard trimmings, glass, and plastic, used motor oil, steel and
batteries. Consumers can recycle these materials by disposing of them in separate
trash bins at home, work and school. These items can then be dropped off at local
recycling collection sites and processing plants. Many cities, through their
municipality waste management programs, offer curb side recycling option as
well. By taking the time to separate these items, diverting them away from
landfills through recycling, we can cut our impact on the environment.

6. Replace/Rebuy: next time consider recycled and green content

Consumers can promote recycled products by purchasing items that incorporate

recycled materials. We make these items in whole or in part from material
recovered from the waste stream. Consumers can look for labels on packages that
include a percentage of recovered materials. If the demand for these products is
present, businesses have an incentive to continue producing items that are more
 environmentally friendly. In addition, consumers can choose to replace a majority
of their goods with green products. These products often contain fewer harmful
chemicals, reduced emissions in production and/or incorporate renewable
materials into their production. By reviewing green certifications and recovered
material percentage labels, consumers can make better informed buying decisions
that promote sustainable practices.
In order for any change to take place, people must first make a conscious effort to
do so. The final five Rs are dependent on the first, rethinking. It is that moment of
pause, that hesitation to throw out something that still has value; it’s the
recognition of that value that creates change. While it may take practice, as most
habits don’t develop overnight, over time an individual’s conscious efforts may
become part of her character. Living a life that supports sustainable practices may
influence others to do the same as there are many long-term benefits in doing so.
In order to reap the benefits though, it takes the willingness to change for the
better.

CHAPTER 4: GLOBAL WARMING

1. Carbon Emission Atmospheric Gases:

 There are a number of atmospheric gases which make up air. The main gases
are nitrogen and oxygen, which make up 78% and 21% of the volume of air
respectively. Oxygen is utilized primarily by animals, including humans, but also to a
small degree by plants, in the process of respiration (the metabolism of food products
to generate energy). The remaining 1% of the atmospheric gases is made up of trace
gases. These include the noble gases, very inert or non-reactive gases, of which the
most abundant is argon. Other noble gases include neon, helium, krypton and xenon.
 There are both natural and human sources of carbon dioxide emissions. Natural
sources include decomposition, ocean release and respiration. Human sources come
from activities like cement production, deforestation as well as the burning of fossil
fuels like coal, oil and natural gas.
 Due to human activities, the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide has been
rising extensively since the Industrial Revolution and has now reached dangerous
levels not seen in the last 3 million years. Human sources of carbon dioxide emissions
are much smaller than natural emissions but they have upset the natural balance that
existed for many thousands of years before the influence of humans.
 This is because natural sinks remove around the same quantity of carbon dioxide from
the atmosphere than are produced by natural sources. This had kept carbon dioxide
levels balanced and in a safe range. But human sources of emissions have upset the
natural balance by adding extra carbon dioxide to the atmosphere without removing
any.
 Since the Industrial Revolution, human sources of carbon dioxide emissions have
been growing. Human activities such as the burning of oil, coal and gas, as well as
deforestation are the primary cause of the increased carbon dioxide concentrations in
the atmosphere.
 87 percent of all human-produced carbon dioxide emissions come from the burning of
fossil fuels like coal, natural gas and oil. The remainder results from the clearing of
forests and other land use changes (9%), as well as some industrial processes such as
cement manufacturing (4%).
 The 3 types of fossil fuels that are used the most are coal, natural gas and oil. Coal is
responsible for 43% of carbon dioxide emissions from fuel combustion, 36% is
produced by oil and 20% from natural gas.
 Coal is the most carbon intensive fossil fuel. For every tone of coal burned,
approximately 2.5 tons of CO2e are produced. Of all the different types of fossil fuels,
coal produces the most carbon dioxide. Because of this and its high rate of use, coal is
the largest fossil fuel source of carbon dioxide emissions. Coal represents one-third of
fossil fuels' share of world total primary energy supply but is responsible for 43% of
carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel use.
 The three main economic sectors that use fossil fuels are: electricity/heat,
transportation and industry. The first two sectors, electricity/heat and transportation,
produced nearly two-thirds of global carbon dioxide emissions in 2010.
 Apart from being created by human activities, carbon dioxide is also released into the
atmosphere by natural processes. The Earth's oceans, soil, plants, animals and
volcanoes are all-natural sources of carbon dioxide emissions.
 Human sources of carbon dioxide are much smaller than natural emissions but they
upset the balance in the carbon cycle that existed before the Industrial Revolution.
The amount of carbon dioxide produced by natural sources is completely offset by
natural carbon sinks and has been for thousands of years. Before the influence of
humans, carbon dioxide levels were quite steady because of this natural balance.

 42.84% of all naturally produced carbon dioxide emissions come from ocean-
atmosphere exchange. Other important natural sources include plant and animal
respiration (28.56%) as well as soil respiration and decomposition (28.56%). A minor
amount is also created by volcanic eruptions (0.03%).
Effects of Carbon Emission:
1) Carbon dioxide in its gas form is an asphyxiate, which cuts off the oxygen supply for
breathing, especially in confined spaces. Exposure to concentrations of 10 percent or more
of carbon dioxide can cause death, unconsciousness, or convulsions.
2) The extra carbon dioxide increases the greenhouse effect. More heat is trapped by the
atmosphere, causing the planet to become warmer than it would be naturally. The increase in
global temperature this causes is called global warming.
3) About a quarter to a third of all carbon dioxide emissions from our cars and factories are
absorbed by the Earth's oceans. Ocean plants absorb carbon just like forests and field
grasses do. But, any of the CO2 that is not fixed dissolves into the seawater, altering the
chemistry of the waters.
4) For each 1-degree Celsius increase in temperature caused by carbon dioxide emissions, the
resulting air pollution could lead to more than 20,000 deaths a year worldwide and many
more cases of respiratory illness and asthma.
5) Shrinking Water Supplies: Climate change is expected to increase rainfall in some areas,
thereby causing an increase in the sediment and pollutants washed into drinking water
supplies. Rising sea levels will cause saltwater to infiltrate some freshwater systems,
increasing the need for desalination and drinking water treatment.
6) Changes in Food Supply: Changing weather affects the agricultural industry and the
human food supply. Carbon emissions contribute to increasing temperatures and decreasing
precipitation, changing the growing conditions for food crops in many areas.

2. Greenhouse Gases:

 A greenhouse gas is a gas in an atmosphere that absorbs and emits radiation within
the thermal infrared range. This process is the fundamental cause of the greenhouse
effect. The primary greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Without greenhouse gases, the average
temperature of Earth's surface would be about −18 °C rather than the present average of
14 °C.

 Human activities since the beginning of the Industrial Revolution (taken as sometime
between the years 1740 and 1754) have produced a 40% increase in the atmospheric
concentration of carbon dioxide, from 280 ppm in 1750 to 406 ppm in early 2017. This
increase has occurred despite the uptake of a large portion of the emissions by various
natural "sinks" involved in the carbon cycle. The vast majority of Anthropogenic carbon
dioxide (CO2) emissions (i.e., emissions produced by human activities) come
from combustion of fossil fuels, principally coal, oil, and natural gas, with comparatively
modest additional contributions coming from deforestation, changes in land use, soil
erosion, and agriculture (including animal agriculture), though some of the emissions of
this sector are offset by carbon sequestration.
 It has been estimated that if greenhouse gas emissions continue at the present rate, Earth's
surface temperature could exceed historical values as early as 2047, with potentially
harmful effects on ecosystems, biodiversity and the livelihoods of people worldwide.

 Greenhouse gases are those that absorb and emit infrared radiation in the wavelength
range emitted by Earth.In order, the most abundant greenhouse gases in Earth's
atmosphere are: 1.Water vapor (H2O), 2.Carbon dioxide (CO2), 3.Methane (CH4),
4.Nitrous oxide (N2O), 5.Ozone (O3), 6.Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs),
7.Hydrofluorocarbons (incl. HCFCs and HFCs).

Greenhouse effect:
The greenhouse effect is a natural process that warms the
Earth’s surface. When the Sun’s energy reaches the Earth’s
atmosphere, some of it is reflected back to space and the rest is
absorbed and re-radiated by greenhouse gases.

Step 1: Solar radiation reaches the Earth's atmosphere - some of

this is reflected back into space.
Step 2: The rest of the sun's energy is absorbed by the land and
the oceans, heating the Earth.
Step 3: Heat radiates from Earth towards space.
Step 4: Some of this heat is trapped by greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, keeping the
Earth warm enough to sustain life.
Step 5: Human activities such as burning fossil fuels, agriculture and land clearing are
increasing the amount of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere.
Step 6: This is trapping extra heat, and causing the Earth's temperature to rise.

3. Kyoto Protocol:

 The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty which extends the 1992 United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that commits State Parties to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions, based on the scientific consensus that (a) global
warming is occurring and (b) it is extremely likely that human-made CO2 emissions have
predominantly caused it. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on December
11, 1997 and entered into force on February 16, 2005. There are currently 192 parties
(Canada withdrew effective December 2012) to the Protocol.
 The Kyoto Protocol implemented the objective of the UNFCCC to fight global
warming by reducing greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere to "a level that
would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system". The
Protocol is based on the principle of common but differentiated responsibilities: it puts the
obligation to reduce current emissions on developed countries on the basis that they are
historically responsible for the current levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
  The Protocol's first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012. A second
commitment period was agreed on in 2012, known as the Doha Amendment to the
protocol, in which 37 countries have binding targets. Negotiations were held in the
framework of the yearly UNFCCC Climate Change Conferences on measures to be taken
after the second commitment period ends in 2020. This resulted in the 2015 adoption of
the Paris Agreement, which is a separate instrument under the UNFCCC rather than an
amendment of the Kyoto protocol.

Objective:

 The main goal of the Kyoto Protocol is to control emissions of the main anthropogenic
(i.e., human-emitted) greenhouse gases (GHGs) in ways that reflect underlying national
differences in GHG emissions, wealth, and capacity to make the reductions.
 The treaty follows the main principles agreed in the original 1992 UN Framework
Convention. According to the treaty, in 2012, Annex I Parties who have ratified the treaty
must have fulfilled their obligations of greenhouse gas emissions limitations established
for the Kyoto Protocol's first commitment period (2008–2012).
 The ultimate objective of the UNFCCC is the “stabilization of greenhouse gas
concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would stop dangerous anthropogenic
interference with the climate system.
Some of the principal concepts of the Kyoto Protocol are:
 Binding commitments for the Annex I Parties. The main feature of the Protocol is that it
established legally binding commitments to reduce emissions of greenhouse gases for
Annex I Parties. The commitments were based on the Berlin Mandate, which was a part
of UNFCCC negotiations leading up to the Protocol.
 Implementation. In order to meet the objectives of the Protocol, Annex I Parties are
required to prepare policies and measures for the reduction of greenhouse gases in their
respective countries. In addition, they are required to increase the absorption of these
gases and utilize all mechanisms available, such as joint implementation, the clean
development mechanism and emissions trading, in order to be rewarded with credits that
would allow more greenhouse gas emissions at home.
 Minimizing Impacts on Developing Countries by establishing an adaptation fund for
climate change.
 Accounting, Reporting and Review in order to ensure the integrity of the Protocol.
 Compliance: Establishing a Compliance Committee to enforce compliance with the
commitments under the Protocol.
4. Acid Rain:

 Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with
acidic components, such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the
atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is
acidic.
 Acid rain results when sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into
the atmosphere and transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and NOX react with
water, oxygen and other chemicals to form sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with
water and other materials before falling to the ground.
 While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid, rain is from natural sources
such as volcanoes, most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels.
 Acid rain is produced by the releases of Sulphur Dioxide (SO2) and Nitrogen Oxides
(NOx). These two gases once realised into the atmosphere combine and react with water,
oxygen and oxidant compounds in the atmosphere. The reaction can take hours or even
days, during which the polluted air can travel far from the original source of pollution.
The mixture of these gases creates a mild solution of pH 5.6 or less, and then falls to the
earth in rain, snow, fog or even as dry forms such as gas and particles.

The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:

 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of
NOX in the atmosphere come from electric power generators.
 Vehicles and heavy equipment.
 Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.

Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain a
problem for everyone and not just those who live close to these sources.

Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, meaning that it
has elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic
animals and infrastructure.
 Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide, which react with
the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Some governments have made
efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxide into the
atmosphere with positive results.
 Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes, and sulphur dioxide
is produced by volcanic eruptions. Acid rain has been shown to have adverse impacts on
forests, freshwaters and soils, killing insect and aquatic life-forms, causing paint to
peel, corrosion of steel structures such as bridges, and weathering of stone buildings and
statues as well as having impacts on human health.
 The principal cause of acid rain is sulphur and nitrogen compounds from human sources,
such as electricity generation, factories, and motor vehicles. Electrical power generation
using coal is among the greatest contributors to gaseous pollutions that are responsible for
acidic rain.
 The gases can be carried hundreds of kilometres in the atmosphere before they are
converted to acids and deposited. In the past, factories had short funnels to let out smoke
but this caused many problems locally; thus, factories now have taller smoke funnels.
However, dispersal from these taller stacks causes pollutants to be carried farther, causing
widespread ecological damage.

3.1.1 Effects of Acid Rain on Human Health:

Acid rain looks, feels, and tastes just like clean rain. The harm to people from acid rain is not
direct. Walking in acid rain, or even swimming in an acid lake, is no more dangerous than
walking or swimming in clean water. However, the pollutants that cause acid rain also
damage human health.
 Effects of Sulphur Dioxide (SO2): These gases interact in the atmosphere to form fine
sulphate and nitrate particles that can be transported long distances by winds and inhaled
deep into people's lungs. Fine particles can also penetrate indoors. Many scientific studies
have identified a relationship between elevated levels of fine particles and increased
illness and premature death from heart and lung disorders, such as asthma and bronchitis.
 Effects of Nitrogen Oxide (NOx): Decrease in nitrogen oxide emissions are also
expected to have a beneficial impact on human health by reducing the nitrogen oxides
available to react with volatile organic compounds and form ozone. Ozone impacts on
human health include a number of morbidity and mortality risks associated with lung
inflammation, including asthma and emphysema.

3.1.2 The Effects of Acid Rain on the Environment:

 Acid rain has brought ecological imbalance affecting plants, animals, soil, infrastructures
and humans. As acid rains fell, scientists and foresters noted that tree leaves and needles
turned from green to brown. Forest growth was not only stunted but also resulted to
extreme cases of entire forest areas dying with unexplainable reason.
 Lakes and streams in several US regions were assessed as having chronic acidity wherein
water conditions manifested low pH level but with increased aluminium content. This
subsequently resulted in stunting the growth of aquatic life and deformity in some fishes.
 In recent years, ocean acidification likewise became an issue as marine lives have also
been disrupted especially with the acid's bleaching effects on the coral reefs.
 Acid rain affects forests and surface water as well as the living organisms that rely on
them for food and habitat. This article will strive to provide further information that can
satisfy queries as to what are the effects of acid rain on animals.

3.1.3 The Effects of Acid Rain on Animals

On Aquatic Organisms
 The effects of acidity vary and will depend on the living organism’s sensitivity to acid
depositions of acid rain on surface water. Some aquatic organisms if sensitive to
acidic waters cannot survive even if there is only moderate level of acidity.
  It is not so much as the high concentration of acid that is taking its toll on some
aquatic species but the high levels of aluminium present in the water once acidic
conditions set in. The aluminium in silicate minerals found in the rocks and soil in
surface waters, leached as a result of prolonged contact with highly acidic waters.
 According to scientists the higher the acidity level, the greater the aluminium content
in surface water which could cause red blood vessels to burst or cause increased
viscosity in fish blood. As blood circulation gets affected by blood that is too viscose,
it causes strenuous pressures in the heart of the aquatic creatures and eventually leads
to heart attack.
 Acid rain and its acidification of surface water resulted to increased aluminium
content that affected not only the animal’s habitats and their food but also their ability
to propagate.

 Other aquatic organisms including the small aquatic animals without backbones
known as macro-invertebrates have decreased in population since their ability to
reproduce has also been affected.
 Examples of these macro invertebrates are the molluscs such as clams and snails,
crayfish, aquatic worms and aquatic insects such as mayfly nymphs and stonefly.
They are greatly affected because most of them find refuge or shelter in the shallow
parts of surface water where the effects of acidification are most evident in aluminium
leaching rocks and sediments.
 Amphibian animals whose existence is greatly related to aquatic environments have
also been distressed by water acidity.

3.1.4 On Bird Population

 Acidification has affected bird population in terms of food availability and the
presence of aluminium content in the quality of fish that piscivorous or fish-eating
birds subsist on.
 Studies are being made regarding the effect of aluminium content in the reproductive
systems of these fish-eating birds.
 In addition, the poor quality of fish as source of calcium supplement needed for egg
shells and bone growth could possibly result to the piscivorous birds’ decline. Some
examples of these types of birds are the double-crested cormorants, herons, terns and
gulls.

On Forest Animals
 The rabbits as forest dwellers are under observation as to how the acidified forest
vegetation has affected their existence. The occurrence of Net Acid Flux in their
structure shows indications that these animals are manifesting bile salt induced injury
in their digestive systems. The high concentration of aluminium from the soil as a
result of acid rain contributions are feared to be causing malnutrition and starvation in
some forest animals.
  Plant vegetation growing in acid damaged soil and dependent on acid rain for survival
can possibly speed up the deterioration of some animal’s living condition. Animal
food coming from acidic sources which lacked sufficient amounts of nutrients like
calcium, magnesium and potassium yet contained great levels of aluminium, could
result to poor health, stunted growth and decreased rate of reproduction.
On Marine Life
 Deep sea observations have presented images of sea grass and coral reefs severely
affected by ocean water acidification. Marine creatures living in these corals are
starting to diminish since their coral breeding grounds are slowly being pushed into
dissolution.
 The entire food chain in marine ecology will be disrupted if these animals whose main
purpose is to provide food for the larger marine animals cannot find safe and suitable
breeding sites.
 The impact of acid rain damage dwells mostly in conditions that resulted to food with
aluminium contamination, to habitat loss and to unsuitable sites for breeding their
eggs and nurturing their young ones.
 These are the same basic needs of human beings which we call as food and shelter.
Since we are all part of natural ecology that has been disrupted, we are also
susceptible to the effects of acid rain in the environment.
 As one living organism’s source of food is cut-off, higher creatures that rely on it for
subsistence can be affected and suffer from starvation, poor reproduction and
eventually extinction. The whole food chain becomes affected until it reaches the user
at the highest end of the series, the humans.

5. Deforestation:
Deforestation, clearance or clearing is the removal of a forest or stand of trees where
the land is thereafter converted to a non-forest use. Examples of deforestation include
conversion of forestland to farms, ranches, or urban use. Deforestation occurs for multiple
reasons: trees are cut down to be used for building or sold as fuel, (sometimes in the form of
charcoal or timber), while cleared land is used as pasture for livestock and plantation. The
removal of trees without sufficient reforestation has resulted in damage
to habitat, biodiversity loss and aridity. It has adverse impacts on bio sequestration of
atmospheric carbon dioxide.

Trees are cut down (deforestation) for many reasons including

 To be used, sold or exported as timber, wood or fuel (charcoal). This is called
logging.
 To be used for farming purposes (grazing fields for livestock, or large-scale farming
activities)
 To make room for human settlement and urbanization (these include making space for
shelter, industries, and roads)
 Causes:
There are many causes of deforestation. The WWF reports that half of the trees illegally
removed from forests are used as fuel.
Some other common reasons are:
1) To make more land available for housing and urbanization
2) To harvest timber to create commercial items such as paper, furniture and homes
3) To create ingredients that are highly prized consumer items, such as the oil from palm trees.
4) To create room for cattle ranching

 The deforestation of trees not only lessens the amount of carbon stored, it also releases
carbon dioxide into the air. This is because when trees die, they release the stored carbon.
 According to the 2010 Global Forest Resources Assessment, deforestation releases nearly
a billion tons of carbon into the atmosphere per year, though the numbers are not as high
as the ones recorded in the previous decade.
 Deforestation is the second largest anthropogenic (human-caused) source of carbon
dioxide to the atmosphere, ranging between 6 percent and 17 percent.
 Deforestation has decreased global vapor flows from land by 4 percent, according to a
study published by the National Academy of Sciences. Even this slight change in vapor
flows can disrupt natural weather patterns and change current climate models.

3.2 Other effects of deforestation:

 Loss of species: 70% of the world’s plants and animals live in forests and are losing
their habitats to deforestation, according to National Geographic. Loss of habitat can
lead to species extinction. It also has negative consequences for medicinal research
and local populations who rely on the animals and plants in the forests for hunting
and medicine.
 Water cycle: Trees are important to the water cycle. They absorb rain fall and
produce water vapor that is released into the atmosphere. Trees also lessen the
pollution in water, according to the North Carolina State University, by stopping
polluted runoff. In the Amazon, more than half the water in the ecosystem is held
within the plants, according to the National Geographic Society.
 Soil erosion: Tree roots anchor the soil. Without trees, the soil is free to wash or blow
away, which can lead to vegetation growth problems. The WWF states that scientists
estimate that a third of the world’s arable land has been lost to deforestation since
1960. After a clear cutting, cash crops like coffee, soy and palm oil are planted.
Planting these types of trees can cause further soil erosion because their roots cannot
hold onto the soil.
 Life quality: Soil erosion can also lead to silt entering the lakes, streams and other
water sources. This can decrease local water quality and contribute to poor health in
populations in the area.
 6. Tree Plantation:

1) Tree plantation is a biological practice where large number of trees or plants have been
planted in a given area. Most tree plantations are monoculture, which means that the trees
are of the same species and there is no diversity like a natural forest would have.
2) Plantations usually consist of fast growing trees which help reduce the time for their
growth. They are planted either to replace logged forests or to substitute for their absence.
3) A plantation is usually made up of fast-growing trees planted either to replace already-
logged forests or to substitute for their absence.

Plantations differ from natural forests in several ways:

 Plantations are usually monocultures. That is, the same species of tree is planted in rows
across a given area, whereas a conventional forest would contain far more diverse tree
species.
 Plantations may include introduced trees not native to the area, including (in a few cases)
unconventional types such as hybrid trees and genetically modified trees. Since the
primary interest in plantations is to produce wood or pulp, the types of trees found in
plantations are those that are best-suited to industrial applications. For example, pines,
spruces and eucalyptus are widely used because of their fast growth rate, and are good for
paper and timber production.
 Plantations are always young forests. Typically, trees grown in plantations are harvested
after 10 to 60 years, rarely up to 120 years. This means that the forests produced by
plantations do not contain the type of growth, soil or wildlife typical of old-growth
natural forest ecosystems. Most conspicuous is the absence of decaying dead wood, a
very important part of natural forest ecosystems.

There are 3 different types of uses of tree plantation:

1. Industrial Plantations: –

Industrial plantations are actively directed for the commercial production of forest products.
1) They are used to produce high amounts of wood in the minimum time needed.
2) Some of the uses of the wood are to make paper, timber, pulp and chips.
3) The type of trees that are found in tree plantations are those that are best-suited to
industrial applications.
4) Some of the tree examples are pines, and eucalyptus.
5) These are commonly used because of their fast growth rate, also they are more suitable for
the industrial applications, and are good for paper and timber production.
2. Farm /Home Plantations: -

Farm or home plantations are mainly used for home purposes like production of timber
and fire wood. They can also be used to beautify property, provide shade in summer, wind
protection in winter and enhance privacy, all while increasing real estate values at the same
time. Farms sometime do sell their wood that they harvest.
3. Environmental tree plantations: -

This are mainly used to help protect the environment from watershed, as soil protection and
from the counter effects of deforestation.
1) They also help promote re-plantation of trees and save many different species.
2) Tree Plantations can help with erosion control, landslide stabilization and windbreak
3) Tree plantations are a great thing for the environment and for us because they give out
oxygen that we need to live and survive.
Benefits of Tree plantations:
Most trees and shrubs in cities or communities are planted to provide beauty or shade, but
they also serve many other purposes. The benefits of planting trees can be grouped into
social, communal, and environmental categories.
Apart from their beauty, trees provide us with many benefits. Most of us respond to the
presence of trees by simply observing their beauty. It has been proven that hospital patients
have been shown to recover from surgery more quickly when their hospital room offered a
view of trees. Also, children have been shown to concentrate more in school and their studies
if they spend time outdoors in green spaces. The strong ties between people and trees are very
evident.
Social Benefits:
Trees are very beneficial to the environment we live in by providing us with moderate
climate, improving air quality, conserving water, and harbouring wildlife.
Environmental Benefits - Climate is controlled by moderating the effects of the rain, sun
and wind.
 Radiant energy from the sun is absorbed or deflected by leaves on deciduous trees in
the summer and is only filtered by branches of deciduous trees in winter.
 We are cooler when we stand in the shade of trees and are not exposed to direct
sunlight. In winter, we value the sun’s radiant energy
 By using trees in the cities, we are able to moderate the heat-island effect caused by
pavement and buildings in commercial areas. Overall by planting trees we return to a
more natural, less artificial environment.
 Birds and other wildlife are attracted to the area. They provide species with wildlife
habitat, food and protection. The natural cycles of plant growth, reproduction, and
decomposition remain present, and natural melody is restored to the urban
environment.

7. Bio-Diversity:
Biodiversity, a "bio" (life) and "diversity", generally refers to
the variety and variability of life on Earth. According to the United Nations Environment
Programme (UNEP), biodiversity typically measures variation at the genetic, the species, and
the ecosystem level.
 Biodiversity is defined as “the variability among living organisms from all sources
including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the
ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species,
between species and of ecosystems.”
 Biodiversity forms the foundation of the vast array of services that critically
contribute to human well-being.
 Biodiversity is important in human-managed as well as natural ecosystems.
Decisions humans make that influence biodiversity affect the well-being of
themselves and others.

Biodiversity is divided into different components based on the level of variation:

3.2.1 Types of Biodiversity

1) Genetic diversity – It can be defined as the variety expressed at the genetic level by each
individual in a species. No two individuals of the same species are exactly similar. For
example, humans show a lot of biodiversity’s among themselves. People living in different
regions show a great level of variation.
2) Species diversity – It is the biodiversity observed within a community. It denotes the
number and distribution of species. The number of species in a region varies widely
according to the environmental conditions. For example, it is usually observed that
civilizations residing beside water bodies show more species than the one compared to the
areas away from water bodies.
3) Ecological diversity – It defines the diversity observed among the ecosystems in a region.
Different ecosystems like mangroves, rainforests, deserts, etc., show a great variety of life
forms residing in them.
Eight major causes of biodiversity are as follows:

1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

2. Over-exploitation for Commercialization
3. Invasive Species
4. Pollution
5. Global Climate Change
6. Population Growth and Over-consumption
7. Illegal Wildlife Trade
8. Species extinction.

3.2.1.1 1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation:

A habitat is the place where a plant or animal naturally lives. Habitat loss is identified as
main threat to 85% of all species described as threatened or endangered. Factors responsible
for this are deforestation, fire and over-use and urbanization.
 3.2.1.2 2. Over-exploitation for Commercialization:
Over-exploitation of resources has coasted more environmental degradation than earning. For
example; shrimp farming in India, Thailand, Ecuador and Indonesia results in Wetland
destruction, pollution of coastal waters and degradation of coastal fisheries. Scientific studies
have concluded that cost of environmental degradation resulting from shrimp farming was
costing more than the earning through shrimp exports.

3.2.1.3 3. Invasive Species:

Invasive species are ‘alien’ or ‘exotic’ species which are introduced accidentally or
intentionally by human. These species become established in their new environment and
spread unchecked, threatening the local biodiversity. These invasive alien species have been
identified as the second greatest threat to biodiversity after habitat loss.

3.2.1.4 4. Pollution:
Pollution is a major threat to biodiversity, and one of the most difficult problems to
overcome; Pollutants do not recognize international boundaries. For example, agricultural
run-off, which contains a variety of fertilizers and pesticides, may seep into ground water and
rivers before ending up in the ocean. Atmospheric pollutants drift with prevailing air currents
and are deposited far from their original source.

3.2.1.5 5. Global Climate Change:

Many climatologists believe that the greenhouse effect is likely to raise world temperatures
by about 2°C by 2030, meaning that sea levels will rise by around 30-50 cm by this time.
Global warming, coupled with human population growth and accelerating rates of resource
use will bring further losses in biological diversity. Vast areas of the world will be inundated
causing loss of human life as well as ecosystems.

3.2.1.6 6. Population Growth and Over-consumption:

From a population of one billion at the beginning of the 19th century, our species now
numbers more than six billion people. Such rapid population growth has meant a rapid
growth in the exploitation of natural resources— water, foods and minerals. Although there is
evidence that our population growth rate is beginning to slow down, it is clear that the
exploitation of natural resources is currently not sustainable. Added to this is the fact that 25
per cent of the population consumes about 75 per cent of the world’s natural resources. This
problem of over-consumption is one part of the broader issue of unsustainable use.

3.2.1.7 7. Illegal Wildlife Trade:

The international trade in wild plants and animals is enormous. Live animals are taken for the
pet trade, or their parts exported for medicines or food. Plants are also taken from the wild for
their horticultural or medicinal value.

3.2.1.8 8. Species extinction:

Extinction is a natural process. The geological record indicates that many hundreds of
thousands of plant and animal species have disappeared over the eras as they have failed to
adapt to changing conditions. Recent findings however indicate that the current rate of
species extinction is at least a hundred to a thousand times higher than the natural rate.

8. Carbon Credit:
 A carbon credit is a generic term for any tradable certificate or permit representing the
right to emit one ton of carbon dioxide or the mass of another greenhouse gas with
a carbon dioxide equivalent (tCO2e) equivalent to one ton of carbon dioxide.
 Carbon credits and carbon markets are a component of national and international attempts
to mitigate the growth in concentrations of greenhouse gases (GHGs).
 One carbon credit is equal to one tonne of carbon dioxide, or in some markets, carbon
dioxide equivalent gases. Carbon trading is an application of an emissions
trading approach. Greenhouse gas emissions are capped and then markets are used to
allocate the emissions among the group of regulated sources.
 The goal is to allow market mechanisms to drive industrial and commercial processes in
the direction of low emissions or less carbon intensive approaches than those used when
there is no cost to emitting carbon dioxide and other GHGs into the atmosphere. Since
GHG mitigation projects generate credits, this approach can be used to finance carbon
reduction schemes between trading partners and around the world.
 There are also many companies that sell carbon credits to commercial and individual
customers who are interested in lowering their carbon footprint on a voluntary basis.
These carbon off setters purchase the credits from an investment fund or a carbon
development company that has aggregated the credits from individual projects.
 Buyers and sellers can also use an exchange platform to trade, which is like a stock
exchange for carbon credits. The quality of the credits is based in part on the validation
process and sophistication of the fund or development company that acted as the sponsor
to the carbon project. This is reflected in their price; voluntary units typically have less
value than the units sold through the rigorously validated Clean Development
Mechanism.
 The burning of fossil fuels is a major source of greenhouse gas emissions, especially for
power, cement, steel, textile, fertilizer and many other industries which rely on fossil
fuels (coal, electricity derived from coal, natural gas and oil).
 The major greenhouse gases emitted by these industries are carbon
dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons(HFCs), etc., all of which increase
the atmosphere's ability to trap infrared energy and thus affect the climate.
 The concept of carbon credits came into existence as a result of increasing awareness of
the need for controlling emissions. The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change) has observed that:
 Policies that provide a real or implicit price of carbon could create incentives for
producers and consumers to significantly invest in low-GHG products, technologies and
processes. Such policies could include economic instruments, government funding and
regulation, while noting that a tradable permit system is one of the policy instruments that
has been shown to be environmentally effective in the industrial sector, as long as there
 are reasonable levels of predictability over the initial allocation mechanism and long-term
price.

Benefits of Carbon Credit:

1-Individual benefits – Domestic users can also gain by trading in carbon credits while
helping them adopt a more concerted and disciplined approach to reducing their carbon
footprints.

2-Buying greenhouse gasses – According to most sources, the purchase of carbon credits
remains a lucrative enterprise. Each carbon credit that is purchased is channelled to a
company which is specifically tasked to bring down emissions or provide more sustainable
and environmentally-friendly alternatives to these emitters.

3-Business and job opportunities – Trading in carbon credits using the capitalist principle,
if applied fairly, allows private investors to generate profits from their purchases and
diversify them towards the creation of environmentally-sustainable businesses which either
emits very low or no carbons. And as new businesses are started up, more employment
opportunities arise.

9. Ozone Depletion:

 The ozone layer is the Earth's natural sunscreen, filtering out harmful ultraviolet (UV)
rays from the sun. UV rays can cause damage to humans and other forms of life.
 Although the ozone layer is high up in the atmosphere, chemical substances used at the
surface of the planet can damage it. If the ozone layer is damaged, UV rays can get
through and cause damage to humans and other forms of life.
Ozone depletion describes two related phenomena observed since the late 1970s: a steady
decline of about four percent in the total amount of ozone in Earth's stratosphere (the ozone
layer), and a much larger springtime decrease in stratospheric ozone around Earth's polar
regions. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the ozone hole. There are also springtime
polar tropospheric ozone depletion events in addition to these stratospheric phenomena.

Advantages of the Ozone Layer

1. Protection against cancer and cataracts

Ozone is very efficient at absorbing the sun’s ultraviolet (UV) radiation even in very small
amounts. For this reason, the ozone layer protects the earth by blocking the harmful
ultraviolet (UV) radiation that can cause skin cancer and cataracts in humans.

2. Protection of the environment and ecosystems

The ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun is very harmful and can be destructive to
our natural ecosystems and the environment. UV radiation has an effect upon the fertility of
some animals and affects the survival of their offspring. Plants are as well affected by UV
radiation as it negatively impacts their ability to develop and grow properly.
3.3 Ozone Depleting Substances:
Ozone depleting substances (ODSs) are those substances which deplete the ozone layer and
are widely used in refrigerators, air conditioners, fire extinguishers, in dry cleaning, as
solvents for cleaning, electronic equipment and as agricultural fumigants.
Ozone depleting substances controlled by Montreal Protocol include:
1. Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
2. Halon
3. Carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), Methyl chloroform (CH3CCl3)
4. Hydrobromofluorocarbons (HBFCs)
5. Hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs)
6. Methyl bromide (CH3Br)
7. Bromochloromethane (CH2BrCl)
There are other ozone depleting substances, but their ozone depleting effects are very small in
comparison to these controlled substances.

3.4 Effects of Ozone Layer Depletion

Ozone layer depletion can have some serious consequences on effects of human health,
plants, marine ecosystems, biogeochemical cycles and earth’s environment. Let us see each
one of these in detail.

3.4.1.1 1)Effect on health of humans

 With depletion in ozone’s layer, we humans are more prone to UV rays that reaches the
Earth’s surface. Studies suggests that high levels of UV Rays cause non-melanoma skin
cancer and plays a major role in malignant melanoma development. Direct exposure to
UV rays can lead to development of cataracts which clouds the eye’s lens.
 Permanent exposure to UV rays can also lead to weakening of the response of immune
system and even permanent damage to immune system in some cases.
 Aging of skin is yet another problem that will make you look older than what you really
are. Extensive exposure to UV rays can lead to acceleration of the aging process of your
skin.

3.4.1.2 2)Effect on plants

Plants become another casualty by radiation effects of UV rays. The physiological and
developmental processes of plants are also severely affected apart from the growth. Some
other changes that are caused by UV include the way plants form, timing of development and
growth, how nutrients are distributed within the plant and metabolism, etc.
 3.4.1.3 3)Effect on marine ecosystems

 UV rays also have adverse effect on the marine ecosystems. It badly affects the planktons
that form the foundation of aquatic food webs. Phytoplankton grow close to the surface of
the water and plays vital role in the food chain and oceanic carbon cycle. Changes in UV
levels is known to affect both orientation and motility in phytoplankton. This reduces the
survival and growth rate of these organisms.
 UV rays are also known to affect the development stages of fish, shrimp, crab,
amphibians, and other marine animals. When this happens it affects whole marine food
chain as animals in the upper food chain that feed on these fishes are also affected.

3.4.1.4 4)Effect on biogeochemical cycles

An increase in UV radiation alters both sources and sinks of greenhouse gasses in the
biosphere e.g.: e.g., carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbonyl sulphide, ozone, and possibly
other gases. Changes in UV levels would contribute to biosphere-atmosphere feedbacks that
mitigate or amplify the atmospheric concentrations of these gases.

10. Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ).:

Under the Environment Protection Act, 1986 of India, notification was issued in February
1991, for regulation of activities in the coastal area by the Ministry of Environment and
Forests (MoEF). As per the notification, the coastal land up to 500m from the High Tide
Line (HTL) and a stage of 100m along banks of creeks, estuaries, backwater and rivers
subject to tidal fluctuations, is called the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ).
Coastal areas have been classified as CRZ-1, CRZ-2, CRZ-3, CRZ-4.

CRZ-1:

 These are ecologically sensitive areas these are essential in maintaining the ecosystem of
the coast. They lie between low and high tide line. Exploration of natural gas and
extraction of salt are permitted.
 Areas that are ecologically sensitive and important, such as national parks/marine parks,
sanctuaries, reserve forests, wildlife habitats, mangroves, corals/coral reefs, areas close to
breeding and spawning grounds of fish and other marine life, areas of outstanding natural
beauty/historically/heritage areas, areas rich in genetic diversity, areas likely to be
inundated due to rise in sea level consequent upon global warming and such other areas
as may be declared by the Central Government or the concerned authorities at the
State/Union Territory level from time to time.
 Area between Low Tide Line and the high Tide Line.

CRZ-2:
 These areas form up to the shoreline of the coast. Unauthorised structures are not allowed
to construct in this zone.
 The areas that have already been developed up to or close to the shoreline. For this
purpose, "developed area" is referred to as that area within the municipal limits or in other
legally designated urban areas which is already substantially built up and which has been
provided with drainage and approach roads and other infrastructural facilities, such as
water supply and sewerage mains.

CRZ-3:
 Rural and urban localities which fall outside the 1 and 2. Only certain activities related to
agriculture even some public facilities are allowed in this zone.
 Areas that are relatively undisturbed and those which do not belong to either Category-I
or II. These will include coastal zone in the rural areas (developed and undeveloped) and
also areas within Municipal limits or in other legally designated urban areas which are not
substantially built up.
CRZ-4:
 This lies in the aquatic area up to territorial limits. Fishing and allied activities are
permitted in this zone. Solid waste should be let off in this zone.
 Coastal stretches in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep and small islands,
except those designated as CRZ I, CRZ II and CRZ III.

Regulations
Andaman and Nicobar Islands:
1. No new construction of buildings shall be permitted within 200m of HTL.
2. The buildings between 200m and 500m from the HTL shall not more than 2 floors, the
total area covered on all floors shall not be more than 50% of the plot size and total height of
construction shall not exceed 9m.
3. The design and construction of buildings shall be consistent with the surrounding
landscape and local architectural style.
4. Corals and sand from the beaches and coastal waters shall not be used for construction and
purposes.
5. Dredging and underwater blasting in and around coral formations shall not be permitted
6. However, in some of the islands, coastal stretches may also be classified into categories of
CRZ-I or II or III with the prior approval of the MoEF and in such designated structures.

Activities prohibited within the CRZ

The following activities are declared as prohibited within the CRZ
1. Setting up of new industries and expansion of existing industries, except those directly
related to water front or directly needing foreshore facilities.
2. Manufacture or handling or disposal of hazardous substances.
3. Setting up and expansion of fish processing units including warehousing (excluding
hatchery and natural fish drying in permitted areas)
4. Setting up and expansion of units/mechanism for disposal of waste and effluents into the
water course.
5. Discharging of city untreated waters and effluents from industries, cities or towns and
other human settlements.
6. Dumping of city or town waste for the purposes of land filling or otherwise; the existing
practice, if any, shall be phased out within a reasonable time not exceeding three years from
the date of notification.
7. Dumping of ash or any wastes from the date of notification.
8. Land reclamation, building or disturbing the natural course of sea water with similar
observations, except those required for control of coastal erosion and maintenance or
sandbars except tidal regulators, storm water recharge.
9. Mining of sand, rocks and other substrata materials not available outside CRZ areas.
10. Harvesting or drawl of groundwater and construction of transfer within 200m of HTL; in
the 200m to 500m zone it shall be permitted only when done manually through ordinary
wells for drinking, horticulture, agriculture and fisheries.
11. Construction activities in ecologically sensitive areas
12. Any construction between LTL and HTL except facilities for carrying treated effluents
and waste discharges, oil, gas and similar pipelines and dressing or altering of sand dunes,
hills natural features including landscape changes for beautification, recreational and other
such purposes.

CHAPTER 5:ENERGY CONSERVATION

Energy Management System: ISO 50001

An energy management system helps organizations to better manage their energy use. It
involves developing and implementing an energy policy, setting targets for energy use and
designing action plans to reach them. This might include implementing new energy-efficient
technologies, reducing energy waste or improving current processes to cut energy costs. ISO
50001, Energy management systems – Requirements with guidance for use, gives
organizations a recognized framework for developing an effective energy management
system. Like other ISO management system standards, it follows the “Plan-Do-Check-Act”
process for continual improvement.
ISO 50001 provides a set of requirements that enable organizations to:
 Develop a policy for more efficient use of energy
 Fix targets and objectives to meet that policy
 Gather data to better understand and make decisions concerning energy use and
consumption
 Measure the results obtained
 Review the effectiveness of the policy
 Continually improve energy management
Key Elements of Energy Management System:

1. Make a commitment. A common element of successful energy-management programs is

commitment. Allocate appropriate staff and funding to achieve continuous improvement.
Leading organizations form dedicated energy teams and institute energy policies.
2. Assess performance. Understanding past and current energy use is vital in identifying
opportunities to improve performance. Periodically examine your energy bills or collect
more specific energy-use data with submetering or other monitoring tools. Compare your
energy consumption over time and benchmark against similar facilities.
3. Set goals. Setting clear and measurable goals is critical for developing effective strategies
and reaping financial gains. In addition to guiding daily decisions, well-stated goals
provide the basis for tracking and measuring progress while promoting continuous
improvement.
4. Create an action plan. With goals in place, your organization is poised to develop a road
map for improving energy performance. A detailed action plan provides a systematic
process for implementing energy-performance measures. Start by defining technical steps
and targets, as well as individual roles and resources; update regularly to reflect
performance changes and shifting priorities.
5. Implement the action plan. Successfully implementing the projects defined in the action
plan will require the support and cooperation of people across your entire organization.
Communicate energy-performance goals and initiatives to all staff, making sure they
understand their responsibilities. Training and incentives raise awareness and motivate
employees to improve energy performance.
6. Evaluate progress. Evaluating progress includes a formal review of both energy-use data
and the activities carried out as part of the action plan. Many organizations use evaluation
results, and information gathered during the review process, to identify best practices and
set new performance goals.
7. Recognize achievements. Recognition helps sustain momentum and support for your
program. Motivate staff and employees by recognizing those who have helped the
organization achieve results. Recognition from outside sources also validates the
importance of the program and provides positive exposure for the organization as a
whole.

 Use of Clean Technologies:

 Clean technology refers to any process, product, or service that reduces negative
environmental impacts through significant energy efficiency improvements, the
sustainable use of resources, or environmental protection activities.
 Clean technology includes a broad range of technology related to recycling, renewable
energy (wind power, solar power, biomass, hydropower, biofuels, etc.) information
technology, green transportation, electric motors, green chemistry, lighting, Greywater,
and more.
Energy Conservation Measures:

 An Energy conservation measure (ECM) is any type of project conducted, or

technology implemented, to reduce the consumption of energy in a building. The types of
projects implemented can be in a variety of forms but usually are designed to reduce
utility costs: water, electricity and gas being the main three for industrial and commercial
enterprises. The aim of an ECM should be to achieve a savings, reducing the amount
of energy used by a particular process, technology or facility.
 An ECM is to improve the energy efficiency of An ECM is to improve the energy
efficiency of building infrastructure, including building infrastructure, including
heating/cooling/ventilation systems, utility heating/cooling/ventilation systems, utility
systems, roof, and windows.
 This is achieved systems, roof, and windows. This is achieved by an engineering
investigation to identify by an engineering investigation to identify potential replacements
of, or upgrades to, potential replacements of, or upgrades to, existing systems that
enhance energy existing systems that enhance energy efficiency in a cost efficiency in a
cost-effective manner.

Types of energy conservation measures

1. Energy Dashboards
Energy Dashboards combine smart metering and Internet technologies to provide real-time
data on energy use. Their success is based on the premise that real-time feedback drives
behaviours change and improves operational efficiency. Energy Dashboards are used to
enable energy reduction competitions, showcase real-time building performance and green
building features, and empower occupants to become active participants in energy
management.

 Building automation
 Gas meter
 Home Automation
 Smart grid and Smart meter
 Water metering
2. Insulation
Insulation decreases thermal losses in cold climates and thermal gains in hot climates thus
reducing HVAC loads.
 House insulation
 Thermal insulation
 Cotton insulation
 Natural wool insulation
3. Lighting
One of the simplest ways consumers save a copious amount of energy is
switching incandescent light bulb to a compact fluorescent lamp (CFL). A 15W CFL is
capable of providing just as much light as a 60W incandescent, while consuming just one
fourth of the amount of energy.
 Compact fluorescent lamp
 Fluorescent bulbs
 LED lighting
 Linear fluorescent retrofit
 Sky lights
 Smart windows
 Solar charged flashlight
 Solar lights
4. Water
The average US homes wastes thousands of gallons of water a year. There are many water
saving solutions that also save energy.
 less low flow showerheads
 Ultra-low
 Composting toilets
 Faucet aerator

5. Windows

Windows may be one of the biggest contributing factors to energy loss and uncomfortable
spaces. Individuals might find some ECMs related to windows more cost effective than
others such as thermal curtains, films, or Smart windows.
Water Conservation
Water conservation encompasses the policies, strategies and activities to manage fresh water
as a sustainable resource to protect the water environment and to meet current and future
human demand. Climatic Changes, Population, household size and growth and affluence all
affect how much water is used.
The goals of water conservation efforts include as follows:
 To ensure availability for future generations, the withdrawal of fresh water from an
ecosystem should not exceed its natural replacement rate.
 Energy conservation. Water pumping, delivery and waste water treatment facilities
consume a significant amount of energy. In some regions of the world over 15% of total
electricity consumption is devoted to water management.
 Habitat conservation. Minimizing human water use helps to preserve fresh water habitats
for local wildlife and migrating waterfowl, as well as reducing the need to build new
dams and other water diversion infrastructures.
 Today the earth is in the need of water conservation as the quantity of water is going
down day by day
 Though we say that the Earth is a Blue Planet, the reality is that only 3% of the total water
available is fit for drinking.
 Out of that 3% also, 2.997% is locked up in polar ice caps, and only 0.003 % is there in
form of surface & ground water

The key activities that benefit water conservation (save water) are as follows:

1. Any beneficial reduction in water loss, use and waste of resources.

2. Avoiding any damage to water quality.
3. Improving water management practices that reduce the use or enhance the beneficial use
of water.
 One strategy in water conservation is rain water harvesting. Digging ponds, lakes, canals,
expanding the water reservoir, and installing rain water catching ducts and filtration
systems on homes are different methods of harvesting rain water. Harvested and filtered
rain water could be used for toilets, home gardening, lawn irrigation, and small scale
agriculture.
 Another strategy in water conservation is protecting groundwater resources.
When precipitation occurs, some infiltrates the soil and goes underground. Water in this
saturation zone is called groundwater. Contamination of groundwater causes the
groundwater water supply to not be able to be used as resource of fresh drinking water and
the natural regeneration of contaminated groundwater can takes years to replenish. Some
examples of potential sources of groundwater contamination include storage
tanks, septic systems, uncontrolled hazardous waste, landfills, atmospheric contaminants,
chemicals, and road salts. Contamination of groundwater decreases the replenishment of
available freshwater so taking preventative measures by protecting groundwater resources
form contamination is an important aspect of water conservation.

 An additional strategy to water conservation is practicing sustainable methods of utilizing

groundwater resources. Groundwater flows due to gravity and eventually discharges into
streams. Excess pumping of groundwater leads to a decrease in groundwater levels and if
continued it can exhaust the resource. Ground and surface waters are connected and
overuse of groundwater can reduce and, in extreme examples, diminish the water supply
of lakes, rivers, and streams. In coastal regions, over pumping groundwater can increase
 saltwater intrusion which results in the contamination of groundwater water
supply. Sustainable use of groundwater is essential in water conservation.
Water Recycling:

 Treatment of wastewater is actually a remarkably simple process that utilizes very basic
physical, biological, and chemical principles to remove contaminants from water.
 Use of mechanical or physical systems to treat wastewater is generally referred to as
primary treatment, and use of biological processes to provide further treatment is referred
to as secondary treatment.
 Advanced secondary treatment usually involves applying chemical systems in addition to
biological ones, such as injecting chlorine to disinfect the water.
 In most of the United States, wastewater receives both primary and secondary treatment.
 Tertiary treatment methods are sometimes used after primary and secondary treatment to
remove traces of chemicals and dissolved solids.
 Tertiary treatment is expensive and not widely practiced except where necessary to
remove industrial contaminants.

Physical Systems
Physical processes are the first step in the water recycling process. Raw sewage passes
through bar screens which are simply metal rods immersed in the influent flow to separate
large objects such as sticks and rags from the water. They are used to protect pumps and
other rotating mechanisms further in the treatment process. After the water passes through
bar screens, it enters a grit chamber. Here the influent flow is slowed so that sand and gravel
simply fall to the bottom of the chamber.

Biological Systems
Biological processes remove most of the rest of the contaminants. Water flows into aeration
basins where oxygen is mixed with the water. Microorganisms consume the organic material
as food, greatly reducing the BOD in the water. They convert non-settleable solids to
settleable solids and are later themselves captured in final clarifiers, ending up in wastewater
biosolids. Many operators of WRC's consider themselves "bug farmers", since they are in the
business of growing and harvesting a healthy population of microorganisms. Since the
process is biological, any chemical or substance harmful to life can interfere with the
operation of a water recycling plant.

Chemical Systems
After the bugs do their work, chemical systems such as chlorine contact chambers are used to
kill the remaining microorganisms not captured in final clarifiers. It is not desirable to have
residual chlorine in the rivers and lakes, however, so often chlorine is then removed using
sulfur dioxide (SO2). This protects the aquatic life in the receiving stream. Using and
storing highly toxic chlorine gas poses risks, so many facilities are beginning to use
ultraviolet radiation instead of chlorine to provide final disinfection of water. The point
where treated water is discharged into a stream or body of water is called the outfall.

Rain Water Harvesting: (For details refer pdf)

 Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and storage of rainwater for reuse on-site,
rather than allowing it to run off.
 Rainwater can be collected from rivers or roofs, and in many places, the water collected is
redirected to a deep pit (well, shaft, or borehole), a reservoir with percolation, or collected
from dew or fog with nets or other tools.
 Its uses include water for gardens, livestock, irrigation, domestic use with proper
treatment, indoor heating for houses, etc. The harvested water can also be used
as drinking water, longer-term storage, and for other purposes such as groundwater
recharge.
 A rainwater harvesting system comprises components of various stages - transporting
rainwater through pipes or drains, filtration, and storage in tanks for reuse or recharge.

3.5 Methods of Rainwater Harvesting

There are many ways in which rainwater can be harvested. Some of these methods are very
effective and can aid in the collection of a lot of water even for commercial activities while
others are only suitable for harvesting water meant for domestic use. Every system has its
merits and demerits. These are the common methods of rainwater harvesting:

1. Surface Water Collection Systems: Surface water is simply water that accumulates on
the ground’s surface. When rainwater falls on the surface of the earth, it usually flows down
slopes as it moves towards a point of depression where the moving water can collect. Surface
water collection systems enable the collection of ground surface rainwater before it flows to
other locations. Examples of such systems include rivers, ponds, and wells. Drainage pipes
can be used to direct water into these systems. Water can then be fetched from these sources
and then used for other purposes.

2. Rooftop system: These can also be used to harvest rainwater. They can be used to direct
rainwater that falls on the roof of a building into containers or tanks. These tanks are usually
elevated so that when the tap is opened, water flows at a high pressure. This method of
rainwater harvesting is good because the accumulated water is mostly clean and usually
requires no further treatment to make it fit for human use.

3. Dams: These are barriers that are designed to trap water. Rainwater can accumulate
directly in them or drainage systems can be created to direct water into them. Water collected
in dams is mostly used for irrigation purposes or treated and then distributed for domestic
use. They can also be used to harvest a lot of water because of the way in which they are
modelled. Unlike ponds, measures are put in place to reduce the amount of water draining
into the ground.

4. Underground Tanks: These are also ideal for collecting rainwater. They are constructed
by digging into the ground and creating a space which is then cemented to reduce water
infiltration. The top is also sealed and water is obtained through pipes directed into the tank.
To get water out, pumps are used. Underground tanks are wonderful for harvesting rainwater
because the rate of evaporation is reduced since they are located underground where sunlight
does not really penetrate.

5. Rain saucer: Sometimes one can decide to collect rainwater directly as it falls from the
sky by using a rain-saucer. These look like upside down umbrellas or big funnels. Some are
usually attached to a pipe so that the collected water is directed elsewhere. Some people also
do a little improvisation by placing the collecting container underground with only the rain-
saucer above the ground. It is a simple method yet effective.

6. Water Collection Reservoirs: Water collected through this method is not really clean and
may be contaminated. However, it can still be used for crop irrigation. such rainwater is
harvested from roads and pavements.

7. Barrage: A barrage is a dam that has several openings which can be closed or opened to
control the quantity of water that passes through it. It is usually large and can be used to
collect a lot of water.

8. Slopes: Rainwater tends to collect at the bottom of slopes when it flows on the ground.
When it rains heavily, water levels can rise to the hill top. This is a simple and natural way to
harvest rainwater.

9. Trenches: This is another great way to harvest rainwater for irrigation. When it rains, the
water is directed to the farm using trenches. It is one of the traditional methods of rainwater
harvesting that is still very much in use today.

10. Rain Barrels: These are also used for rainwater harvesting. They are specifically
designed for this purpose and can be purchased from retail stores. Rain barrels are used for
harvesting rainwater that falls on rooftops.
3.5.1 Need for water Harvesting:
i. To overcome the inadequacy of surface water to meet our demands.
ii. To arrest decline in ground water levels.
iii. To enhance availability of ground water at specific place and time and utilize rain water
for sustainable development.
iv. To increase infiltration of rain water in the subsoil this has decreased drastically in urban
areas due to paving of open area.
v. To improve ground water quality by dilution.
vi. To increase agriculture production.

Advantages:
i. The cost of recharge to sub-surface reservoir is lower than surface reservoirs.
ii. The aquifer serves as a distribution system also.
iii. No land is wasted for storage purpose and no population displacement is involved.
iv. Ground water is not directly exposed to evaporation and pollution.
v. Storing water under ground is environment friendly.
vi. It increases the productivity of aquifer.
vii. It reduces flood hazards.
viii. Effects rise in ground water levels.
ix. Mitigates effects of drought.
x. Reduces soil erosion.

Paper Saving Measures:

Trees are an important part of the planet’s ecosystem, they provide oxygen, clean the air,
provide shade and food, and they're used as homes by many different creatures. To create
paper and other wood products, millions of new trees must be planted each year. Even so,
logging can be very destructive to the environment if it pollutes nearby water, leads to soil
erosion, contributes to habitat loss, and uses a great deal of energy. To help reduce logging,
there are many things you can do at home, school, and work to cut down on paper
consumption.
Don’t use products that come with excessive packaging. One of the biggest culprits for
creating paper waste is consumer packaging that’s used to wrap and label food, toys, clothes,
and other goods. To help save paper, buy products that have been made with minimal or no
packaging.
Encourage your favourite companies to save paper. Unless consumers like you tell
companies what you do and don’t like about their products and practices, they may not get
the message. If it bothers you that certain companies waste too much paper, write them an
email or call them to say you want them to join the fight to save the trees.
Be selective about what you print. At home, at school, and at work, you can save paper by
cutting down on the amount of material you print off. Before you print anything, ask yourself
if you really need a paper copy, and only print something if you must.
  If teachers and employers require that you hand in paper copies of projects and
assignments, ask if you can instead submit them electronically.
Send, receive, and store electronic records instead of paper copies. Most documents these
days can be shared and stored electronically, meaning you don’t have to print off paper
copies for your records. For instance, if you need a copy of an electronic document, request
that it be sent to you by email.
opt for paperless communications. Many companies and organizations offer electronic
correspondences that can replace paper copies they traditionally send in the mail. Whenever
possible, sign up for paperless communications for items like:
 Bills
 Newsletters
 Monthly mailings
 Flyers and coupons
 Newspaper and magazine subscriptions
Use electronic calendars and day timers. There are plenty of free calendars and schedulers
available online that you can use to plan your days, keep track of dates and assignments, and
schedule meetings and interviews. By using an electronic calendar, you can save the paper
that would have been used on a calendar, organizer, journal, or other type of scheduler.
Encourage others to save paper. In order to have an even bigger impact, you can also
encourage friends, family, classmates, and co-workers to save paper as well. One of the best
ways to reach the most people is to put up signs around the house, school, or office that
inform people how they can help.
Finding Paper Substitutes
Use reusable cloths instead of paper products. Around the house, a lot of paper is wasted
every year on things like paper towels and napkins. And if you're using lots of paper products
for cleaning, drying, and wiping your nose, you can save plenty of trees by switching to
reusable versions.
 To replace paper towels in the kitchen and bathroom, use tea towels to dry dishes, old
rags to clean, and sponges to wipe up spills.
Use real dinnerware instead of paper. Paper plates and dishes may be convenient, but they
aren't good for the environment. Most paper plates just end up in the trash, meaning the paper
isn't even recycled properly. When you have a party or any time the paper plates come out,
ask to use the real dinnerware instead.
Use paper from other plant sources. There are times when it’s simply not possible to avoid
paper-like products. Luckily, there are tree-free paper products available that are made from
alternative plant sources, and many of these have a lower impact on the environment.
Use reusable grocery and lunch bags. Many grocery stores provide paper bags to pack
groceries. You can help your family save paper by investing in reusable grocery bags.
Similarly, if your lunches are normally packed in paper bags, ask about switching to a
reusable lunch bag instead.
Send e-cards. Lots of people like to send greeting cards for birthdays, holidays, and other
events, and this leads to plenty of paper waste. Not only is the card itself paper, but it’s also
sent in a paper envelope. Instead of sending paper greeting cards to all your friends and
family in the mail, send electronic greeting cards for future celebrations.
Read e-books or library books. Books are great resources for school and work projects, and
they're great to read as a leisure activity. But printed books are still made with paper, so you
can save paper by using public versions of books that are available at the library, or by
reading electronic copies instead.
 Buying used books is also a good idea, because you're reusing something that’s
already been printed.
Recycling and Reusing Paper
Buy recycled paper products. There are paper products available that are made with
recycled paper, which means that no new trees were cut down to make those products. When
you do need to buy paper products, look for things that were made with “post-consumer
waste,” including:[7]
 Bathroom tissues
 Printing paper
 Greeting cards
 Paper bags
Use both sides of a piece of paper. When you do have to print or write things down on
paper, make sure you get the most out of that paper by writing on both sides. If you currently
only use one side of each piece, you can cut down on paper use by half just by using the other
side too.
Reuse gift bags, wrapping paper, newspaper, and tissue. Everybody loves a well-wrapped
gift, but that doesn’t mean you have to use brand new wrapping paper for every gift you give.
Instead, when you get a gift, keep the bag or wrapping paper it came in so that you can use it
again for another gift.
 Newspaper can also be repurposed as an eco-friendly wrapping paper or tissue paper to
stuff a gift bag.
Turn old paper products into crafts. There are plenty of crafts that require paper, so instead
of using fresh sheets, why not reuse old paper that was already bound for the recycler. You
can use old newspapers, notes, cards, etc.
Recycle paper you can't reuse. When you do have paper that you can't reuse or repurpose,
make sure you recycle it instead of throwing it in the trash. Paper that goes in the garbage just
ends up in a landfill. But paper that goes into the recycling bin can be sent to a special facility
and turned into something new.
Raw Material Saving:
Basic substance in its natural, modified, or semi-processed state, used as an input to a
production process for subsequent modification or transformation into a finished good.
Reducing material waste means greater resource efficiency, less pollution and more profits.
Each dollar saved on raw materials costs goes straight to the bottom line.
Before you can eliminate raw material waste, you need to be able to identify it. To do this,
every aspect of the production process should be addressed and tracked.
"The lifecycle flow of materials (e.g., end-use material efficiency improvement and
cascading through reuse, recycling, and recovery) and their storage in the economy
(stockpiling) are not well understood, and as a consequence, important options for efficiency
improvements might be overlooked as attention is focused instead on energy efficiency in
materials production,"
Reuse/Reprocess
"Reusing items is another way to stop waste at the source because it delays or avoids that
item's entry in the waste collection and disposal system,
Product Design
Formulate for disposal or recycling," Envirowise advises. "Avoiding the problem of
obsolescence should start at the earliest possible stage — when formulating new products."
"In tracking waste, you should understand how many good parts you're getting to how many
bad parts," says private-equity firm. "This could be applied to raw materials or finished
products. If you're constructing metal chairs and you have a good deal of scrapped steel, you
should be aware of what percentage of your order is being utilized."
Where possible, use materials that have already been recycled or can be reused, recycled or
recovered.
Inventory
The true cost of excess inventory levels should be analysed carefully before a business orders
excess raw materials. Just-in-time inventory and lean manufacturing can eliminate such
unnecessary costs by matching production to demand in real time to eliminate the need for
excessive inventory, warehouse and equipment space, etc.
"Check how you handle and store raw materials,". "Even failing to empty all bags and
containers properly could lead to significant amounts of waste."
New technology
Employing new technology by changing the old production lines saves the large amount of
raw material.

Product Stewardship

Product Stewardship is an environmental management strategy that means whoever designs,

produces, sells, or uses a product takes responsibility for minimizing the product's
environmental impact throughout all stages of the products' life cycle, including end of life
management. The greatest responsibility lies with whoever has the most ability to affect the
full life cycle environmental impacts of the product. This is most often the producer of the
product, though all within the product chain of commerce have roles.

Product Stewardship (PS) and Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) are terms that are
often used interchangeably to describe a long-term solution to manage waste products by
shifting the responsibility for collection, transportation, and management of products away
from local governments to the manufacturers.
The following principles to guide the development of product stewardship policies and
legislation

1. Producer Responsibility
 All producers selling a covered product into the State are responsible for designing,
managing, and financing a stewardship program that addresses the lifecycle impacts of
their products including end-of-life management.
 Producers have flexibility to meet these responsibilities by offering their own plan or
participating in a plan with others.
 In addressing end-of-life management, all stewardship programs must finance the
collection, transportation, and responsible reuse, recycling or disposition of covered
products. Stewardship programs must:
 Cover the costs of new, historic and orphan covered products.
 Provide convenient collection for consumers throughout the State.
Costs for product waste management are shifted from taxpayers and ratepayers to producers
and users.

Programs are operated by producers with minimum government involvement.

2. Shared Responsibilities
 Retailers only sell covered products from producers who follow stewardship
requirements.
 State and local governments work with producers and retailers on educating the public
about the stewardship programs.
 Consumers are responsible for using return systems set up by producers or their agents.

3. Governance
 Government sets goals and performance standards following consultation with
stakeholders. All programs within a product category are accountable to the same goals
and performance standards.
 Government allows producers the flexibility to determine the most cost-effective means
of achieving the goals and performance standards.
 Government is responsible for ensuring a level playing field by enforcing requirements
that all producers in a product category participate in a stewardship program as a
condition for selling their product in the jurisdiction.
 Product categories required to have stewardship programs are selected using the process
and priorities set out in framework legislation.
 Government is responsible for ensuring transparency and accountability of stewardship
programs. Producers are accountable to both government and consumers for disclosing
environmental outcomes.
4. Financing
Producers finance their stewardship programs as a general cost of doing business, through
cost internalization or by recovering costs through arrangements with their distributors and
retailers. End of life fees are not allowed.

5. Environmental Protection
 Framework legislation should address environmental product design, including source
reduction, recyclability and reducing toxicity of covered products.
 Framework legislation requires that stewardship programs ensure that all products
covered by the stewardship program are managed in an environmentally sound manner.
 Stewardship programs must be consistent with other State sustainability legislation,
including those that address greenhouse gas reduction and the waste management
hierarchy.
 Stewardship programs include reporting on the final disposition, (i.e., reuse, recycling,
disposal) of products handled by the stewardship program, including any products or
materials exported for processing.

Depletion of Natural Resources

 Resource depletion is the consumption of a resource faster than it can be
replenished. Natural resources are commonly divided between renewable
resources and non-renewable resources (see also mineral resource classification). Use of
either of these forms of resources beyond their rate of replacement is considered to be
resource depletion. Resource depletion is most commonly used in reference
to farming, fishing, mining, water usage, and consumption of fossil fuels.
 If natural resources are misused or overused, they may not be available in the future.
Non-renewable resources such as oil, minerals and coal, once exhausted, cannot be
replenished. This is called depletion of Resources. This is called Depletion of Resources.
Unfortunately, our technological society is consuming natural resources at a very fast
 speed and in an unchecked manner. So, the natural resources are being depleted at a great
speed at the earth

CAUSES OF RESOURCES DEPLETION:

The main causes identified for depletion of resources are:
 Overuse/Irrational use
 Non-equitable distribution of resources
 Technological and industrial development
 Population growth

OVERUSE/IRRATIONAL USE: Man is exploiting non-renewable resources at a very fast

speed to meet the increasing demands for economic and industrial growth, while the supply
of various resources like water, and fuel etc. supply of various resources like water, fuel etc.
is limited. This is called overuse of resources. Irrational use means resources are being used
in an illogical manner, for example indiscriminate use of water for washing vehicles.

How overuse of resources is causing depletion of resources:

For example, of the total water in the world, about 97% is salty water which is found in
oceans which cannot be used for domestic, industrial or agriculture purpose. The glaciers and
ice-caps make up 2% less than 1% is fresh and usable water of lakes, ponds, rivers and
groundwater. But there is shortage of water for drinking and irrigation purposes also. This is
due to overuse of freshwater.
UNEQUAL DISTRIBUTION OF RESOURCES: Natural resources are unequally
distributed over the world. In India, water is unequally distributed as all states do not have
sufficient water resources, similarly, there is a lack of coal reserves in other states while in
Jharkhand and Madhya Pradesh coal reserves are being over mined to meet the requirement
of coal in other states. This is called unequal distribution of resources.

How unequal distribution of resources causes depletion or resources:

a) Confinement of petroleum reserves: Petroleum reserves are mainly confined to Middle
East countries which have led to serious depletion of resources for worldwide needs because
extra resources like transportation, infrastructure, energy etc. are required to carry the
resources in areas of need. A pipeline has been proposed to be laid between Turkmenistan
and India through Afghanistan and Pakistan for petroleum supply.
b) Natural gas: It has acquired the status of an essential commodity for domestic use in
modern times. Without natural gas, auto-rickshaws, buses, two-wheelers, etc. cannot work.
The places full of oil reserves have good supply of natural gas which needs to be distributed
in whole country.
 c) Water: In India water is unequally distributed. There is an increasing demand for more
water supplies in water-scarce areas. As all states of India do not have sufficient water
resources, interstate disputes over water are common.

TECHNOLOGICAL AND INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT:

1. Fast technological development and industrialization causes depletion of fossil fuels.
2. Coal is used as a source of energy fir industry. It is also converted into coal gas, electricity
and oil (synthetic oil) for industrial and technological purpose. As such, the coal stock is
rapidly depleting.
3. Depletion of some other natural resources like forest and land is caused by the mining
industries, energy generating plants, automobile industry, urbanization etc. it also causes bad
impact directly or indirectly on the hydrological resources.
NEGATIVE IMPACT OF AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: Soil and water
pollution are caused by indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides. This is the major
negative impact of technological developments in agriculture field. Continuous use and
consumption of resources is bound to deplete the resources if they cannot be renewed.
POPULATION GROWTH: Due to the ever-increasing population, the consumption of
resources is increasing at a fast rate. Urban population is growing thrice the growth rate of
national population of India. This is an overall population growth scene in India.
How population growth is causing depletion of resources:
1. To feed more and more people, more land is being brought under agriculture by cutting
forests. This has serious environmental repercussions, including destruction of wildlife. So,
forests and wildlife are getting depleted due to population growth.
2. Population growth is causing a strain on resources like land, electricity, transport etc. To
meet the increasing consumption of electricity in homes, industries and markets, thermal
power plants are using up the coal reserves. So, there is depletion of resources.

IMPACT OF DEPLETION OF RESOURCES: We all know that our natural resources are
limited. Over the years, because of a thoughtful unplanned action such as misuse and overuse
of resources have caused serious problems for the mankind. So, the depletion of these
resources is causing serious adverse effects on us as well as on nature itself.
The following are the ill effects or impacts caused by their depletion on us and the
nature:
 Imbalance in nature
 Shortage of materials
 Struggle for existence
 Slackening of economic growth
Imbalance in nature: Our natural resources are our assets. They bring a balance in the
environment and make it stable. Increasing deforestation for bringing more and more land
under cultivation has greatly affected the balance in nature.
Shortage of material: Indiscriminate use of resources has caused shortage of material. Many
materials that we used to get from forest are in short supply because forests have been
cleaned for making cities, roads, dams etc. This causes irreversible effect on the atmosphere
as well as on nature.
Struggle for existence: Because of shortage of reassures whole world has accentuated the
struggle for existence. It has involved men and animals. A struggle for existence is taking
place between different countries, between the neighbouring states of one country, for the
sole purpose of taking control of natural resources of that country.
Slackening of economic growth: The economic growth of a country depends upon the
availability of resources. Because of the depletion of resources, it causes adverse effects on
economic growth. Decreased supply of petroleum in the 1970s because of rising international
process of the commodity slackened economic growth.

Renewable Energy:
 Renewable energy is energy that is collected from renewable resources, which are
naturally replenished on a human timescale, such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves,
and geothermal heat.[2] Renewable energy often provides energy in four important
areas: electricity generation, air and water heating/cooling, transportation, and rural (off-
grid) energy services.
 Renewable energy sources are energy supplies that are refilled by natural processes at
least as fast as we use them. All renewable energy comes, ultimately, from the sun. We
can use the sun directly (as in solar heating systems) or indirectly (as in hydroelectric
power, wind power, and power from biomass fuels). Renewable energy supplies can
become exhausted if we use them faster than they become replenished: most of England’s
forests were cut down for fuel before the English started using coal. If used wisely,
however, renewable energy supplies can last forever.

Types of Renewable Energy

Hydropower:
Hydropower represents one of the oldest and largest renewable power sources and accounts
for close to 10% of our nation’s electricity. Existing hydropower capacity is about 80,000
megawatts (MW – one million watts or one thousand kilowatts). Hydropower plants convert
the energy of flowing water into electricity. This is primarily done by damming rivers to
create large reservoirs and then releasing water through turbines to produce electricity.
Hydropower results in no emissions into the atmosphere but the process of damming a river
can create significant ecological problems for water quality and for fish and wildlife habitat.
Biomass
Biomass is second to hydropower as a leader in renewable energy production. Biomass has
an existing capacity of over 7,000 MW. Biomass as a fuel consists of organic matter such as
industrial waste, agricultural waste, wood, and bark. Biomass can be burned directly in
specially designed power plants, or used to replace up to15% of coal as a fuel in ordinary
power plants. Biomass burns cleaner than coal because it has less sulphur, which means less
sulphur dioxide will be emitted into the atmosphere. Biomass can also be used indirectly,
since it produces methane gas as it decays or through a modern process called gasification.
Methane can produce power by burning in a boiler to create steam to drive steam turbines or
through internal combustion in gas turbines and reciprocating engines. The largest use of
biomass energy in Virginia is the forest products industry. Furniture plants, sawmills, and
paper mills usually burn their wood waste to produce heat and electricity. Many homeowners
use firewood or pellets for winter heat.

Geothermal
Geothermal power plants use high temperatures deep underground to produce steam, which
then powers turbines that produce electricity. Geothermal power plants can draw from
underground reservoirs of hot water or can heat water by pumping it into hot, dry rock. High
underground high temperatures are accessed by drilling wells, sometimes more than a mile
deep. In one sense, this geothermal energy is not renewable, since sometime in the future the
core of the earth will cool. That time is so far off (hundreds of millions of years) that that we
think of it as renewable. Geothermal heat pumps use compressors to pump heat out of the
earth (for winter heating) or into the earth (when running as air conditioners in summer). The
energy they pump into and out of the earth is renewable, since it is replaced by the cycle of
the seasons. The energy that runs the compressor can either be renewable or conventional.
Solar Energy
Solar energy comes directly from the power of the sun and is used to produce electricity, to
produce heat, and for light. Solar represents a small share of the electric market in the United
States – about ½ of one percent of electrical capacity. Solar's contribution to heating and
lighting is much larger. Solar-electric power can be produced either by power plants using the
sun’s heat or by photovoltaic (PV) technology, which converts sunlight directly to electricity
using solar cells. PV technology is more practical for residential use. Systems to use the heat
of the sun directly can be either active or passive. In active systems, air or liquid circulate
through solar collectors and bring heat to where it is used. In passive systems, buildings are
built with windows and heat-absorbing surfaces set up to maximize solar heating in winter.
Either technology is suitable for residential use. Systems to directly use the light of the sun
are most common. The most usual device for using sunlight is the window, but skylights and
skylight tubes are also used.
Wind Power
Wind has been the fastest growing energy source in the world. over the last decade mainly
due to very significant improvements in wind energy technology. This is enough to power 1.5
million homes. Wind power is produced by the energy of the wind turning aerodynamic
blades mounted to a hub. The hub is connected to a shaft that turns a generator. Large utility-
scale wind turbines range in size from 50 kilowatts to over four megawatts. Smaller wind
towers (under 50 kW) are suitable for residential and agricultural use.

LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA)

 Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) – also called Life-Cycle Analysis – is a tool for
examining the total environmental impact of a product through every step of its life –
from obtaining raw materials all the way through making it in a factory, selling it in a
store, using it in the workplace or at home, and disposing of it.
 Life-Cycle Assessment is an objective procedure used to evaluate the environmental
impacts associated with a product’s entire life cycle, through the quantitative
determination of all exchange flows between the product system and the ecosphere in all
the transformation processes involved, from the extraction of raw materials to their return
into the ecosphere in the form of waste.
 The life cycle consists of the technical system of processes and transport routes used at, or
needed for, raw materials extraction, production, use and after use (waste management or
recycling). LCA is sometimes called a "cradle-to-grave" assessment. LCA approaches are
generally guided by standards but a professional code of practice has also been
developed.

There are four linked components of LCA:

1. Goal definition and scoping: identifying the LCA's purpose and the expected products of
the study, and determining the boundaries (what is and is not included in the study) and
assumptions based upon the goal definition;
2. Life-cycle inventory: quantifying the energy and raw material inputs and environmental
releases associated with each stage of production;
3. Impact analysis: assessing the impacts on human health and the environment associated
with energy and raw material inputs and environmental releases quantified by the inventory;
4. Improvement analysis: evaluating opportunities to reduce energy, material inputs, or
environmental impacts at each stage of the product life-cycle

Stages in LCA:
1. Extraction of raw materials
This stage in the life cycle includes the extraction of all materials involved in the entire life
cycle of the product. Typical examples of activities included in this stage are forest logging
and crop harvesting, fishing and mining of ores and minerals. The inventory for the extraction
of raw materials should include raw materials for the production of the machinery (i.e.,
capital equipment) involved in manufacturing the product and other stages of the product life
cycle. Often, the most serious environmental problems of the product life cycle associated
with this first stage. It is a common error to leave out parts of the raw materials stage from the
LCA. Essentially, the decision of what to include or exclude in the LCA should be based on a
sensitivity analysis.
2. Manufacture of a product
The manufacturing stage encompasses all the processes involved in the conversion of raw
materials into the products considered in the LCA. Apart from the manufacturing processes at
the plant where the product is made, this stage considers production of ancillary materials,
chemicals and specific or general components at other plants, no matter where they are.
3. Transportation
Transportation is really not a single life stage in itself. Rather, it is an integral part of all
stages of the life cycle. Transportation could be characterized as conveyance of materials or
energy between different operations at various locations. Included in this stage, apart from
the transport process itself, is the production of packaging materials for the transportation of
the product. The transport stage would possibly also include an appropriate share of the
environmental loadings and consumptions associated with the construction and maintenance
of the transport system, whether this is road, rail, water or air transportation.
4. Use of product
The use-stage of the product occurs when it is put in service and operated over its useful life.
This begins after the distribution of the product and ends when the product is used up or
discarded to the waste management system. Included in the use-stage are releases and
resource consumptions created by the use or maintenance of the product.

5. Waste management
Wastes are generated in each phase of the life cycle, and they need to be properly managed to
protect the environment. The management of wastes may involve alternative processes such
as the following:
(i) Reuse: This means the use of the product or parts thereof in new units of the same product
or in different products.
(ii) Recycling: This means the use of materials in the product for manufacture of the same or
other products.
(iii)Incineration: This refers to the combustion of the product, generating heat that may be
used for electricity production or heating.
(iv) Composting: This refers to the microbial degradation of biological materials yielding
compost for improvement of agricultural soils.
(v) Waste water treatment: This refers to the organic matter degradation and nutrients
removal from sewage water, creating sludge that is deposited on agricultural land.
(vi) Land filling: This means the deposition of the product in landfills.

Life cycle assessment process:

Green supply chain
Definition: -
Green supply chain management can be defined as integrating environmental thinking
into supply-chain management, including product design, material sourcing and selection,
manufacturing processes, delivery of the final product as well as end-of-life management of
the product after its useful life.
What is Green Supply Chain Management: Green Supply Chain Management is all about
delivering products and services from suppliers, manufacturers to end customers through
material flow, information flow and cash flow in the context of environment. Traditional
Supply Chain Management focuses on Total Quality, optimum Cost and best service which in
some way contributed to environment. Today's Green Supply chain management mandates to
incorporate the environmental idea in each and every stage of the product and service in a
Supply Chain. Hence Supply chain managers have a great role in developing innovative
environmental technologies to tackle the problems faced by the economy on environmental
problems and communicate this to every stake holder in the chain.
Ways to build Green Supply Chain
Product Selection: Designing the product in such a way that it should be safe for use,
creating least pollution and consumes less energy. It should not be hazardous during storage,
transportation and also while disposing once it reaches end of its product life cycle. DFE
(Design for Environment) is about developing products that has no negative side effect for
human and environment, cost effective and environment friendly. This practice has to be
implemented in product design stage.

Process and production: Process has to be designed so that it conforms to the Green Supply
Chain Management initiatives to reduce environmental negative impact. Efficient and
effective production strategy to reduce energy consumption which includes reducing waste
material, air and water emissions. This contributes to lean manufacturing. All possibilities
have to be checked for recycling the Scrap materials.

Business Partners selection: Selecting suppliers who have proven track records on
practicing lean manufacturing and using environment friendly material. Involving vendors
during product conception and design so that they can share their best practices to best align
your strategy with the customer strategy on going greener supply chain. Ultimately it results
in customer delight and satisfaction.

Logistics Design: Efforts should be practiced to reduce fuel consumption. This we can
achieve by setting up suppliers near to the OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturers) and its
Hubs. Less use of air freight, increased use of rail and sea transport. Logistics partners have
to be included while product designs so that it improves cubic space utilization and effective
fleet management. Back hauling should be practiced where the empty vehicle should be used
to collect the goods from other sources once after delivering finished goods.

Packaging Material: Replacing package materials which are eco-friendly. Fumigation

certificate should be obtained for international shipments for wooden pallets and crates.
Packaging material has to be designed in such a way it can be re-used and re-cycled.
Packaging should be robust so that any hazardous material inside it doesn't spill over and
cause environmental hazard.

Reverse logistics Design: Materials after consuming should be effectively used for re-use,
repair, recycle, remanufacture and redistribution. It calls for reusing containers and pallets,
redesigning and recycling package materials etc. Reducing pollution during transportation are
important activities of reverse logistics. Proper design of Reverse logistics contributes greater
towards Green Supply Chain Management.

Information Technology: A Green approach to IT has to be achieved through various

automatic processes thereby reducing carbon foot prints. Paper usage has to be minimized
through automatic invoice/payment processing. Using EDI for creating/transmitting orders.

Green Building: Deploying greener practices in Design, construction and maintaining the
buildings. Using energy efficient bulbs, natural lightning saves considerable energy. Water
has to be recycled for day to day use. LEED certification (Leadership in Energy and
Environmental design recognized by US and other countries) has to be obtained. Investment
in Renewable energy sources such as solar, wind etc. are needed for sustainable green
practice.

Benefits of GSCM
1. GSCM will help us to gain a competitive advantage and help us to attract new customers.
2. Increased use of resources, improved efficiency and reduced production cost.
3. It contributes greater towards improved financial performance.
4. Reduces risk by avoiding hazardous material that leads to environmental effect.
5. Improved quality of products and services gives higher customer delight and reputation.

Eco Friendly Environment Good practices & Innovation:

“Eco-innovation is the production, application or exploitation of a good, service, production
process, organisational structure, or management or business method that is novel to the firm
or user and which results, throughout its life cycle, in a reduction of environmental risk,
pollution and the negative impacts of resources use (including energy use) compared to
relevant alternatives”.

Following aspects in particular need special mention: -

(a) All the buildings have been so designed that there is proper natural day light, thus
minimizing the use of artificial lights during the day.
(b) The buildings have been so designed that they remain relatively cool during summers and
warm during winter even without air-conditioners, thus there is a positive environmental
impact. It reduces temperature swing also.
(c) All the buildings have proper air ventilation, proper aesthetic appearance, well maintained
neat and clean structures and infrastructure.
(d) All the buildings use greenery and are surrounded by sufficient number of trees so that
there are overall positive environmental impacts
(e) The drainage system of the buildings enables water-reuse in promoting greenery in the
campus. The bio-waste generated by the sanitation system is re-used in promoting greenery.
Good Practices:
1. Energy Conservation
 Ensuring that all computers have activated power management software to minimize
energy consumption and put the computer in sleepy mode when not in use. Always
turn off monitors.
 Adopt guidelines for extending the life of computers and components (i.e. follow
manufacturers guidelines) and maximize (i.e. re-use, repair, recycle).
 Minimising the paper work and wastages go through eco-friendly recycle process.
 Use electronic method for the information / circulation/ notices etc. (thus minimizing
paper use)
 Go for policy of re-use, repair, recycle wherever possible in there working.
 Constructions must well ventilated and lighted and needs no artificial lighting.

2. Use of renewable energy

 Using Solar lightning system in Parking as well as on streets saves large amount of
electricity.
 Installing solar water heating system in homes and hostel which can saves large
amount of fossil fuels and electricity.
3.Water harvesting
 Rainwater can be collected from rivers or roofs, and in many places, the water collected is
redirected to a deep pit (well, shaft, or borehole), a reservoir with percolation, or collected
from dew or fog with nets or other tools.
 Its uses include water for gardens, livestock, irrigation, domestic use with proper
treatment, indoor heating for houses, etc. The harvested water can also be used
as drinking water, longer-term storage, and for other purposes such as groundwater
recharge.

4. Plantation
 Plant more trees for greener environment and to maintain proper oxygen level in the
atmosphere
5. E-waste management
  Following practices are followed
A. Efforts to reuse the e-Waste like computers to teach the basics at the school level.
B. Efforts to repair the computers and to be used for students and library.
C. wherever possible recycling is done.

CHAPTER 6: SUSTAINABILITY REPORTING

 Sustainability Reporting

Definition: A sustainability report is an organizational report that gives information about

economic, environmental, social and governance performance.
 Sustainability reporting is not just report generation from collected data; instead it is a
method to internalize and improve an organization’s commitment to sustainable
development in a way that can be demonstrated to both internal and external stakeholders.

Elements of Sustainability Report:

There are five elements of the sustainability report as follows:

1) Transparency:

 Aside from collecting and compiling the data, which is no small challenge,
transparency requires putting new company information into the public domain.
 There is organizational inertia and a fear that additional data could reflect poorly on
the organization, or even on individuals.
 The other fear is that the information could in some way benefit the competition. As a
result, many reporters take a shortcut by including superficial data rather than truly
transparent information.
 True transparency requires context and parameters. For example, if a company reports
a 20% reduction in water usage, readers shouldn’t have to ask; “20% of what
baseline? Over what time period?”

2) Authenticity:

 We all know that no one is perfect. And no company is perfect either.

 But most companies have been so conditioned to portray themselves as perfect in the
marketplace, that admitting to flaws and challenges is tremendously difficult.
 A sustainability report is not the place to portray perfection. That does a disservice to
stakeholders – because it simply isn’t believable. Good reports acknowledge
challenges and failures provide context and communicate next steps.

3) Stakeholder Engagement:
  Good CSRs provide evidence that the transparent and authentic information included
is also a true reflection of stakeholder interests.
 Many reports handle this GRI requirement by describing channels and perhaps
volume of communication with various stakeholder groups.
 True stakeholder engagement, however, is apparent when there is evidence of an
authentic two-way exchange resulting in some degree of change in the company.
 This proves that the company is really listening and incorporating stakeholder
feedback into their business.

4) Intuitive Structure:

 Sustainability reports have a wide array of audiences – each with very different
expectations.
 If your audience can’t find the information they need, any hard work put into the other
elements will go unnoticed.
 It is important to develop a good structure for content and navigation whether
reporting in a printed piece, a PDF, a website or a mobile app.
 Good structure and design will organize the complex range of information into a
structure simple enough that all readers will be able to navigate intuitively.

5) Meaningful:

 Finally, successful reports will do all of the above in a way that is truly meaningful to
each audience.
 At Emotive Brand, we believe that people (i.e. stakeholders) are increasingly skeptical
and sophisticated, and that they will support companies that offer them meaning.
 Sustainability reports present an opportunity for organizations to communicate
authentically about issues that matter to people.
 So, it is important to tie each of the previous elements together in a way that speaks
clearly and directly to stakeholder interests, while providing an opportunity for
continued dialogue.

 Purpose of Sustainability Report:

1. Sustainability reporting is the practice of measuring, disclosing, and being accountable to
internal and external stakeholders for organizational performance towards the goal of
sustainable development.
2. ‘Sustainability reporting’ is a broad term considered synonymous with others used to
describe reporting on economic, environmental, and social impacts (e.g., triple bottom
line, corporate responsibility reporting, etc.).
3. A sustainability report should provide a balanced and reasonable representation of the
sustainability performance of a reporting organization – including both positive and
negative contributions.
4. Sustainability reports based on the GRI Reporting Framework disclose outcomes and
results that occurred within the reporting period in the context of the organization’s
commitments, strategy, and management approach.

Reports can be used for the following purposes, among others:

• Benchmarking and assessing sustainability performance with respect to laws, norms,
codes, performance standards, and voluntary initiatives;
• Demonstrating how the organization influences and is influenced by expectations about
sustainable development; and
• Comparing performance within an organization and between different organizations over
time.

Advantages / Benefits of Sustainability Report:

1. Sustainability reporting is a vital step towards achieving a sustainable global economy.
2. Reporting enhances companies’ accountability for their impacts and therefore enhances
trust, facilitating the sharing of values on which to build a more cohesive society.
3. The availability of sustainability information can be used by governments to assess the
impact and contribution of businesses to the economy and to understand which issues are
being tackled by which players.
4. Widespread sustainability reporting practices, creating transparency, can help markets
function more efficiently and indicate the health of the economy; and help drive progress
by all organizations towards a smart, sustainable and inclusive growth.
5. Organizations can use reporting to inform their risk analysis strategies and boost their
business.
6. A growing number of companies see sustainability reporting as a means to drive greater
innovation through their businesses and products to create a competitive advantage in the
market.
7. Governments, businesses and stakeholders all directly benefit from it, and the positive
impact on social, environmental and human rights issues is evident.
8. Specifically, for organizations, sustainability reporting adds value in a number of areas:
Building trust Transparency about non-financial performance can help to reduce
reputational risks, open up dialogue with stakeholders such as customers, communities
and investors, and demonstrate leadership, openness and accountability.
9. Improved processes and systems internal management and decision-making processes can
be examined and improved, leading to cost reductions by measuring and monitoring such
issues as energy consumption, materials use, and waste.
10. Progressing vision and strategy Comprehensive analysis of strengths and weaknesses, and
the engagement with stakeholders that is necessary for sustainability reporting, can lead
to more robust and wide-ranging organizational visions and strategies.
11. Importantly, companies can make sustainability an integral part of their strategies.
12. Reducing compliance costs Measuring sustainability performance can help companies to
meet regulatory requirements effectively, avoid costly breaches, and gather necessary
data in a more efficient and cost-effective way.
13. Competitive advantage Companies seen as leaders and innovators can be in a stronger
bargaining position when it comes to attracting investment, initiating new activities,
entering new markets, and negotiating contracts.

GRI G4 Guidelines:
 The GRI Sustainability Reporting Guidelines (the Guidelines) offer Reporting Principles,
Standard Disclosures and an Implementation Manual for the preparation of sustainability
reports by organizations, regardless of their size, sector or location.
 The Guidelines also offer an international reference for all those interested in the
disclosure of governance approach and of the environmental, social and economic
performance and impacts of organizations.
 The Guidelines are useful in the preparation of any type of document which requires such
disclosure.
 The Guidelines are developed through a global multi-stakeholder process involving
representatives from business, labour, civil society, and financial markets, as well as
auditors and experts in various fields; and in close dialogue with regulators and
governmental agencies in several countries. The Guidelines are developed in alignment
with internationally recognized reporting related documents, which are referenced
throughout the Guidelines.

THE GUIDELINES
The Guidelines are presented in two parts: Ÿ
1. Reporting Principles and Standard Disclosures Ÿ
2. Implementation Manual
 The first part – Reporting Principles and Standard Disclosures – contains Reporting
Principles, Standard Disclosures, and the criteria to be applied by an organization to
prepare its sustainability report ‘in accordance’ with the Guidelines. Definitions of key
terms are also included.
 The second part – Implementation Manual – contains explanations of how to apply the
Reporting Principles, how to prepare the information to be disclosed, and how to interpret
the various concepts in the Guidelines. References to other sources, a glossary and
general reporting notes are also included.

Preparing a sustainability report using the Guidelines is an iterative process.

The following steps describe how to use the Guidelines in the sustainability reporting
process.
1. Obtain an overview
  Read the Reporting Principles and Standard Disclosures Ÿ
 Read the Definitions of Key Terms
2. Choose the preferred ‘in accordance’ option Ÿ
 The Guidelines offer two options for an organization to prepare its sustainability
report ‘in accordance’ with the Guidelines. The two options are Core and
Comprehensive. These options designate the content to be included for the report
to be prepared ‘in accordance’ with the Guidelines.
 Both options can apply for an organization of any type, size, sector or location.
3. Prepare to disclose general standard disclosures Ÿ
 Identify the General Standard Disclosures required for the chosen ‘in accordance’
option.
 Check if there are General Standard Disclosures that apply to the organization’s
sector.
 Read the Principles for Defining Reporting Quality.
 Plan the processes to disclose the General Standard Disclosures.
 Consult the information presented in the Implementation Manual for explanations
of how to disclose the General Standard Disclosures Ÿ
 Dedicate adequate time and attention to complete the General Standard
Disclosures under the section ‘Identified Material Aspects and Boundaries’.
 These General Standard Disclosures are a central element of both ‘in accordance’
options, and should be disclosed for both.
To do this: –
a. Read the Principles for Defining Report Content
b. Read the three steps for defining material Aspects and Boundaries,
presented in the Implementation Manual, and use the visual support for
these steps.

4. Prepare to disclose specific standard disclosures Ÿ

 Specific Standard Disclosures are Disclosures on Management Approach (DMA)
and Indicators. They are presented under Categories and Aspects.
 Identify the DMA and Indicators related to the material Aspects Ÿ
 Check if there are Aspects and Specific Standard Disclosures that apply to the
organization’s sector.
 Read the Principles for Defining Reporting Quality
 Plan the necessary processes to disclose the Specific Standard Disclosures.
 The report should cover DMA and Indicators for identified material Aspects.
 Aspects that are not identified as material do not need to be covered in the report
Ÿ Consult the information presented in the Implementation Manual for
explanations of how to disclose the Specific Standard Disclosures Ÿ
 Information on topics considered material by the organization but not covered by
the GRI Aspects list can also be included.
5. Prepare the sustainability report Ÿ
  Present the information prepared Ÿ
 Electronic or web-based reporting and paper reports are appropriate media for
reporting. Organizations may choose to use a combination of web and paper-
based reports or use only one medium. For example, the organization may choose
to provide a detailed report on its website and provide an executive summary,
including its strategy and analysis and performance information, in paper form.
The choice will likely depend on the organization’s decisions on its reporting
period, its plans for updating content, the likely users of the report, and other
practical factors, such as its distribution strategy. Ÿ
 At least one medium (web or paper) should provide users with access to the
complete set of information for the reporting period.

 Eco System:

What is an Ecosystem? An ecosystem includes all of the living things (plants, animals and
organisms) in a given area, interacting with each other, and also with their non-living
environments (weather, earth, sun, soil, climate, atmosphere). Ecosystems are the foundations
of the Biosphere and they determine the health of the entire earth system.
Concept:
Living organisms cannot live isolated from their non-living environment because the latter
provides materials and energy for the survival of the former i.e. there is interaction between a
biotic community and its environment to produce a stable system; a natural self-sufficient
unit which is known as an ecosystem.
 An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the non-living
components of their environment (things like air, water and mineral soil), interacting as a
system. These biotic and abiotic components are regarded as linked together through
nutrient cycles and energy flows.
 As ecosystems are defined by the network of interactions among organisms, and between
organisms and their environment, they can be of any size but usually encompass specific,
limited spaces.
 Energy, water, nitrogen and soil minerals are other essential abiotic components of an
ecosystem.
 The energy that flows through ecosystems is obtained primarily from the sun. It generally
enters the system through photosynthesis, a process that also captures carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere. By feeding on plants and on one another, animals play an important
role in the movement of matter and energy through the system.
 Ecosystems are controlled both by external and internal factors. External factors such as
climate, the parent material that forms the soil, and topography control the overall
structure of an ecosystem and the way things work within it, but are not themselves
influenced by the ecosystem.
 Ecosystems in similar environments that are located in different parts of the world can
have very different characteristics simply because they contain different species.
 Internal factors not only control ecosystem processes but are also controlled by them and
are often subject to feedback loops.
 While the resource inputs are generally controlled by external processes like climate and
parent material, the availability of these resources within the ecosystem is controlled by
internal factors like decomposition, root competition or shading.
 Other internal factors include disturbance, succession and the types of species present.
Although humans exist and operate within ecosystems, their cumulative effects are large
enough to influence external factors like climate.
 Biodiversity affects ecosystem function, as do the processes of disturbance and
succession. Ecosystems provide a variety of goods and services upon which people
depend; the principles of ecosystem management suggest that rather than managing
individual species, natural resources should be managed at the level of the ecosystem
itself.

Structure and Function of an Ecosystem:

Each ecosystem has two main components:
(1) Abiotic

(2) Biotic

(1) Abiotic Components:

The non-living factors or the physical environment prevailing in an ecosystem form the
abiotic components. They have a strong influence on the structure, distribution, behaviour
and inter-relationship of organisms.

Abiotic components are mainly of two types:

(a) Climatic Factors:
Which include rain, temperature, light, wind, humidity etc.

(b) Edaphic Factors:

Which include soil, pH, topography minerals etc.?

The functions of important factors in abiotic components are given below:

 Soils are much more complex than simple sediments. They contain a mixture of
weathered rock fragments, highly altered soil mineral particles, organic matter, and living
organisms. Soils provide nutrients, water, a home, and a structural growing medium for
organisms. The vegetation found growing on top of a soil is closely linked to this
component of an ecosystem through nutrient cycling.

 The atmosphere provides organisms found within ecosystems with carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis and oxygen for respiration. The processes of evaporation, transpiration
and precipitation cycle water between the atmosphere and the Earth’s surface.
 Solar radiation is used in ecosystems to heat the atmosphere and to evaporate and
transpire water into the atmosphere. Sunlight is also necessary for photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis provides the energy for plant growth and metabolism, and the organic
food for other forms of life.

 Most living tissue is composed of a very high percentage of water, up to and even
exceeding 90%. The protoplasm of a very few cells can survive if their water content
drops below 10%, and most are killed if it is less than 30-50%.

 Water is the medium by which mineral nutrients enter and are trans-located in plants. It is
also necessary for the maintenance of leaf turgidity and is required for photosynthetic
chemical reactions. Plants and animals receive their water from the Earth’s surface and
soil. The original source of this water is precipitation from the atmosphere.

(2) Biotic Components:

The living organisms including plants, animals and micro-organisms (Bacteria and Fungi)
that are present in an ecosystem form the biotic components.

On the basis of their role in the ecosystem the biotic components can be classi-fied into three
main groups:

(A) Producers

(B) Consumers

(C) Decomposers or Reducers.

(A) Producers: The green plants have chlorophyll with the help of which they trap solar
energy and change it into chemical energy of carbohydrates using simple inorganic
compounds namely water and carbon dioxide. This process is known as photo-synthesis. As
the green plants manufacture their own food they are known as Autotrophs (i.e. auto = self,
trophies = feeder).

The chemical energy stored by the producers is utilised partly by the producers for their own
growth and survival and the remaining is stored in the plant parts for their future use.

(B) Consumers: The animals lack chlorophyll and are unable to synthesise their own food.
There-fore, they depend on the producers for their food. They are known as heterotrophs (i.e.
heteros = other, trophos = feeder)

The consumers are of four types, namely:

(a) Primary Consumers or First Order Consumers or Herbivores:

These are the animals which feed on plants or the producers. They are called her-bivores.
Examples are rabbit, deer, goat, cattle etc.

(b) Secondary
econdary Consumers or Second Order Consumers or Primary Carnivores:

The animals which feed on the herbivores are called the pri-mary carnivores.

Examples are cats, foxes, snakes etc.

(c) Tertiary Consumers or Third Order Consumers:

These are the large carnivores which feed on the secondary consumers.

Example is Wolves.

(d) Quaternary Consumers or Fourth Order Consumers or Omnivores:

These are the largest carnivores which feed on the tertiary consumers and are not eaten up by
any other animal.

Examples are lions and tigers.

(C) Decomposers or Reducers:

Bacteria and fungi belong to this category. They breakdown the dead organic materials of
producers (plants) and consumers (animals) for their food and re-lease to the environment the
simple
imple inorganic and organic substances produced as by
by-products
products of their metabolisms.

These simple substances are reused by the producers resulting in a cyclic ex-change of
materials between the biotic community and the abiotic environment of the ecosystem. The
decomposers are known as Saprotrophs (i.e., sapros = rotten, trophos = feeder)
 Industrial Effluents:

Effluent is an out flowing of water or gas to natural body of water, or from a manmade
structure. Effluent, in engineering, is the stream exiting a chemical reactor.

Effluent is defined by the United States Environmental Protection Agency as "wastewater -

treated or untreated - that flows out of a treatment plant, sewer, or industrial outfall.
Generally, refers to wastes discharged into surface waters". The Compact Oxford English
Dictionary defines effluent as "liquid waste or sewage discharged into a river or the sea".

Effluent in the artificial sense is in general considered to be water pollution, such as the
outflow from a sewage treatment facility or the wastewater discharge from industrial
facilities. An effluent sump pump, for instance, pumps waste from toilets installed below a
main sewage line. Similar to wastewater produced in different establishments, industries, and
facilities. These wastewaters released can also accumulate and pollute the nearby
communities and bodies of water.

Monitoring:

Final Effluent Monitoring Systems provide continuous monitoring of compliance parameters

for the purpose of effluent permit reporting purposes or simply self-monitoring purposes. Our
monitoring systems can provide hardcopy recording via strip chart recorders, or provide
electronic data-logging, or retransmit via a network connection. Any analytical parameter can
be monitored including:

• pH (0-14)
• Flow (instant and total)
• Temperature
• Conductivity / Turbidity
• TSS and / or TDS
• Heavy Metals via colorimetric determination including (Fe, Cu, Cd, Cr, Ni, Zn, etc.)

Recording Methods can include any conventional data recording device including:

 Circular Chart Recorders

 Strip Chart Recorders
 Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems
 PLC retransmission to a Building Monitoring System (BMB).

Local and Remote Monitoring Options:

 Local SCADA system and automated report generation on a daily, weekly, and
monthly basis.
  Remote monitoring, control, and data logging via the Cloud (internet connection
required).
 Automated paging to cell phones of alerts or alarms.
 SCADA System Monitoring

Online monitoring of effluents is mandatory for specific category of industries in India. The
equipment needs to be rugged, reliable (result comparable to lab data), economical, well
supported by manufacturer and local distributor with inventory of spares and skilled
manpower. The system shouldn't require recurring cost in reinvestment for replacements at a
later stage. Also, the instrument needs to comply Local and International Standards.

Analysis: -

1) Temperature: -Temperature affects chemical, biological reactions in water. In the

present study, it varies from 28 to 29.5 0C, but there are cases where that temperature has
been reported more than 40 0C due to reactions in the plants (nuclear and thermal power
plants). Generally, the effluents are suitably diluted before they are released to the
sewage.
2) pH: - The pH values are in the range 6.5-8. This is in accordance with the WHO
permissible limit (6.0-8.5). The extreme pH of wastewater are generally not acceptable, as
lower pH cause problems to survival of aquatic life. It also interferes with the optimum
operation of wastewater treatment facilities. Water with high or low pH is not suitable for
irrigation. At low pH most of the metals become soluble in water and therefore could be
hazardous in the environment. At high pH most of the metals become insoluble and
accumulate in the sludge and sediments. The toxicity of heavy metals also gets enhanced
at particular pH.
3) Electrical conductivity the electric conductivity of water is a measure of the ability of a
solution to conduct an electric current; this ability depends upon the presence of ions,
their total concentration, mobility and temperature of water. The conductivity of the water
is one of the important parameters used to determine the suitability of water for irrigation.
It is useful indicator for salinity or total salt content of waste water.
4) Total dissolved solids: - Total dissolved solid is the measure of total inorganic salts and
other substances that are dissolved in water. The effluents with high TDS value may
cause salinity problem if discharged to irrigation water. The total dissolved solids in
various industrial effluents ranged from 1557- 39643 mg /L.
5) Total Suspended solids: - In the present Study, the total suspended solid was found in
the range of 82 to 4410 mg/L, which was very higher value compare to limit set by WHO.
6) Nitrates and Phosphates: - 20-50 mg/L of nitrates and 0-20mg/L of phosphates are
permissible for irrigation. More than 75% of the samples are having higher concentration
levels; they are unfit for irrigation without proper treatments.
7) Dissolved Oxygen (DO): - Dissolved oxygen levels are found to be very low and hence a
lot of oxygen has been used up. It shows the increased concentration of organic matter.
More than 4 mg/L is desirable but all the samples show very negligible amount of DO.
The presence of free oxygen in water is an indication of the ability of that water to
support biological life. Low value of DO may be due to higher water temperature and
increased activity of microorganisms in the water which consumes a lot of oxygen due to
metabolic process and the decomposition of organic material.
8) BOD and COD: - BOD measure the amount of oxygen requires by bacteria for breaking
down to simpler substances from the decomposable organic matter present in any water
and COD test is useful in pinpointing toxic condition and presence of biological resistant
substances10. In the present study BOD and COD values were found in the range of 90 -
1213mg /L and 167 – 8220 mg/L respectively which goes higher side than the limit
WHO.
9) Chlorides and Sulphates: - Concentration of Chloride varied from 200-600 mg/L and
that of sulphate varied from 200-400 mg/l. More than 95% of samples show higher
amount of Chlorides and Sulphates compared to WHO limits. (250 mg/L). High
contraction of Chlorides and Sulphates may due to use Chlorine compounds, like
Hydrochloric acid, Hypo chloric acid, chlorine gas and sulphate compounds like
Sulphuric acid, Sodium sulphate, Aluminium sulphate etc. are used as a raw material in
various process.
10) Sodium and Calcium: - Sodium concentration was found in the range 65 to 5693 mg/L.
and Calcium was in the range of 103 to 6470 mg/L which exceeds the limit set by WHO.
The concentration of sodium and calcium in effluent may due to use large amount sodium
and calcium compounds used in various manufacturing process.
11) Magnesium and Potassium: - Magnesium concentration varies in the range of 34 to
3246 mg/L. 90% of samples exceeds the standard limit of WHO. Potassium
concentrations were in the range of below detection limit to 74 mg/L.

 Green Building: -

 Green building (also known as green construction or sustainable building) refers to both a
structure and the application of processes that are environmentally responsible and
resource-efficient throughout a building's life-cycle: from planning to design,
construction, operation, maintenance, renovation, and demolition.
 This requires close cooperation of the contractor, the architects, the engineers, and the
client at all project stages. The Green Building practice expands and complements the
classical building design concerns of economy, utility, durability, and comfort.
 Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) is a set of rating systems for the
design, construction, operation, and maintenance of green buildings which was
Developed by the U.S. Green Building Council.
 Other certificates system that confirms the sustainability of buildings is the British
BREEAM (Building Research Establishment Environmental Assessment Method) for
buildings and large-scale developments.
 The common objective of green buildings is to reduce the overall impact of the built
environment on human health and the natural environment by:

1) Efficiently using energy, water, and other resources

2) Protecting occupant health and improving employee productivity
3) Reducing waste, pollution and environmental degradation

 A similar concept is natural building, which is usually on a smaller scale and tends to
focus on the use of natural materials that are available locally.

Benefits of green building

With new technologies constantly being developed to complement current practices in
creating greener structures, the benefits of green building can range from environmental
to economic to social.
Benefits of green building include:
Environmental benefits:
1) Reduce wastage of water
2) Conserve natural resources
3) Improve air and water quality
4) Protect biodiversity and ecosystems

Economic benefits:
1) Reduce operating costs
2) Improve occupant productivity
3) Create market for green product and services

Social benefits:
1) Improve quality of life
2) Minimize strain on local infrastructure
3) Improve occupant health and comfort
 CHAPTER: 1
-: SAFETY IN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY:-

 SCOPE OF SAFETY IN CONSTRUCTION WORK

Basic Philosophy: Construction activity is not only an oldest industry but also the largest one in
many parts of the world. It started with the basic human need ‘shelter, home or dwelling house’
and is ever expanding with the growing population and their growing needs of residential and
commercial buildings, shops, offices, factories, roads, bridges, dams, railways, power transmission
lines, communication lines, towers, columns, chimneys, silos, oil and gas installations, air fields,
hoists, lifts, many types of underground, under-water and aboveground works and works of
excavation, foundation, construction, alteration, renovation, repair, maintenance, demolition,
dismantling, erection, fabrication etc. After agriculture, construction seems to be the second largest
economic activity. If mining and quarrying are considered as a part of or inclusive of construction
industry, it becomes the largest of all industrial activities. Basic philosophy to improve their
working conditions is the safety philosophy. It should be realized that construction is inherently
hazardous industry, , contract based industry, demands heavy work load, contributes high
frequency and severity of accidents, less protected by law, movable and needs continuous efforts
to maintain safety at all levels. It may not be possible to completely eliminate the hazards, but it is
certainly possible to minimize them by enforcing certain safety precautions. The working and
service conditions of the workers need to be improved. Peculiarity of accidents is well known.
Falling from height, struck by falling body including landslide, material and equipment, striking
against object, falling on the flat or into pit, sump, gutter etc., occupational diseases of lung, skin,
locomotors and nervous system, electrical and pneumatic tools, unguarded machinery, heavy
vehicles and working without safety equipment are the major causes of accidents. Mechanization
can eliminate some manual work hazards. Work permit system, prompt supervision and first-aid,
use of personal protective equipment and proper tools, training and education and project safety
committee are some of the remedial measures.

Safety philosophy for construction work should be based on the following points:
1. Safety policy statement and strict adherence to it.
2. Safety cannot be delegated. It is a line function.
3. Safety is everybody’s responsibility.
4. It is an integral part of all project activities.
5. Good planning and advice, and discussion with contractor and subcontractors are
essential at design or initial stage.
6. Safety ensures success with satisfaction.
7. Work permit system is desired for all hazardous works.
8. All construction accidents should be recorded, reported and investigated for the purpose
of safety and costing.
9. Standards, Codes and Statutory provisions must be followed. Safety manuals should be
prepared for contractors, workers and supervisors, and
10. Education, training and supervision for safe work methods and use of safe tools and
equipment play an important role.
 Parameters of Safety in Construction :
Peculiarities and parameters governing safety in construction industry are, now,
discussed in the following paragraphs.
 Studies, Statistics and Results:
Statistics and studies on construction accidents are not much available as factory
accidents. This is mainly because of no exclusive authority, late and poor administration, Non
report- ability and no complete compilation of such data. In one study which lasted for 15 years,
Levitt (1987) highlighted the hidden costs of construction accidents. He concluded that these
accident costs mostly exceeded the gross-profit of most of the firms in construction industry.

He also found that all managers who had good safety records do three things:

1. Motivate their subordinates to attend to safety.

2. Provide training for managers and workers at all levels, and
3. Insist that work is carefully planned. Champoux et. al. (1987) studied 357 accidents in
construction industry and identified the higher risk areas of work and organization as targets for
prevention. High risk tasks are crucial to ergonomist and all those working for safety in
construction. National Institute of Training for Industrial Engineering (NITIE), Bombay conducted
a study (1989) and after interviewing site engineers, safety officers and labourers on site, it was
concluded that the reasons for health and safety problems were -
1. The absence of safety rules and regulations.
2. The unorganized nature of work.
3. Almost total lack of any need for safety felt by engineers and contractors and
4. Absence of trade unions for welfare and health.

The main safety measures suggested were -

1. Compulsory use of safety helmets.

2. Use of safety belts for working at heights greater than 1.5 m.
3. Provision of canvas around the scaffolding to prevent falling objects from striking people.
4. Good and tidy housekeeping.
5. Provision of proper tools and
6. Adequate training to new workers.

Occupational health diseases were studied by Englund, Triebig, Duivenbooden and

Husmark (1987). Diseases of the skin, loco motor, circulatory, respiratory and nervous system
were noticed amongst construction workers. A few occupations handling asbestos, showed
respiratory cancer in plumbers and insulators. Fatal occupational injuries in Construction,
by type of event or exposure, in USA, 1995 are reported as under (Accident Facts, 1997) :
Out of total 6210 fatal accidents in all occupations in 1995, 1043 i.e. 16.79% fatal accidents took
place in construction and comparatively it is the highest in this industry.

Its cause wise breakup is as under:

1 . Fall to lower level - 324
2. Electric current - 163
3 Traffic accidents - 117
4 Struck by object - 104
5 Struck by vehicle, mobile equip. - 079
6 Caught in or crushed in collapsing materials - 052
7 Caught in or compressed by equipment or object - 033
Other 171
Total 1043

One study of construction accidents in our country gives following figures.

Type of Accident Temporary Total Permanent Partial Permanent Total
Disablement Disablement Disablement
% % %
Handling of Materials 24.3 20.9 5.6
Falls 18.1 16.2 15.9
Falling object 10.4 8.4 18.1
Machines 11.9 25.0 9.1
Vehicles 8.5 8.4 23.0
Hand tools 8.1 7.8 1.1
Electricity 3.5 2.5 13.4
others 15.2 10.8 13.8
Total 100 100 100
To compare with this, Accident Rates for the year 1992 and 1993, given by Construction
Wing of NPC (Nuclear Power Corporation, India) are reported as 10.05 and 12.06 respectively.
This indicates that our construction accidents are 5 to 14 times less than those of foreign
(developed) countries. Similarly Fatality Rates for 1992 and 1993, given by the same NPC, India
are 0.124 and 0.120 respectively and again these figures when compared with ILO figures, indicate
that fatal construction accidents in our country are 75 to 320 times less than those in western
countries.
The reasons of this anomaly, as stated in the article are as under:
1. Gross under-reporting of accidents by Indian industry.
2. ILO figures include first aid injuries while ours are reportable (48hours absence) accidents.
3. ILO figures are old when safety efforts in western countries were poor.

Now some figures of recent construction accidents in our country are given below. Some 30000
workers were employed at one place in Gujarat constructing various plants during 1991 to 1997.
The large civil construction and structural steelworks including fabrication and erection of
buildings were carried out through competent contractors and subcontractors. Safety Officers and
safety supervisors were also employed exclusively for contract workers. Record of all accidents,
reportable or not reportable, was maintained, studied and used in further prevention of accidents.
Its summary is as under: From March 1994 to July 1997, total fatalities were 39.
Its cause-wise percentage break-up is as under:
1 Struck by falling objects, structures, plant, mobile construction equipment etc. 37.5 %
2 Fall 32.5 %
3 Electrical 12.5 %
4 Traffic accidents 07.5 %
5 Others 10.0 %
Total 100 %

Comparing above figures with the same causation figures of USA, UK, Germany, Sweden, Japan
and Canada (from Safety & Health Journal of USA - 1994), it is deduced that, all over the world,
the first two major causes of fatal accidents in construction activity are :
(1) Fall from height and
(2) Struck by falling objects.

• Site Planning and Layout :

In construction activities, scope of site selection is less though not zero. Mines are at
fixed places and cannot be shifted. Builders or organisers generally purchase the site where
land is available at low price and where contractors and workers have to work. In a fixed factory
premises, construction is to be carried out in a limited space. In dense population, construction of
high rise (multi-storeyed) building needs working at height. Gutters and underground piping have
fixed tracks available. Underwater work has fixed destinations and long pipelines are passed
through the shortest possible distance for economic reasons. Therefore in a limited scope of site
selection, planning and layout becomes most essential on the available site. First plan for the whole
and then for the detail. Plan site layout, plot layout and equipment layout as per requirement.
Alternate layouts should be prepared for selecting the best one. Process flow diagram and stages or
sequence of work should be decided. Each work should be subdivided in steps accounting for
safety precautions and responsibilities. Facilities for water, Firefighting, first-aid, tools and
equipment availability, roads, vehicle movement, parking, smoking booths, sanitary blocks,
crèche, canteen, control room, safe entry, exit and escape route etc. should be properly planned.
Topography, geology, weather, environment, separation distances, service corridors, overhead
work (pipe bridges, tanks, slabs etc.), segregation etc. should also be considered. Special
precautions should be encountered for working at heights or depths Planning, layout and designing
of steel structure, tall towers, metal tanks, vessels,
reactors, utilities, piping etc. need Hazop, hazard identification, risk and reliability assessment,
strength and stability criteria, inventory reduction, process safety, fail-safe design, emergency shut-
down procedure and emergency planning.
Appointment of safety and health personnel, trained supervisors and requirement of adequate first-
aid and firefighting facilities and personal protective equipment should be considered at the stage
of planning and budgeting for safety at work.
• Safe Access :
For the safety of workplaces and avoiding risk of injury to workers, safe means of
access to and egress from all workplaces should be provided, maintained and indicated where
necessary. Section 32 of the Factories Act requires that all floors, steps, stairs, passages and
gangways shall be of sound construction and properly maintained and shall be kept free from
obstructions and substances likely to cause persons to slip and where it is necessary to ensure
safety, steps, stairs, passages and gangways shall be provided with substantial handrails. Safe
means of access are required at all working places. To prevent fall, fencing or other devices are
required. Rule 66A of the Gujarat Factories Rules specifies access for Firefighting and requires
unobstructed layout of plants and building and doors and windows on external walls for easy
access inside the building. Means of access may be a ladder-portable or fixed, ramp, runway or
stairway. They should conform to the code or standards prescribed.

• Good Housekeeping :

Good housekeeping Program should include –

1. Speedy removal of scrap, waste, debris, loose and unused materials at regular intervals.
2. Proper storage of materials, tools and equipment. Removal of nails from lumber before stacking.
3. Cleaning of floors, passageways, stairs etc. to remove oil, water, dust etc. Sand, ash, sawdust
and proper absorbers can be used.
4. Containers should be provided for collection and separation of waste. Flammable/ hazardous
waste should be covered and safely disposed Basic Philosophy: Construction activity is not only
an oldest industry but also the largest one in many parts of the world. It started with the basic
human need ‘shelter, home or dwelling house’ and is ever expanding with the growing population
and their growing needs of residential and commercial buildings, shops, offices, factories, roads,
bridges, dams, railways, power transmission lines, communication lines, towers, columns,
chimneys, silos, oil and gas installations, air fields, hoists, lifts, many types of underground, under-
water and aboveground works and works of excavation, foundation, construction, alteration,
renovation, repair, maintenance, demolition, dismantling, erection, fabrication etc. After
agriculture, construction seems to be the second largest economic activity. If mining and quarrying
are considered as a part of or inclusive of construction industry, it becomes the largest of all
industrial activities. Basic philosophy to improve their working conditions is the safety
philosophy. It should be realized that construction is inherently hazardous industry, , contract
based industry, demands heavy work load, contributes high frequency and severity of accidents,
less protected by law, movable and needs continuous efforts to maintain safety at all levels. It may
not be possible to completely eliminate the hazards, but it is certainly possible to minimize them
by enforcing certain safety precautions. The working and service conditions of the workers need to
be improved. Peculiarity of accidents is well known. Falling from height, struck by falling body
including landslide, material and equipment, striking against object, falling on the flat or into pit,
sump, gutter etc., occupational diseases of lung, skin, locomotors and nervous system, electrical
and pneumatic tools, unguarded machinery, heavy vehicles and working without safety equipment
are the major causes of accidents. Mechanization can eliminate some manual work hazards. Work
permit system, prompt supervision and first-aid, use of personal protective equipment and proper
tools, training and education and project safety committee are some of the remedial measures.

Safety philosophy for construction work should be based on the following points:
1. Safety policy statement and strict adherence to it.
2. Safety cannot be delegated. It is a line function.
3. Safety is everybody’s responsibility.
4. It is an integral part of all project activities.
5. Good planning and advice, and discussion with contractor and subcontractors are
essential at design or initial stage.
6. Safety ensures success with satisfaction.
7. Work permit system is desired for all hazardous works.
8. All construction accidents should be recorded, reported and investigated for the purpose
of safety and costing.
9. Standards, Codes and Statutory provisions must be followed. Safety manuals should be
prepared for contractors, workers and supervisors, and
10. Education, training and supervision for safe work methods and use of safe tools and
equipment play an important role.
 Parameters of Safety in Construction :
Peculiarities and parameters governing safety in construction industry are, now,
discussed in the following paragraphs.
 Studies, Statistics and Results:
Statistics and studies on construction accidents are not much available as factory
accidents. This is mainly because of no exclusive authority, late and poor administration, Non
report- ability and no complete compilation of such data. In one study which lasted for 15 years,
Levitt (1987) highlighted the hidden costs of construction accidents. He concluded that these
accident costs mostly exceeded the gross-profit of most of the firms in construction industry.

He also found that all managers who had good safety records do three things:

1. Motivate their subordinates to attend to safety.

2. Provide training for managers and workers at all levels, and
3. Insist that work is carefully planned. Champoux et. al. (1987) studied 357 accidents in
construction industry and identified the higher risk areas of work and organization as targets for
prevention. High risk tasks are crucial to ergonomist and all those working for safety in
construction. National Institute of Training for Industrial Engineering (NITIE), Bombay conducted
a study (1989) and after interviewing site engineers, safety officers and labourers on site, it was
concluded that the reasons for health and safety problems were -
1. The absence of safety rules and regulations.
2. The unorganized nature of work.
3. Almost total lack of any need for safety felt by engineers and contractors and
4. Absence of trade unions for welfare and health.

The main safety measures suggested were -

1. Compulsory use of safety helmets.

2. Use of safety belts for working at heights greater than 1.5 m.
3. Provision of canvas around the scaffolding to prevent falling objects from striking people.
4. Good and tidy housekeeping.
5. Provision of proper tools and
6. Adequate training to new workers.

Occupational health diseases were studied by Englund, Triebig, Duivenbooden and

Husmark (1987). Diseases of the skin, loco motor, circulatory, respiratory and nervous system
were noticed amongst construction workers. A few occupations handling asbestos, showed
respiratory cancer in plumbers and insulators. Fatal occupational injuries in Construction,
by type of event or exposure, in USA, 1995 are reported as under (Accident Facts, 1997) :
Out of total 6210 fatal accidents in all occupations in 1995, 1043 i.e. 16.79% fatal accidents took
place in construction and comparatively it is the highest in this industry.

off.
5. After completion of any job, excessive materials, tools and equipment should be lifted and
placed in their proper place.
6. Piles of materials should be stable and properly supported.
7. Throwing of material should be avoided. If it is to be thrown, warning signals should be given.
8. Proper painting and colour-coding should be followed.
9. At least at the beginning and end of a shift, supervisors.

• SAFETY CONSTRUCTION MACHINERY:

Construction machinery can be classified into three categories as under –

1 Lifting Appliances and Gear : Pulleys, chain pulley blocks, winches, hoists, derricks, gin poles,
cranes (fixed and mobile), lifting ropes, slings etc.
2 Transport, Earth-moving and Material Handling Equipment: Power shovels (excavators),
bulldozers, scrapers, pavers, road rollers, pile drivers, mobile asphalt layers and finishers.
3 Plant machinery, Equipment and hand tools: Concrete mixers and vibrators, pneumatic
compressors, pneumatic tools, cartridge operated tools, electric tools, hand tools, conveyors,
crusher plants, power generators, engines and silos.
Some salient safety features of these machines/equipment are explained below:

• Lifting Appliances and Gear :

 Pulleys: Select the pulleys as per requirement. Steel and nylon rope should not be used
together. Grooves should be uniform and smooth and the rope (wire or fibre) should run free.
Sheaves, shafts, hooks and pins (with locking) should be checked before use and lubrication shall
be provided where necessary. Sheaves should rotate freely on the shaft. The shaft should be free
from any defect or crack. Worn out shafts should not be used. Anchorage should be firm and
strong. Anti-twister should be used to prevent rubbing of the ropes with one another.
 Chain Pulley Blocks : Refer Sec. 29 of the Factories Act. Select the lifting capacity
depending on the maximum load to be lifted. Verify its test certificate. Check for slipping of load,
jamming of links and free operation. The chain should not come out of pulleys. It is better to
lubricate before every use. It should be tested periodically by a competent person (see Rule 60, and
Form No. 10, GFR). The anchorage should be strong and rigid. It should be checked for cracks,
wear and tear, elongation etc. Opened out hooks and tampered block/puller should not be used. No
cannibalising should be done on chain pulley blocks. See Chapter-VIII, Rule 55, 56, 74, Schedule-
I and Forms V to X of the BOC Workers Central Rules, 1998, for statutory details.
Winches: Safe working load with gear arrangement should be marked on the winch stand. A
winch should be placed on a firm base, properly anchored and should not be overloaded. Brake,
ratchet arrangement, gear and pinion, meshing, wire rope and its clamping, rope drum and tie rods
should be checked before every use. Tie rod should be adjusted to prevent clutch arrangement to
slip. Ratchet arrangement should be kept in position while hoisting a load. See Rule 59 of the BOC
Workers Central Rules, 1998, for statutory details.
 Hoists: Refer Sec. 28 of the Factories Act. Design should be as per standard code. Outdoor
hoist towers should be erected on firm foundation, securely braced, guyed and anchored. Ladder
way should extend from bottom to top. Hoist shaft (way) should be enclosed with rigid panels or
fencing at all landing platforms, access or where any person is liable to be struck by any moving
part. The shaft enclosure, except at approaches, should be of 2 mt (minimum 1 mt) height above
the floor or platform to prevent any person falling down the hoist way. Hoisting engine or motor
should be capable of controlling the heaviest load. When the cage or platform reaches its highest
point, it should be stopped automatically (no overrun). Hoist platform or cage should be capable to
carry the maximum load. It should have a safety gear to hold it if the rope breaks. At the ground
floor coil springs should be provided to arrest any accidental fall. Cage or platform should have
toe-boards or enclosures to prevent fall of material inside. Counterweights should run in guides.
Interlock door should be provided where any worker has to enter the cage. Notices of carrying
capacity (weight/ persons) should be displayed. Factory hoists/lifts should be thoroughly examined
by a competent person at least once in 6 months with report in Form No. 9 (Rule 58, GFR). See
Rule 65 & 78, Form VI of the BOC Workers Rules, 1998 for more details.

 Derricks: They are of two types: Stiff-leg derricks and Guy derricks. Stiff-leg derricks
should be erected on a firm base to withstand the weight of the crane structure and the maximum
load. Masts should be prevented from lifting out of their seating. The jib length should not be
altered without consulting the manufacturer. Counterweights should be so arranged that they do
not subject the backstays, sleepers or pivots to excessive strain. Electrically operated derricks
should be properly earthed. In case of wheels-mounted derricks the correct wheel distance should
be maintained by a rigid member and struts should be provided to give support if a wheel brake
fails or the derrick is derailed. The mast of guy derricks should be supported by six equidistance
top guys and the guy spread angle from the mast should be less than 450 from the horizontal. The
restraint of the guy ropes should be ensured by fitting stirrups or anchor plates in concrete
foundations. Guy ropes should have a device to regulate tension. Pins and bearings should be
lubricated frequently. When not in use, the derrick boom should be anchored to prevent it from
swinging. The derrick should be tested by a competent person and should not be overloaded. The
mast, guy ropes, wire ropes, swivel hook, rope clamps etc. should be checked before erecting the
derrick. Welded or bolted joints/parts should be checked for crack, defect and tightness. See also
Rules 67 & 68 of the BOC Workers Rules, 1998.

 Gin Poles: They should be straight, made of sound metal or straight timber without knots,
of sufficient strength and adequately guyed and anchored. They should be adequately fastened at
their feet to prevent displacement. Before their re-erection, the pole, ropes, guys, blocks etc. should
be inspected and tested under load.

 Cranes (Fixed & Mobile): Refer Sec. 29 of the Factories Act and Rule 60, GFR. The
crane capacity should be ascertained and brakes checked before lifting a load. Mobile crane should
be parked on hard soil and not near any pit or excavation. Safe working load of any crane depends
on (a) condition of the ground (b) boom length (c) inclination of boom to the vertical (d) radius of
rotation while lifting the load (e) out rigger blocked or free and (f) operator’s skill. The safe
working load should be displayed in the crane. It should be de rated (lowered) due to defects in
welding, bend in angle, bracing and conditions of clutch, brake etc. Devices should be provided to
prevent load being moved to a point where the corresponding safe working load of the crane would
be exceeded. Standard signaling code, understood by the operator and trained signalman, should be
followed. The crane operator shall respond to signals only from the appointed signaler, but shall
obey a stop signal from anybody. Tag lines should be used while hoisting heavy and bulky load.
The crane and its parts (brakes, boom, hook, wire ropes, pulleys etc.) should be checked regularly
and maintained in good condition. The load should not touch the boom and the boom should not
touch any live electric line or structure. Quality of packing should be checked before lifting.
Nobody should stand below the boom or load. The operator should be able to see the hook and the
load, should keep his wind shield clean for clear vision and deck clean of any oil, mud or dust.
When the hooks are lowered to the lowest point, at least two dead coils should remain on the rope
drum. Makeshift methods to increase the capacity of a crane are unsafe. During storm, the hook
block should be anchored firmly and swing lock be released. At the end of work, the load should
be removed from the hook and the hook should be raised to the maximum height. The mobile
crane should have horn, headlights, side lamps, rear and stop lights and flashing direction
indicators. Jib crane should keep the job lowered while travelling without load. While travelling up
a slope, the load radius should be decreased and while travelling down, that radius should be
increased. Constant watch on the radius is necessary while travelling on uneven surfaces. Air
pressure in the tyres should be equal, otherwise tilting is possible as shown in fig. 22. While
operating tower cranes, wind loads should be considered and trained operators should be employed
to sit in cabs at height. Wind speed indicator should be provided in the driver’s cab. Where two or
more cranes work side by side, direct communication system should be provided in the cab to alert
the other driver about danger zone. Minimum distance between two approaching cranes should be
maintained by limit switches. See Rule 57, 58, 63, 64, 74, 80 & 81 of the BOC Workers Rules,
1998 for other details.

 Lifting Ropes, Slings etc. : Safe working capacity of the lifting ropes must be known
beforehand. Ropes, slings, rings, shackles, tackles, chains, hooks, swivels etc. should be installed,
maintained and inspected as per Sec.29 of the Factories Act and Rule 60, GFR. Repaired ropes
should not be used in hoists. Where multiple independent ropes are used to lift a load, each rope
should be capable of carrying the load independently. See also Rule 71 of the BOC Workers Rules,
1998.

• Transport, Earth-moving and Material Handling Equipment:

All vehicles and earth-moving and material handling equipment should have following
general provisions. They should be of good design, sound material and construction, adequate
strength and maintained in good working order. Principles of safety and ergonomics should be
considered in design and operation. Operators/drivers should be well trained, medically examined,
physically fit and above 18 years of age. They should be competent, reliable and follow the
signaling code. Help of authorized signaler must be taken while driving backwards or the view is
restricted. They should be protected against weather, dust, load being lifted and possible accidents.
All vehicles should be equipped with proper lights, horns, silencers, power and hand brakes and
reversing alarm. Their motors, engines, brakes, gears, chassis, blades, tracks, wire ropes, sheaves,
transmission parts and pneumatic, hydraulic systems should be checked daily before use. The
vehicle or machine should not be left unattended with the engine running. Deck plates and steps
should be kept free from oil, grease, mud etc. The cab should be kept at least 1 m away from a face
being excavated. Bucket excavators should not be used at the top or bottom of earth walls with a
slope exceeding 600. Gross laden weight, tare weight, maximum axle weight and ground pressure
in case of caterpillar should be indicated. When not in use, the boom should be in the direction of
travel and scoop, shovel or bucket be raised and without load. Safe parking place should be
provided where more vehicles have to work. Nobody should be allowed to rest or sleep under the
vehicle.

 Power Shovels (Excavators): They should be equipped with emergency stop device and
two independent locking devices for brake pedals. The bucket teeth should not come nearer the
boom than 40 cm. Safe working load of the lifting gear should be displayed in the cabin and its
indicator should be fitted. The boom should be prevented from swinging during transport. The
boom should not be pulled tight against the emergency stop while supporting a load. The wire
ropes should be of specified diameter and construction. The safe operating radius shall not be
exceeded. The shovels should be so operated as not to loose their stability. The driver should see
that no person is under or near the raised bucket or grab. When not in use, the bucket shall be kept
resting on the stable ground and not hanging. Truck to be loaded should be stationed at 60 cm. or
more from the excavator even when it turns. Earthing and fire extinguisher should be provided
where necessary.

 Bulldozers: While moving uphill, the blade should be kept low. The blade should not be
used as brake except in emergency. The blade suspension arrangement, wire rope or hydraulic
system should be inspected weekly. At the close of work, the bulldozer should be left on level
ground and before leaving it, the operator should apply the brakes, lower the blade and ripper and
put the shift lever in neutral.

 Scrappers: The tractor and scrappers should be connected by a safety line when in
operation. Scrappers moving downhill should be left in gear. Scrapper bowls should be propped
when blades are being replaced.

 Pavers: Guards should be provided to prevent workers from walking under the skip.

 Road Rollers: The land should be checked for bearing capacity and general safety before
using a road roller. While moving downhill the engine should be in gear. When it is not in use, the
brakes should be applied, the wheels should be blocked, the contact should be switched off and the
engine should be in bottom gear if the roller is facing uphill and in reverse gear if it is facing
downhill.
 Pile-drivers: All pile-driving equipment should be of good design and construction and
properly maintained. Ergonomic principles should be considered. Pile-driving should be carried
out under the supervision of a competent person. Underground services should be located and
rendered safe before starting piling. Pile drivers should be firmly supported on sound foundation.
If necessary, they should be guyed also. If two pile-drivers have to work nearby, they should be
separated by a distance at least equal to the longest leg. If electrical conductors are in proximity,
they should be made dead. When leads have to be inclined, they should be counterbalanced and
tilting device should be secured against slipping. The hoses of steam and air hammers should be
securely lashed to the hammer so as to prevent them from whipping if a connection breaks.
Overturning of a pile-driver has to be prevented. Out coming of the rope from the top pulley or
wheel and missing of hammer from the pipe should also be prevented. Pile lines and pulley blocks
should be inspected before the beginning of each shift. Only trained operators should be employed.
Use of suitable signals, ear protectors and safety helmet is necessary. Piles should be prepared at a
distance at least equal to twice the length of the longest pile from the pile driver. When not in use,
the hammer should be blocked at the bottom of the leads. When pile-drivers are working over
water, a suitable boat should be kept readily available at all times. Whistle, siren, signals,
firefighting equipment and sufficient sheaves should be provided, the weight of machinery should
be evenly distributed and water-tight compartments should be provided with siphons to remove
water seepage.

 Mobile Asphalt Layers and Finishers: The mixer elevator should be within a metal
enclosure with a window for observation, lubrication and maintenance. Bitumen scoops should
have covers. The sprayer should have fire resistant shield with an observation window. Non-
foaming products are preferable. Reflective jackets should be provided to workers working on
public roads. The fire extinguishers are necessary near spreader and others in readiness. No naked
flame should be used to see the level of asphalt in the tank. Thinners should not be heated on open
flame. Inspection doors should not be opened if there is any pressure in the boiler. If a burner
flame is extinguished, the fuel supply should be cut off and the heating tube should be thoroughly
blown out by the fan to prevent backfire.
 Signs and indication liaison for safety with local authority:

This guidance is for employers, duty holders and others who have responsibility for the control of
workplaces, sites and premises. It is also for those operating equipment that requires verbal and/or
non-verbal communications.

It sets out what you should do to comply with the Health and Safety (Safety Signs and Signals)
Regulations 1996.

Safety signs and signals are required where, despite putting in place all other relevant measures, a
significant risk to the health and safety of employees and others remains.
Signs must be clear and legible, and should be used to identify actions that are prohibited (eg. no
access), safeguards that must be followed (eg .ear protection must be worn), warning of a hazard
(eg. corrosive material) and to direct towards fire exits/equipment or first-aid equipment.

You should avoid using too many signs which may cause confusion.

The Regulations enact in UK law an EU Directive designed to harmonise signs across the EU so
that signs across the member states will have the same meaning whichever country they are used
in. Details of BS EN ISO 7010 are also included in the guidance.

This edition brings the document up to date with regulatory and other changes, including those
relating to the Classification, Labelling and Packaging of Chemicals (Amendments to Secondary
Legislation) Regulations 2015. The version of the Regulations included in the document has been
amended to reflect those changes.

 Structural Soundness of Buildings:

 ABSTRACT: This paper deals with methods of estimating the soundness of existing
structures whose life has crossed the age of 30 years. As we know concrete is widely used
as a construction material because of its high strength-cost ratio in many
applications. Concrete constructions are generally expected to give trouble free service
throughout its intended design life. However, these expectations are not realized in many
constructions because of structural deficiency, material deterioration, unanticipated over
loadings or physical damage and thus Civil structures like buildings, dams, bridges et care
subjected to continuous deterioration over the years. This extent of damage or deterioration
greatly depends on the quality of work at the construction stage. The deterioration of
buildings can be a result of various factors including fire damage, frost action, chemical
attack, corrosion of steel etc during the life span of the structure. The investigation
of soundness is thus essential for finding the present serviceability of the structure and
its scope for future developments or for the change in its utilization. Such an investigation
can be carried out using the following methods: a) Visual examination b) Non Destructive
Testing c) Partial Destructive Testing. Soundness estimation becomes essential
for buildings hit by an earthquake, a bomb blast or any other calamity.

 KEY WORDS : Concrete, soundness, deterioration, Non Destructive testing, structural

audit.
 INTRODUCTION
In India there are many old structures and some of the mare of great importance. The
strength of these old structures reduces in the due course of time because of its usage, input
of poor quality construction materials, environmental conditions, improper practice or
poor workmanship. Also several factors such as plastic deformation, interaction with the
environment, initial design, construction flaws and natural disasters develop distress in the
structure which may result in development of cracks, corrosion in reinforcement, leakage
and seepage. The final soundness of a building can vary due to numerous reasons and thus,
only proper precautions at the initial stage and good maintenance in the later lifespan of the
structure can result in a technically sound building. To ensure if buildings are sound
requires the active participation of building safety and fire preventionofficials, architects,
builders, engineers, and others in the construction industry, as well as property owners.
Determining the root cause of the defect directly depends on the areas of the building that
have been affected. Defects in the foundation, floor, or wall can be the direct result of soil
issues, water issues, or even workmanship issues. Earthquakes, tropical cyclones, and other
natural disasters can also damage the structure of the building and cause it to collapse. This
paper deals with the study of the principal problems like the degree of deterioration of the
structural members which is one of the governing factors for
poor performance of the structure, their likely causes, and approaches to their remedies. If
 the further use of such deteriorated structures is continued it may endanger the lives of the
occupants and the surrounding habitation. As demolition and re-construction of these
structures may be a very costly affair and strengthening the existing structure may be a
favorable option. Faulty concrete repair can worsen structural problems therefore remedial
work should only be undertaken by an expert.

 NEED TO EVALUATE SOUNDNESS OF EXISTINGSTRUCTURES

It is generally carried out on existing structures for the following reasons, for:

1.Assessing the load carrying capacity of building.

2. Feasibility of change in occupancy.
3. Feasibility for construction of additional floors.
4. Assessment of earthquake resistance (As per revised codal provisions) in old structures.
5.Feasibility for structural modifications.
6. Feasibility for placing higher capacity equipment on building.
7.Assessment of structural soundness periodically.
Structural failure can occur from many types of problems, most of which are unique to
different industries and structural types. However, most can be traced to one of five main
causes.

 Types of failure :
 The first is that the structure is not strong and tough enough to support the load,
due to either its size, shape, or choice of material. If the structure or component is
not strong enough, catastrophic failure can occur when the structure is stressed
beyond its critical stress level.
 The second type of failure is from fatigue or corrosion, caused by instability in the
structure’s geometry, design or material properties. These failures usually begin
when cracks form at stress points, such as squared corners or bolt holes too close
to the material's edge. These cracks grow as the material is repeatedly stressed and
unloaded (cyclic loading), eventually reaching a critical length and causing the
structure to suddenly fail under normal loading conditions.
 The third type of failure is caused by manufacturing errors, including improper
selection of materials, incorrect sizing, improper heat treating, failing to adhere to
the design, or shoddy workmanship. This type of failure can occur at any time and
is usually unpredictable.
 The fourth type of failure is from the use of defective materials. This type of
failure is also unpredictable, since the material may have been improperly
manufactured or damaged from prior use.
 The fifth cause of failure is from lack of consideration of unexpected problems.
This type of failure can be caused by events such as vandalism, sabotage, or
natural disasters. It can also occur if those who use and maintain the construction
are not properly trained and overstress the structure.

Hazardous Materials Handling and Disposal:

Hazardous waste (general):

Contractor shall make every effort to minimize the amount of hazardous waste generated from
construction activities. The University reserves the right to require substitution of products that
generate toxic waste (e.g. paint strippers, degreasers, etc.) with products of lesser toxicity.

 Unless otherwise specified, all generated hazardous waste shall be

disposed of through the EH&S Environmental Protection Program (EPP).
 Contractor shall properly contain and label such waste as it is generated.
  Contractor shall notify the Project Manager at least one week in advance to
request waste containers and/or labels, if necessary.
 Contractor shall not begin generating hazardous waste until proper waste
containers and labels are on site.
 Contractor shall store waste containers in a secure location on the job site
with lids closed.
 Contractor shall notify the Project Manager to request pickup of hazardous
wastes.
Universal waste recycling :

 Contractor shall comply with California DTSC regulations pertaining to universal waste.
 Unless otherwise specified, Contractor shall carefully remove regulated devices and
building components scheduled for demolition intact and segregate them from other
construction debris.
 Contractor shall arrange for packaging, labeling, pickup, transport, and recycling of all
universal wastes identified in this subsection, and shall submit to the University receipt(s)
that document compliance with this provision.
 Contractor shall only use recycling vendors that have been pre-approved by the University.

Light tubes, bulbs, and lamps:

Fluorescent light tubes and bulbs, high intensity discharge (H.I.D.), metal halide, sodium, and neon
bulbs contain mercury vapor.

Mercury-containing devices

Thermostats, fire alarm pull stations, switches, thermometers, pressure, and vacuum gauges may
contain mercury. All mercury-containing devices scheduled for demolition shall be removed intact,
segregated from other construction debris, and recycled through AERC.com Inc.

Batteries

Batteries may contain lead, mercury, lithium, cadmium, and other toxic metals. Contractor shall
remove batteries from devices scheduled for demolition, including emergency lighting and alarms,
communication systems, security systems, etc. Batteries shall be removed intact, segregated from
other construction debris, and recycled through a vendor pre-approved by the University.

Electronic devices (e-waste):

Electronic devices and components, including televisions and computer monitors, computers,
printers, VCRs, CD and DVD players, telephones, radios, microwave ovens, communication,
security, fire protection, lighting, and mechanical system components may contain heavy metals
such as lead, mercury, chromium, and cadmium. Electronic devices and components scheduled for
demolition shall be removed intact and recycled through a vendor pre-approved by the University.

Treated wood waste (TWW):

‘‘Treated wood’’ is wood that has been treated with a chemical preservative for purposes of
protecting the wood against attacks from insects, microorganisms, fungi, and other environmental
conditions that can lead to decay of the wood, where the chemical preservative is registered
pursuant to the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act .
Treated wood includes wood treated with alkaline copper quaternary (ACQ), copper azole (CA-B),
copper boron azole (CBA-A), chromated copper arsenate (CCA), ammoniacal copper zinc arsenate
(ACZA), creosote, pentachlorophenol, and copper naphthenate.
Contractor shall manage, handle, store, label, transport, track, and dispose of treated wood waste
(TWW) in accordance with DTSC requirements.
Contractor shall not reuse TWW, and shall store TWW on-site as follows:

 Covered and off of the ground, in a secured area

 In closed, water-resistant containers
 Inside a weather-tight structure
 Covered on a pad that is protected from run-off
Contractor shall ensure that any size reduction of TWW is conducted in a manner that prevents the
uncontrolled release of hazardous constituents to the environment, and that conforms to applicable
Cal/OSHA worker health and safety requirements. All sawdust and other particles generated
during size reduction shall be captured and managed as TWW.

Disposal of TWW is restricted to landfill(s) pre-approved by the University. Contractor shall

provide to University a bill of lading or other documentation with an acceptance signature by the
landfill for all TWW shipments.

Asbestos-containing materials:

If applicable, University shall provide to Contractor a facility survey report that contains an
inventory of confirmed asbestos-containing materials (ACMs) known to be present at the project
site.

ACMs that will be impacted (disturbed) by renovation or demolition shall be removed prior to, or
phased with, other construction activities. No one shall remove, repair, disturb, or handle any
asbestos-containing materials, except University approved, registered Asbestos Abatement
Contractors working in compliance with the University’s Asbestos Abatement Specification.

Contractor may encounter hidden ACMs during demolition activities, such as asbestos-insulated
pipes or ducts inside wall cavities, etc. If Contractor observes such ACMs in poor or damaged
condition, or if Contractor inadvertently damages or disturbs previously identified ACMs or
suspected ACMs, the Project Manager shall be notified immediately.

Contractor shall post asbestos warning signs or labels upon discovery of hidden ACMs. Contractor
may request assistance with posting asbestos warning signs or labels from the University.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs):

Fluorescent light ballasts -

All fluorescent light fixture ballasts manufactured prior to 1978 are assumed to contain PCBs and
shall be disposed of as hazardous waste. With the exception of electronic ballasts, all ballasts
manufactured after January 1, 1978, and specifically labeled "No PCBs," may be disposed of as
non-hazardous construction debris. All ballasts that do not contain a "No PCBs" label shall be
removed from light fixtures, segregated from other construction debris, and disposed of as
hazardous waste.

Insulating oils:

Insulating oils associated with high-voltage equipment may contain PCBs. Equipment containing
PCB-insulating oils shall be decontaminated prior to demolition. Extraction of PCB-containing oils
and decontamination of equipment shall be performed in accordance with Cal/OSHA worker
protection requirements. Recovered oil containing PCB shall be disposed of as hazardous waste.

Lead:

Paint and other surface coatings

Unless otherwise determined by approved testing methods, all paints and surface coatings (e.g.
varnish, shellac, stain, lacquer, etc.) applied to University structures are presumed to contain some
amount of lead.
Contractor shall take all necessary precautions to protect Contractor employees, subcontractors,
students, visitors, University employees, and the environment from exposure to lead-containing
dust and debris. Contractor shall comply with the Cal/OSHA lead standard for the construction
industry, which applies to any construction activity that may release lead dust or fume, including
manual demolition, manual scraping, manual sanding, heat gun applications, power tool cleaning,
rivet busting, abrasive blasting, welding, cutting, or torch burning of lead-based coatings.

The University shall provide existing lead analysis data of surface coatings, where available.
However, these data are not intended, and do not represent, an evaluation of all potential lead-
containing coatings at the project site, and Contractor is solely responsible for determining lead
content for purposes of Cal/OSHA compliance.

Painted debris resulting from demolition may qualify as hazardous waste and must be evaluated by
EH&S prior to transport and disposal.

Where feasible, Contractor shall clean sheet plastic used for regulated work area isolation
(containment) or drop cloths and discard as non-hazardous waste.

Power washing:

Contractor shall protect soil and storm drains from paint chip debris during power washing of
building exterior surfaces. All paint chips shall be collected and disposed of as hazardous waste.
Contractor shall be responsible for all direct and indirect costs associated with remediation of soils
found to be contaminated with lead-containing paint chips resulting from non-compliance with this
provision.

Elemental lead:

Products containing lead metal, such as plumbing components, lead bricks, counterweights, and
sheet goods (e.g. roof flashing, X-ray shielding, drain pans, etc.) may be encountered during
demolition. Unless otherwise specified, Contractor shall remove and segregate lead metal
scheduled for demolition from other construction debris and transport it to a scrap metal recycling
facility pre-approved by the University.

Mechanical system fluids:

All fluids associated with mechanical systems and equipment scheduled for demolition or retrofit
shall be removed and recycled, or disposed as hazardous waste. Contractor shall arrange for
recycling of petroleum-containing fluids, such as hydraulic fluids, lubricating oils, and non-PCB-
containing insulating oils.

Refrigerants shall be removed from equipment and managed by a certified refrigerant technician,
pursuant to 40 CFR 82.161 (Type I for small appliances, Type II for high-pressure equipment).
Venting of refrigerant to the atmosphere is not allowed. All refrigerant removed must be
reclaimed, recovered, or recycled, in accordance with 40 CFR 82.150-166 and Appendices.

Laboratory decommissioning and closure:

The University’s laboratory decommissioning protocols require removal of all hazardous chemical,
radioactive and bio hazardous materials and associated wastes, followed by decontamination of
surfaces and equipment, prior to transfer of such project areas to Contractor. Facilities that have
housed radioactive material, or that contain materials activated by radiation beams, must be
surveyed and cleared by the University prior to release to Contractor.

A hazardous materials closure permit is required prior to the renovation or demolition of any
designated (permitted) chemical use or storage area, which includes both laboratory and non-
laboratory facilities. Depending on project location, closure permits are issued either by the PAFD
Hazardous Materials Compliance Bureau or the Santa Clara County Department of Environmental
Health. The University is responsible for securing and managing all closure permits, and
Contractor shall not start work until notified that a closure permit has been obtained.

Laboratory sink P-traps are presumed to contain mercury contamination as a result of thermometer
breakage. P-traps scheduled for demolition shall be removed by Contractor, placed in leak-tight
containers, and transferred to the University for disposal.

Unless otherwise specified, Contractor shall not demolish or disturb building components used for
chemical transport, treatment, or storage, unless such systems have been inspected and released by
EH&S. Such building components may include fume hood and local chemical exhaust ducts, acid
vent and neutralization piping, lab waste piping, toxic gas system equipment and piping, and
chemical or chemical waste storage tanks. If Contractor encounters potentially hazardous materials
on the project site, such as abandoned chemical reagents, containers or equipment with radioactive
labels, biohazard (red) disposal containers, or syringes, Contractor shall contact the Project
Manager immediately.

Radioactive building materials:

Emergency exit signs scheduled for demolition may contain tritium, a radioactive material.
Contractor shall carefully remove such signs intact and transfer them to the University for disposal.
A label on the lower edge of the sign that features a radiation symbol can be used to identify
tritium exit signs.

Smoke detectors may contain small amounts of Americium, a radioactive element. Contractor shall
carefully remove smoke detectors scheduled for demolition intact and transfer to the University for
disposal.

Mold:

Unless otherwise specified, if Contractor encounters significant quantities (greater than ten square
feet) of mold growth on the project site, Contractor shall report such condition to the Project
Manager.

Contractor shall protect the project site and new construction products from exposure to excess
moisture and shall ensure that construction products are adequately dry prior to installation.
Contractor shall remove and replace all porous building materials and replace or disinfect all non-
porous building materials that display visible mold growth resulting from moisture intrusion,
unless such moisture intrusion was caused by circumstances outside of Contractor’s control.

Miscellaneous hazardous materials:

If Contractor encounters potentially hazardous materials or waste on the project site not previously
addressed under this section, such as abandoned paint containers, pesticides, compressed gas
cylinders, etc., or if Contractor encounters any unusual odors or colors (staining) during drilling or
excavation of soils, Contractor shall report such conditions to the Project Manager.

 Material vehicles:

Safe vehicles
This section provides guidance on health and safety aspects of selecting and
maintaining construction vehicles.
 a. Vehicle selection:

The design of some vehicles presents hazards, such as restricted visibility and lack of driver
protection from the effects of overturning, noise and vibration. Some old designs of site dumpers
allowed the vehicle to be knocked easily into gear as
the driver dismounted.
Choosing the right vehicle for the job is an essential part of effective vehicle
management. The vehicle selected needs to be capable of performing its
designated tasks safely.

The following are important factors to consider:

■ stability under all foreseeable operating conditions;

■ safe access to and from the cab and other working locations on the vehicle;
■ effective braking systems;
■ adequate visibility for the driver all around the vehicle;
■ headlights, a horn, windscreen wipers and warning devices, eg reversing alarms;
■ physical guards to protect dangerous parts such as power take-off shafts,
chain drives, trapping points and exposed exhaust pipes;
■ protection for the driver from work hazards, eg working at height and falling
from the vehicle, falling objects and the effects of the vehicle overturning; and
■ protection for the driver from the weather, noise, vibration, noxious fumes and
dusts.

Vehicle inspection and maintenance:

Construction vehicles work in harsh environments and require effective maintenance regimes to
avoid them developing defects. A programme of daily visual checks, regular inspections and
servicing schedules should be established according to the manufacturer’s instructions and the
risks associated with the use of each vehicle. A worker was crushed to death by a vehicle which
ran away down a slope because the parking brake failed. Plant hire companies need to provide
information with all plant and equipment they supply to enable it to be used and maintained safely.
Contractual arrangements between user and hirer should set out who is responsible for
maintenance and inspection during the hire period and these should be made clear to all parties.
Vehicles should have a maintenance log to help manage and record vehicle maintenance
operations. Employers should establish procedures designed to encourage drivers to report defects
or problems, and ensure that problems with vehicles are put right.

Planned inspection and maintenance needs to follow manufacturer’s instructions and

include, where appropriate:

1. braking systems;
2. seat belts;
3. tyres, including condition and pressures;
4. steering;
5. convex mirrors, CCTV and other visibility aids;
6. lights and indicators;
7. safety devices such as interlocks;
8. warning signals;
9. windscreen washers and wipers;
10. firefighting equipment;
11. condition of cab protection devices, eg ROPS and FOPS;
12. functional checks on the vehicle, including controls and starting systems;
13. correct location of guards and panels on the vehicle; and
 14. other accessories, such as quick couplers and (if applicable) their locating pins,are
correctly fitted and in place.

 MOVEMENT OF MATERIALS AND MEN

Construction materials being heavy, long or varying in size, pose hazards in handling, loading,
unloading and transportation. Railway wagons, motor trucks, tractors, trailers etc. are used
depending on the weight, size and distance to be travelled. Training of handling of such materials
and use of lifting appliances for them is a basic requirement.

Some general precautions are as under:

1. For selecting transportation by railway wagons, the route should be surveyed. The material
should not foul with any fixed structure object or another wagon while negotiating bend or
turn. The material should not project outside and height should not reach electromagnetic
field of overhead traction line. Railway rules should be followed. Identification, marking
and proper packing are necessary.

2. Motor trucks must have valid RTO permits and efficient brakes, lights, horns, side and
reverse signals, jacks, tools etc. They should be in good working condition. Only trained
and licensed driver should drive and not the helper or cleaner. While driving an Ethylene
oxide tanker by a cleaner, it was dashed against a structure resulting into breaking of the
main valve and the whole factory shed and the tanker were burnt into ashes.

3. Drivers should strictly follow the speed limit on highway and inside any factory premises.
They should observe utmost care while turning, overtaking, crossing railway level crossing
and applying brakes. They should have ‘tremcard’ while carrying hazardous chemicals.

4. The transport vehicle should not be overloaded. No material should project above or
beyond the side panels. Backward projection should not be more than a meter. Bending
bars (rods) should not touch the road. Liquid should not be leaking. Lime, cement, gravel
or dusty material should not throw continuous dust. They should be covered. Red signals
(flag or light) should be displayed on the projected end.

5. Material should be properly loaded considering weight, dimension, centre of gravity of the
load, carrier capacity, safety distance and working clearance. Load should be properly
packed and lashed. In rainy season, waterproof cover should be provided.

6. Men should not sit on the load or side panels or on the driver’s cabin. They should not walk
on a moving vehicle. Necessary Fire Fighting arrangement should be kept ready. Engine
exhausts shall not open near any flammable material. Vehicles carrying highly flammable
liquids or gases must have spark arrester on their exhaust pipe. Explosives, detonators and
combustible material shall be separately stored with safety precautions. It should not be
piled over 2.5 mt height.

 Plant Machinery, Equipment and Hand Tools:

All such machinery, equipment and tools should be of good, ergonomic and safe
design, maintained in good working order and operated by trained operators with necessary
personal protective equipment. Safety instructions from manufacturer and safe operating
procedure should be followed. Power driven equipment should be properly earthed, stop
switch provided in close proximity, adequately guarded, speed regulated and when not in
use, switched off (De energized) and isolated before any major adjustment.

 Concrete Mixtures: All gears, chains, rollers and open revolving blades should be
guarded or fenced. Hopper should be protected by side railing to prevent workers
from passing under the skip. Hopper hoisting wire rope, brake, skip hoist clutch and
 blocking (fixing when raised) device should be checked and adjusted regularly.
Double earthing and insulation of electrical part is necessary. Before allowing a
person to enter the drum for cleaning or repair, electrical connections (fuses) should
be removed. Concrete bucket towers and masts with pouring gutters or conveyor
belts should be erected by competent persons and inspected daily. The winch
operator should be able to see the filling, emptying and lowering of bucket,
otherwise a banks-man should direct the operator. Guides for bucket should be
correctly aligned to prevent the bucket from jamming in the tower. Structure or
scaffold carrying a pipe for pumped concrete should be strong enough (factor of
safety 4 or more) to support a filled pipe and all workers on it. Such concrete
carrying pipes should be securely anchored at the ends and at curves, provided at
top with air release valves and securely attached to the pump nozzle.

 Concrete Vibrators : Vibrating unit should be completely enclosed and belt be

guarded. Electrical vibrator should be protected by overload relays and earthed.
Cable length should be sufficient. Needle load should be firmly locked. Needle
inner core should be lubricated. See Chapter-XI, Rules 96 to 107 of the BOC
Workers Rules, 1998 for Concrete Work. Pneumatic Compressors: Testing by a
competent person is necessary. Air receivers should be equipped with a safety
valve, pressure gauge, drain cock and openings for inspection and cleaning. It is
safer to provide a PRV, a stop valve and an oil separator between the air receiver
and the compressor. Compressors should be equipped with an automatic device to
control the safe discharge pressure, a quick release valve and suitable arrangements
to prevent or remove contamination in a confined space. Where explosive gas
mixture may be formed in compressor, it should be protected against sparking.water
flow should be ensured in water cooling jackets. Inter and after coolers should be
able to withstand the maximum pressure in the air discharge piping. Such piping
should be provided with a fusible plug and insulation to protect workers against
burns and fire risks. Where stop valves are installed in air discharge piping, they
should be easily accessible for inspection and cleaning and one or more safety
valves should be installed between the compressor and the stop valve.

 Pneumatic Tools : Operating triggers on portable pneumatic tools should be so

placed as to minimize the risk of accidental starting of the machine and so arranged
as to close the air inlet valve automatically when the pressure of the operator’s hand
is removed. Air hoses and their connections should be equipped with safety clips or
retainers to prevent dies and tools from being accidentally expelled from the barrel.
Before any adjustment or repair, power should be disconnected and pressure in hose
lines be released.

 Cartridge-operated Tools: Preferably low velocity tool should be used. Such tools
should have a cover (guard) which cannot be opened without rendering the tool
inoperative, devices to prevent from accidental firing, to prevent firing if the muzzle
is not pressed and to prevent firing if it is not perpendicular to the working surface.
The recoil should not be capable of injuring the user. The tool should be inspected
for all safety devices and to see that the barrel is unobstructed. Cartridge-operated
tools should not be stored or operated in explosive atmosphere. When not in use, it
should be kept in its special container for the purpose of safety.

 Electric Tools: Portable electrical tools should be operated at low voltage and with
ELCB to avoid risk of shock. The tools should be properly earthed with metallic
cases. All insulated or double insulated tools need not be earthed. Periodic
inspection and maintenance should be carried out by a competent electrician. Proper
fuse and insulated handle are necessary.
  Hand Tools: They should be tempered, dressed or repaired by a competent person.
Cutting edges should be kept sharp. Heads of hammers and other shock tools should
be dressed or ground as soon as they begin to mushroom or crack. When not in use
or while carrying or transporting, they should be kept in suitable containers.
Insulated or non-conducting tools should be used near live electrical installations.
Non sparking tools should be used near flammable vapours.

 Conveyors: Conveyors should be smooth running. Nip between tight belt and
pulley/roller and other transmission parts should be guarded. If they are not entirely
enclosed, at cross over places, bridge with hand railing should be provided.
Emergency stop devices (e.g. cord or cable) should be easily accessible. Stop
buttons should be provided at drive and take-up ends. Where two or more
conveyors operate together, control devices should be so arranged that no conveyor
can feed on to a stopped conveyor. When a conveyor is discharging into a bunker or
hopper, the feeding conveyor should be provided with an overload switch. Screw
conveyors should always be kept covered. The cover should not be opened without
stopping the conveyor.

 Crusher Plants : They should be located away from construction area to keep
away dust, sand, gravel, noise and vibrations. Extra isolation switch should be
provided to prevent accidental starting during repair or maintenance. Electrical
motors, switches and instrumentation should be dust and moisture proof. Access
roads to the crusher hopper and screens should be cleaned by water spraying. Power
cables should be laid underground or at safe elevation. All equipment, plant and
machinery should be cleared daily of dust and sand.

 Power Generators: They should be housed in a concrete room or insulated area to

minimize noise effects. Silencers and exhaust pipes should be provided. Extra
isolation switch should be provided to avoid accidental starting during maintenance.

 Engines: Maximum safe speed should not be exceeded. Remote control device
should be provided to stop or limit the speed. For internal combustion engines,
exhaust ventilation should be provided and while fuelling, spark should be avoided
and fire extinguisher should be kept ready. Secondary fuel tank should be provided
outside the engine room.
 Silos : Silos should be erected on sound foundation and capable of withstanding
stresses without any deformation of walls, floors and other load-bearing parts. Safe
means of access (stairs, fixed ladders or hoists), quantity/level indicator, notices,
blockage remover and fire extinguishers should be provided. In silos where
explosive mixtures are possible, all electrical equipment and hand lamps should be
flameproof, non-sparking tools should be used and explosion vents should be
provided in the walls at safer points. Before allowing workers in a silo, work permit
should be made, charge (filling) opening should be closed and safety belt with
lifeline in the hands of another person outside should be provided if they have to
work on loose material.

 Seismic structure soundness and structural stability:

Seismic analysis is a subset of structural analysis and is the calculation of the
response of a building (or Non building) structure to earthquakes. It is part of the process
of structural design, earthquake engineering or structural assessment and retrofit (see structural
engineering) in regions where earthquakes are prevalent. As seen in the figure, a building has the
potential to ‘wave’ back and forth during an earthquake (or even a severe wind storm). This is
called the ‘fundamental mode’, and is the lowest frequency of building response. Most buildings,
however, have higher modes of response, which are uniquely activated during earthquakes. The
figure just shows the second mode, but there are higher ‘shimmy’ (abnormal vibration) modes.
Nevertheless, the first and second modes tend to cause the most damage in most cases. The earliest
provisions for seismic resistance were the requirement to design for a lateral force equal to a
proportion of the building weight (applied at each floor level). This approach was adopted in the
appendix of the 1927 Uniform Building Code (UBC), which was used on the west coast of the
United States. It later became clear that the dynamic properties of the structure affected the loads
generated during an earthquake. In the Los Angeles County Building Code of 1943 a provision to
vary the load based on the number of floor levels was adopted (based on research carried out
at Caltech in collaboration with Stanford University and the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey,
which started in 1937). The concept of "response spectra" was developed in the 1930s, but it
wasn't until 1952 that a joint committee of the San Francisco Section of the ASCE and
the Structural Engineers Association of Northern California (SEAONC) proposed using the
building period (the inverse of the frequency) to determine lateral forces. The University of
California, Berkeley was an early base for computer-based seismic analysis of structures, led by
Professor Ray Clough (who coined the term finite element). Students included Ed Wilson, who
went on to write the program SAP in 1970, an early "Finite Element Analysis" program.
Earthquake engineering has developed a lot since the early days, and some of the more complex
designs now use special earthquake protective elements either just in the foundation (base
isolation) or distributed throughout the structure. Analyzing these types of structures requires
specialized explicit finite element computer code, which divides time into very small slices and
models the actual physics, much like common video games often have "physics engines". Very
large and complex buildings can be modeled in this way (such as the Osaka International
Convention Center).

 Equivalent static analysis:

This approach defines a series of forces acting on a building to represent the effect of earthquake
ground motion, typically defined by a seismic design response spectrum. It assumes that the
building responds in its fundamental mode. For this to be true, the building must be low-rise and
must not twist significantly when the ground moves. The response is read from a design response
spectrum, given the natural frequency of the building (either calculated or defined by the building
code). The applicability of this method is extended in many building codes by applying factors to
account for higher buildings with some higher modes, and for low levels of twisting. To account
for effects due to "yielding" of the structure, many codes apply modification factors that reduce the
design forces (e.g. force reduction factors).

 Response spectrum analysis:

This approach permits the multiple modes of response of a building to be taken into account (in
the frequency domain). This is required in many building codes for all except very simple or very
complex structures. The response of a structure can be defined as a combination of many special
shapes (modes) that in a vibrating string correspond to the "harmonics". Computer analysis can be
used to determine these modes for a structure. For each mode, a response is read from the design
spectrum, based on the modal frequency and the modal mass, and they are then combined to
provide an estimate of the total response of the structure. In this we have to calculate the
magnitude of forces in all directions i.e. X, Y & Z and then see the effects on the building.

Combination methods include the following:

 absolute - peak values are added together

 square root of the sum of the squares (SRSS)
 complete quadratic combination (CQC) - a method that is an improvement on SRSS for
closely spaced modes
The result of a response spectrum analysis using the response spectrum from a ground motion is
typically different from that which would be calculated directly from a linear dynamic analysis
using that ground motion directly, since phase information is lost in the process of generating the
response spectrum.
In cases where structures are either too irregular, too tall or of significance to a community in
disaster response, the response spectrum approach is no longer appropriate, and more complex
analysis is often required, such as non-linear static analysis or dynamic analysis.

 Linear dynamic analysis:

Static procedures are appropriate when higher mode effects are not significant. This is generally
true for short, regular buildings. Therefore, for tall buildings, buildings with torsional irregularities,
or non-orthogonal systems, a dynamic procedure is required. In the linear dynamic procedure, the
building is modeled as a multi-degree-of-freedom (MDOF) system with a linear elastic stiffness
matrix and an equivalent viscous damping matrix.
The seismic input is modeled using either modal spectral analysis or time history analysis but in
both cases, the corresponding internal forces and displacements are determined using linear elastic
analysis. The advantage of these linear dynamic procedures with respect to linear static procedures
is that higher modes can be considered. However, they are based on linear elastic response and
hence the applicability decreases with increasing nonlinear behavior, which is approximated by
global force reduction factors.
In linear dynamic analysis, the response of the structure to ground motion is calculated in the time
domain, and all phase information is therefore maintained. Only linear properties are assumed. The
analytical method can use modal decomposition as a means of reducing the degrees of freedom in
the analysis.

 Nonlinear static analysis:

In general, linear procedures are applicable when the structure is expected to remain nearly elastic
for the level of ground motion or when the design results in nearly uniform distribution of
nonlinear response throughout the structure. As the performance objective of the structure implies
greater inelastic demands, the uncertainty with linear procedures increases to a point that requires a
high level of conservatism in demand assumptions and acceptability criteria to avoid unintended
performance. Therefore, procedures incorporating inelastic analysis can reduce the uncertainty and
conservatism. This approach is also known as "pushover" analysis. A pattern of forces is applied to
a structural model that includes non-linear properties (such as steel yield), and the total force is
plotted against a reference displacement to define a capacity curve. This can then be combined
with a demand curve (typically in the form of an acceleration displacement response
spectrum (ADRS)). This essentially reduces the problem to a single degree of freedom (SDOF)
system. Nonlinear static procedures use equivalent SDOF structural models and represent seismic
ground motion with response spectra. Story drifts and component actions are related subsequently
to the global demand parameter by the pushover or capacity curves that are the basis of the non-
linear static procedures.

 Nonlinear dynamic analysis:

Nonlinear dynamic analysis utilizes the combination of ground motion records with a detailed
structural model, therefore is capable of producing results with relatively low uncertainty. In
nonlinear dynamic analyses, the detailed structural model subjected to a ground-motion record
produces estimates of component deformations for each degree of freedom in the model and the
modal responses are combined using schemes such as the square-root-sum-of-squares.
In non-linear dynamic analysis, the non-linear properties of the structure are considered as part of
a time domain analysis. This approach is the most rigorous, and is required by some building
codes for buildings of unusual configuration or of special importance. However, the calculated
response can be very sensitive to the characteristics of the individual ground motion used as
seismic input; therefore, several analyses are required using different ground motion records to
achieve a reliable estimation of the probabilistic distribution of structural response. Since the
properties of the seismic response depend on the intensity, or severity, of the seismic shaking, a
comprehensive assessment calls for numerous nonlinear dynamic analyses at various levels of
intensity to represent different possible earthquake scenarios. This has led to the emergence of
methods like the Incremental Dynamic Analysis.
  Good safety practices/ initiatives in construction safety :
These recommended practices reflect current conditions in the construction industry:
 New construction techniques, materials, and equipment have come into common use.
 Greater diversity in the construction workforce means that people from different
backgrounds and cultures are working alongside each other, often speaking different
languages.
 An aging workforce and the rise of sedentary lifestyle means that some workers are at
higher risk for work-related musculoskeletal disorders.
 Increased temporary and contract employment means that traditional relationships between
workers and employers are shifting, and changes in safety programs and policies will be
required to ensure the safety and health of all workers at worksites characterized by these
newer and more fluid relationships. These practices also reflect what we have learned from
best-in-class programs and what makes them effective. In particular, these recommended
practices place greater emphasis on involving workers, and include a more robust program
evaluation element to help drive continuous improvement. These practices also stress the
need for communication and coordination on worksites involving more than one employer.

 THE BENEFITS OF IMPLEMENTING THESE RECOMMENDED

PRACTICES:
Responsible employers know that the main goal of a safety and health program is to prevent work-
related injuries, illnesses, and deaths, as well as the suffering and financial hardship these events
can cause for workers, their families, and their employers. Employers may find that implementing
these recommended practices brings other benefits as well. The renewed or enhanced commitment
to safety and health and the cooperative atmosphere between employers and workers have been
linked to:
• Improvements in production and quality.
• Better employee morale.
• Improved employee recruiting and retention.
• A more favorable image and reputation (among customers, suppliers, and the community).

 HOW TO USE THE RECOMMENDED PRACTICES:

Each section of the recommended practices describes a core program element (see page 7),
followed by several action items. Each action item is an example of steps that general contractors,
subcontractors, managers, supervisors, and workers can take to establish, implement, maintain, and
improve safety and health programs. A general self-evaluation tool can be found on the
recommended practices Web page. It can be tailored to your construction site to track your
progress and document how you have implemented (or will implement) each action item. Seven
interrelated elements The seven core elements are interrelated and are best viewed as part of an
integrated system. Actions taken under one core element can(and likely will) affect actions needed
under one or more other elements. For example, workers must be trained in reporting procedures
and hazard identification techniques in order to be effective participants. Thus, the “Education and
Training” core element supports the “Worker Participation” core element. Similarly, setting goals
(as described under “Management Leadership”) will be more effective if you routinely evaluate
your progress in meeting those goals (see “Program Evaluation and Improvement”). Progress in
each core element is important to achieve maximum benefit from the program. One size does not
fit all While the action items under each core element are specific, they are not prescriptive. The
process described in these recommended practices can, and should, be tailored to the needs of each
construction company and/or job site. Likewise, your safety and health program can and should
evolve. Experimentation, evaluation, and program modification
are all part of the process. You may also experience setbacks from time to time. What is important
is that you learn from setbacks, remain committed to finding out what works best for you, and
continue to try different approaches. Injuries and illnesses occur in all construction trades. The
preventive approaches described in these recommended practices work equally well for small and
large organizations in the construction industry. Small employers may find that they can best
accomplish the actions outlined in these recommended practices using informal communications
and procedures. Larger employers, who have more complex work processes and hazards, may
require a more formal and detailed program. They may also wish to integrate their safety and
health program with other programs that they are using to manage production, quality control, and
environmental protection or sustainability. The importance of worker participation Through Out
these recommended practices, OSHA emphasizes the importance of worker participation in the
safety and health program. For a program to succeed, workers (and, if applicable, their
representatives) must participate in developing and implementing every element of the safety and
health program. This emphasis on worker participation is consistent with the OSH Act, OSHA
standards, and OSHA enforcement policies and procedures, which recognize the rights and roles of
workers and their representatives in matters of workplace safety and health. Several action items
described in these recommended practices rely on perspectives, expertise, and input that can come
only from workers and their representatives. When more than one employer is involved Employers
and workers on “multiemployer” worksites should pay particular attention to the “Coordination
and Communication for Employers on Multiemployer Worksites” section. This section describes
actions that controlling employers such as general contractors, prime contractors and construction
managers, subcontractors, and temporary staffing agencies (and their workers) should take to
ensure protection of everyone on the job site.

 NINE EASY THINGS TO GET YOUR PROGRAM STARTED :

If these recommended practices appear challenging, here are some simple steps you can take to
get started. Completing these steps will give you a solid base from which to take on some of the
more structured actions presented in the recommended practices.

1. ALWAYS SET SAFETY AND HEALTH AS THE TOP PRIORITY Tell your workers that
making sure they finish the day and go home safely is the way you do business. Assure them that
you will work with them to find and fix any hazards that could injure them or make them sick.

2. LEAD BY EXAMPLE Practice safe behaviors yourself and make safety part of your daily
conversations with workers.

3. IMPLEMENT A REPORTING SYSTEM Develop and communicate a simple procedure for

workers to report any injuries, illnesses, incidents (including near misses/close calls), hazards, or
safety and health concerns without fear of retaliation. Include an option for reporting hazards or
concerns anonymously.

4. PROVIDE TRAINING Train workers on how to identify and control hazards using, for
example, OSHA’s Hazard Identification Training Tool.

5. CONDUCT INSPECTIONS Inspect the job site with workers and ask them to identify any
activity, piece of equipment, or material that concerns them. Use checklists and other resources,
such as OSHA’s Construction Industry Digest, to help identify problems.

6. COLLECT HAZARD CONTROL IDEAS Talk with workers about ideas on safety
improvements throughout the project.

7. IMPLEMENT HAZARD CONTROLS Assign workers the task of choosing, implementing,

and evaluating the solutions.

8. ADDRESS EMERGENCIES Identify foreseeable emergency scenarios and develop

instructions on what to do in each case. Meet to discuss these procedures and post them in a visible
location at the job site.

9. MAKE IMPROVEMENTS Set aside a regular time to discuss safety and health issues, with
the goal of identifying ways to improve the program.
 CHAPTER: 2

-: TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION ACTIVITY:-

 WORKING BELOW GROUND LEVEL :

Underground work includes excavations in surface soil or rock,
drilling, blasting, trenching, shoring, strutting, tunneling, piling, shaft sinking, haulage and
underground pipelines. It requires due considerations of underground lighting, ventilation,
electricity, dust control, inrush of water, oil or gas and continuous safety of people at work. Some
provisions are explained below : Rules 119 to 168 of the BOC Workers Rules, 1998, for
excavation and tunneling works including warning signs and notices, illumination, stability of
structure, pilling, shoring and bracing, safe access, trenches, tunneling operation, shafts, pneumatic
tools, inflammable oils, coupling and hoses, storing of oil and fuel underground, use of gases
underground, water for firefighting, flooding, steel curtains, exposure limits of chemicals,
ventilation, air locks, man-locks, medical lock, emergency generators etc.

 Excavation:

Foundation or underground support is required for most of the constructions and

method of reaching earth or rock stratum suitable for foundation is excavation. It may be with or
without dewatering the site and out of many methods a suitable method of excavation should be
selected.

 General precautions for any excavation or underground work are:

survey of hazards of fall of persons, soil, material etc., inrush of water, oil, gas etc.,
adequate lighting and ventilation to supply fresh air inside, controlling gas, vapour, dust etc. within
safe limits, fire precaution, safe means of access, stability of the ground, position of public utility
services such as electric or telephone cables, water, gas or sewers line etc., effect on adjoining
building, structure, roadways, bridges etc. A competent person should make this survey and give
permission to work. If necessary, isolation of underground utility services should be effected by
due permission or otherwise be protected. Chemical waste and contamination should be safely
removed. No load, vehicle or material should be moved or stacked near the edge of excavation
unless shoring or piling is done to prevent the sides from collapsing. All support work such as
props, wedges etc. should be regularly checked for deflection or distortion. All sides should be
fenced by barrier at least up to 1 m and a danger notice and red signal and light be provided. Sides
of all excavation must be sloped to a safe angle not steeper than the angle of repose of a particular
soil. Cutting shall be done from top to bottom. No undercutting of side shall be allowed. In narrow
trenches a ladder should be extended from bottom to top and 1 m above the ground surface.
Erosion of soil over excavated pits, trenches etc. should be prevented from running water by
dewatering pumps etc. Road-barrier at a distance should be provided if road is to be blocked.
Helmets and gum-boots should be given to all workers working inside. In large scale excavations
for dams, huge buildings, highways, railways etc., accidents occur mostly due to the vehicles,
dumpers, trucks etc. Therefore such vehicles must be checked for warning sirens, horns, lights,
signals, reverse alarm etc. Rules of driving should be enforced. Sufficient lighting should be
provided for night work.

 Drilling, Loading and Blasting: Drilling and loading are required before blasting. Before
starting drilling, any presence of unfired explosives should be carefully checked. No
drilling should be allowed in the butts of old holes. Before drilling, loose or disintegrated
rock should be removed by hand tools or pneumatic jack hammers to protect drillers
against falls of material. Where this is not possible, a protective canopy or overhead screen
should be provided. Holes are drilled by pneumatic hand-hold drills to a specific pattern.
Compressed air hoses should have Self Locking couplings. Drillers should wear helmet,
hand gloves and gumboots. After checking the drilling pattern and depth, the drilling crew
is withdrawn from the site with all drilling equipment and accessories.
The blasting foreman will check all the holes to be loaded by explosives and detonators for
blasting. Transportation, storage, handling and use of explosives are governed by the
Explosives Act and Rules. No smoking or open flame is allowed in explosive loading area. All the
workers from this area are withdrawn to a safe place. Only suitable battery lamps should be used
during loading shot holes. No holes should be loaded except those which are to be fired in the next
round of blasting. Holes loaded during one shift should be fired in the same shift. Diameter of the
hole should be at least 3 mm more than the dia. of the cartridge. To avoid misfires, the detonator
should be completely inserted length-wise in the cartridge and fastened in such a manner that it
cannot be pulled out accidentally. The cartridges are not forced into the holes. Cap crimpers of
proper design should be used for crimping the blasting caps into fuse. A knife or teeth shall not be
used for this purpose. Intensity of charge to be loaded must be well calculated and safe enough to
prevent damage to nearby structures due to shock and vibration resulting Form explosion.
Tamping of cartridge in the hole is done by a wooden (or non-sparking metallic) stick gently. If
dynamite is to be removed from cartridge, loose dynamite should not be tamped. Primer shall
never be tamped. During tamping care should be exercised to avoid injury to fuse or cap wires.
The holes are filled with clay and sand sticks at the top. Detonators’ wires should not be damaged
or pulled out. Then the continuity of the entire circuit is checked by a blasting circuit tester and the
resistance of the circuit is also measured. No other electric circuit should be allowed in that area or
it should be de-energized. Radio, TV and Radar transmitters can detonate electric cap. Hence
minimum safe distance should be maintained. The lead wires are connected to the exploder whose
firing switches are kept ‘open’, locked and keys with the blasting foreman. The surplus
explosives/detonators are returned to the magazines. Then follows the warning procedure.
‘Warning’ and ‘All clear’ signals should be established and made known to all concern. Trained
persons are posted at all approaches with red flags to stop all traffic and by passers. The blasting
foreman, then, sounds a warning siren to drive away all persons from the danger area and not to
allow anybody to enter in the blasting area. After being satisfied with the readiness of blasting, the
blasting foreman will fire the shots by closing the switch of the exploder. After dispersion of gases
and dusts, the foreman will return to the area and check for any misfire. Misfire can be minimized
by using good quality explosives, testing each electric cap with a blasting galvanometer before
loading or by testing the complete circuit before firing. The safest way to deal with misfire is to re
shoot it by new primer. If there is no misfire, then he gives ‘All Clear’ signal and allows the
removal of blasted materials. Loose rock should be scaled down. Haulage i.e. pulling and shifting
of material after blasting is carried out manually or mechanically. Vehicles (train or trucks) should
have head-lights, tail-lights and loud horns. Hauling by winch should be done under the
supervision of a competent person. Workers should not be transported along with the material.
Blasting record should be maintained. Date and time of blast, number of holes, type of explosives
and detonator used, amount of charge per hole, firing pattern and sequence should be recorded.

 Shoring and Underpinning: Shoring and underpinning are required to stop settlement of a
weak foundation, to strengthen the foundation to carry added loads, to provide support
because of adjacent operations and to prevent deterioration of the foundation materials.
Shoring refers to removal of temporary supports after completion of job and underpinning
refers to providing permanent supports which remain in place even after completion of job.
Shoring requires skilled workers and cordoning off the area due to hazardous nature of the
job. It is to be carried out under constant supervision and control of qualified and
experienced engineer. The jack, needles and temporary supports should be of adequate
capacity and strength to raise the structure. Types of shores available are raking, flying,
needle beam and post. The shores and needles to be underpinned must be designed to
withstand the anticipated load. Underpinning is useful to stop settlement of the structure, or
to give more support by new foundations to withstand added load of the structure. This
work is to be done rapidly, in a limited space and with great care, to the existing structure.
Adequate lateral bracing helps obviate the need of underpinning interior walls or columns.
If damage results during underpinning and repairs required, it is best to wait till all
settlement and lateral movement are ceased.
Generally two methods are available for underpinning –
The pit method and the steel cylinder or caisson method. The pit method is used where
new foundation is not to be very deep. In the other method, the steel cylinders of caissons are
placed under the existing footings and sunk to the rock. Skilled workers are required due to
restricted availability of working space and headroom. The shoring of the column is removed at
the end.

 Tunneling and Shaft Sinking:

Tunnels are required for road-ways and railways through mountain, hydropower
station underground, irrigation of water, drainage, mining of minerals, storage of hazardous wastes
and defence installations (underground shelter) etc. Tunneling may be in soft ground (clay, sand,
gravel or soft earth) or in rock. Soft ground tunneling is carried out by fore poling, needle-beam
and timber, liner plates, shield and liner plates and plenum process or compressed air-lock. Rock
tunneling is carried out by drilling, blasting, mucking or by machines which may be full face
boring machine or the header with rotary milling head on a telescopic boom.
Safety measures include well maintained equipment and tools, their testing by competent persons,
speedy removal of debris, refuse and trash, safe and adequate walkway, proper drainage and water
pumping if required, good lighting, use of helmet, gumboots and goggles by the workers, jumbo
platform with guard rails and toe-guards to work near the entire face of the tunnel to be drilled,
pneumatic drills with pusher legs, wet drilling for dust control, pneumatic coupling with Self
Locking couplings, separate transport vehicles for explosives and detonators and their separate
magazines, safe handling of explosives and detonators, avoidance of spark, no smoking in
explosive area and all precautions mentioned in foregoing. For Drilling, Loading, blasting and
haulage. After blasting, rock falls can cause major accidents. Therefore inspection of walls and
roofs, scaling of loose rock, bolting and supporting of weak spots, checking of weak seams and
planes by a hand hammer and supporting of roof and sides are essential. Mechanical loading of
muck and haulage are required for speedy construction in tunnel. Muck (dirty thing) cars should be
loaded evenly and not piled above the sides. Vehicles in tunnel should not run overloading and
over speeding. Rail-tracks should be safe and sound. Smokeless locomotives should be used.
Dump cars should be with locking device to prevent accidental tipping. When tunneling is done
through a shaft (vertical rod or stem), the tunnel musk is hoisted through the shaft and brought to
surface for disposal. Hoisting machines should have automatic brakes to stop and hold the
conveyance (cage or car) if the hoisting power fails. It should have a depth indicator. Rules for
hoist/lift should be followed as mentioned in foregoing. Mechanical ventilation is necessary in all
tunneling work to supply fresh air to the working crew and removal of dust, fumes and gases
including methane, CO2 etc. Rock dust containing silica and quartz may cause silicosis.
Ventilation ducts should be airtight and should have reversible duct blowers to operate in both
directions. The tunnels are lined with plain or reinforced concrete or steel forms to support the
surfaces and to prevent any rock fall. Scaffolding carrying pipeline of pumped concrete should be
strong enough. The workers should wear face shield or safety goggles. Safety precautions for shaft
sinking are mostly same as stated above. The shaft which is not sunk through solid rock should be
cased, lined or otherwise made safe. Workers should be provided with cradles from which they can
work safely. The shaft top should be protected by fencing or guard-rails, toe-boards and gates.
Means of escape and ladder from bottom to top should be provided in addition to any mechanical
means of ingress and egress. Winches at shaft tops should provide easy replacement of bucket. All
landings in shaft should have gates that close the opening to a height of at least 2 mt. All shafts of
over 30 mt in depth should have an adequate head frame strong enough to withstand the maximum
load. It should be open steel work, fire-resistant and protected against lightening. Shafts should
have a signaling system that warns the hoisting man when a conveyance passes beyond the safe
limit of travel. The signal code should be posted in the hoisting machine room and at each landing.
No combustible material or structure should be allowed within a shaft, tunnel mouth, engine house
or fan house. Lubricating oils, grease and rope dressings should be kept in closed metal containers
and away from shafts. Electrical installations in shafts and tunnels should comply with rules and
regulations. Lightening arresters should be provided on the surface. Emergency lighting to
function for a long time (to escape safely) should also be provided.

 EXCAVATIONS: HAZARD RECOGNITION IN TRENCHING AND SHORING

DEFINITIONS.

A. ACCEPTED ENGINEERING PRACTICES are procedures compatible with the standards of

practice required of a registered professional engineer.

B. ADJACENT STRUCTURE STABILITY refers to the stability of the foundation(s) of

adjacent structures whose location may create surcharges, changes in soil conditions, or other
disruptions that have the potential to extend into the failure zone of the excavation or trench.

C. COMPETENT PERSON is an individual who is capable of identifying existing and

predictable
hazards or working conditions that are hazardous, unsanitary, or dangerous to employees, and
who has authorization to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate or control these hazards
and conditions.

D. CONFINED SPACE is a space that, by design and/or configuration, has limited openings for
entry and exit, unfavorable natural ventilation, may contain or produce hazardous substances,
and is not intended for continuous employee occupancy.

E. EXCAVATION. An Excavation is any man-made cut, cavity, trench, or depression in an earth

surface that is formed by earth removal. A Trench is a narrow excavation (in relation to its
length) made below the surface of the ground. In general, the depth of a trench is greater than
its width, and the width (measured at the bottom) is not greater than 15 ft (4.6 m). If a form or
other structure installed or constructed in an excavation reduces the distance between the form
and the side of the excavation to 15 ft (4.6 m) or less (measured at the bottom of the
excavation), the excavation is also considered to be a trench.

F. HAZARDOUS ATMOSPHERE is an atmosphere that by reason of being explosive,

flammable, poisonous, corrosive, oxidizing, irritating, oxygen-deficient, toxic, or otherwise
harmful may cause death, illness, or injury to persons exposed to it.

G. INGRESS AND EGRESS mean "entry" and "exit," respectively. In trenching and excavation
operations, they refer to the provision of safe means for employees to enter or exit an
excavation or trench.
H. PROTECTIVE SYSTEM refers to a method of protecting employees from cave-ins, from
material that could fall or roll from an excavation face or into an excavation, and from the
collapse of adjacent structures. Protective systems include support systems, sloping and
benching systems, shield systems, and other systems that provide the necessary protection.

I. REGISTERED PROFESSIONAL ENGINEER is a person who is registered as a professional

engineer in the state where the work is to be performed. However, a professional engineer who is
registered in any state is deemed to be a "registered professional engineer" within the meaning of
Subpart P when approving designs for "manufactured protective systems" or "tabulated data" to be
used in interstate commerce.

J. SUPPORT SYSTEM refers to structures such as underpinning, bracing, and shoring that
provide support to an adjacent structure or underground installation or to the sides of an
excavation or trench.

K. SUBSURFACE ENCUMBRANCES include underground utilities, foundations, streams,

water tables, transformer vaults, and geological anomalies.

L. SURCHARGE means an excessive vertical load or weight caused by spoil, overburden,

vehicles, equipment, or activities that may affect trench stability.

M. TABULATED DATA are tables and charts approved by a registered professional engineer
and used to design and construct a protective system.

N. UNDERGROUND INSTALLATIONS include, but are not limited to, utilities (sewer,
telephone, fuel, electric, water, and other product lines), tunnels, shafts, vaults, foundations, and
other
underground fixtures or equipment that may be encountered during excavation or trenching
work.

O. UNCONFINED COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH is the load per unit area at which soil will
fail in compression. This measure can be determined by laboratory testing, or it can be estimated in
the field using a pocket penetrometer, by thumb penetration tests, or by other methods.

P. DEFINITIONS THAT ARE NO LONGER APPLICABLE.

For a variety of reasons, several terms commonly used in the past are no longer used in revised
Subpart P.

These include the following:

1. Angle of Repose Conflicting and inconsistent definitions have led to confusion as to the
meaning of this phrase. This term has been replaced by Maximum Allowable Slope.
2. Bank, Sheet Pile, and Walls Previous definitions were unclear or were used
inconsistently in the former standard.
3. Hard Compact Soil and Unstable Soil The new soil classification system in revised
Subpart P uses different terms for these soil types.

OVERVIEW: SOIL MECHANICS.

A number of stresses and deformations can occur in an open cut or trench. For example, increases
or
decreases in moisture content can adversely affect the stability of a trench or excavation. The
following diagrams show some of the more frequently identified causes of trench failure.

A. TENSION CRACKS. Tension cracks usually form at a horizontal distance of 0.5 to 0.75
times the depth of the trench, measured from the top of the vertical face of the trench. See
 the accompanying drawing for additional details.

B. SLIDING or sluffing may occur as a result of tension cracks, as illustrated below

C. TOPPLING. In addition to sliding, tension cracks can cause toppling. Toppling occurs
when the trench's vertical face shears along the tension crack line and topples into the
excavation.

D. SUBSIDENCE AND BULGING. An unsupported excavation can create an unbalanced

stress in the soil, which, in turn, causes subsidence at the surface and bulging of the vertical
face of the trench. If uncorrected, this condition can cause face failure and entrapment of
workers in the trench.

E. HEAVING OR SQUEEZING. Bottom heaving or squeezing is caused by the downward

pressure created by the weight of adjoining soil. This pressure causes a bulge in the bottom of
the cut, as illustrated in the drawing above. Heaving and squeezing can occur even when
shoring or shielding has been properly installed.

F. BOILING is evidenced by an upward water flow into the bottom of the cut. A high water
table is one of the causes of boiling. Boiling produces a "quick" condition in the bottom of the
cut, and can occur even when shoring or trench boxes are used.

G. UNIT WEIGHT OF SOILS refers to the weight of one unit of a particular soil. The weight
of soil varies with type and moisture content. One cubic foot of soil can weigh from 110
pounds to 140 pounds or more, and one cubic meter (35.3 cubic feet) of soil can weigh more
than 3,000 pounds.

 BENCHING:
There are two basic types of benching, simple and multiple. The type of soil determines the
horizontal to vertical ratio of the benched side. As a general rule, the bottom vertical height of the
trench must not exceed 4 ft (1.2 m) for the first bench. Subsequent benches may be up to a
maximum of 5 ft (1.5 m) vertical in Type A soil and 4 ft (1.2 m) in Type B soil to a total trench
depth of 20 ft (6.0 m). All subsequent benches must be below the maximum allowable slope for
that soil type. For Type B soil the trench excavation is permitted in cohesive soil only.

 Key principles of machinery and equipment safety:-

Machines have moving parts. The action of moving parts may have sufficient force
in motion to cause injury to people. When reviewing machinery and equipment for possible
mechanical hazards, consider:
 machinery and equipment with moving parts that can be reached by people

 machinery and equipment that can eject objects (parts, components, products or
waste items) that may strike a person with sufficient force to cause harm

 machinery and equipment with moving parts that can reach people such as
booms or mechanical appendages (arms)

 mobile machinery and equipment, such as forklifts, pallet jacks, earth moving
equipment, operated in areas where people may gain access.

hazard Risk
Rotating shafts, pullies, sprockets and Entanglement
gears
Hard surfaces moving together Crushing
Scissor or shear action Severing
 Sharp edge – moving or stationary Cutting or puncturing
Cable or hose connections Slips, trips and falls (e.g. oil leaks)

 Risk control of machinery and equipment hazards :

Where exposure to machinery and equipment hazards cannot be eliminated or substituted for
machinery and equipment of improved design, risk control(s) must be applied to the hazards that
prevents or reduces the risk (chance) of injury or harm. Health and safety laws require the highest
order control be applied so far as is reasonably practicable.

Higher order machinery and equipment risk controls are preventative by nature, are effective and
durable for the environment it is used in, and deal directly with the hazard at its source. Lower
order machinery and equipment risk controls, such as personal protective equipment (PPE), can
prevent injuries, but are generally not as effective as higher order controls, as they rely more on
employee behaviour, maintenance programs and supervision. Administrative controls use systems
of work to reduce risk by providing a framework of expected behaviours. Examples are rotation of
staff to reduce exposure to a hazard, or a documented safe system of work, such as ‘lock out-tag
out’. These types of controls rely on extensive instruction, information, training and supervision. In
terms of time and ongoing administration by managers and employers to ensure the desired
behaviour occurs, administrative controls can be the most expensive and least effective form of
hazard control.

Note: The use of PPE and administrative controls are low or last order controls used to deal with
any residual risk associated with the hazard. As such, these last resort controls can be used in
support of higher order controls that deal with a hazard at its source and should not be considered
as the sole means of control. These types of risk controls require constant monitoring and
reinforcement.
Effective machinery and equipment risk controls reflect some or all of the following
characteristics:

1. the hazard is controlled at its source

2. contact or access to the hazard is prevented
3. sturdy construction (correct materials with few points of potential failure)
4. fail-safe (failure of the control system to be effective will result in machinery shut-
down)
5. tamper-proof design (as difficult as possible to bypass)
6. presents minimum impediment to machinery and equipment operator
7. easy to inspect and maintain
8. does not introduce further hazards through action of the risk control.

Risk control of mechanical hazards:

Separation is a simple and effective machinery and equipment risk control. Separation may be
achieved by distance, barrier or time.

• Distance separation means a person cannot reach the hazard due to distance.
• Barrier separation means an effective barrier or guard denies access and controls ejection
of parts, products or waste.
• Time separation means at the time of access, the machinery or equipment is disabled.
Examples include:
• physical barriers and guards such as fences, screens or fixed panels of
various materials
• various forms of guarding and interlocking (as described in Australian Standard AS 4024,
part 1601 and part 1602, Safety of Machinery)
• making the hazard inaccessible by reach (where the distance between a person and the
hazard forms an effective barrier).

Note: When considering the suitability of distance guarding, also consider the safe access
requirements of maintenance people who gain access by ladder, scaffold or elevated work
platform.

Guarding:

A guard can perform several functions: it can deny bodily access, contain ejected
parts, tools, off-cuts or swath, prevent emissions escaping or form part of a safe
working platform.

Guarding is commonly used with machinery and equipment to prevent access to:
1. rotating end drums of belt conveyors
2. moving augers of auger conveyors
3. rotating shafts
4. moving parts that do not require regular adjustment
5. machine transmissions, such as pulley and belt drives, chain drives, exposed drive
gears
6. any dangerous moving parts, machines or equipment.

Where access is not anticipated, a fixed guard can be permanently applied by

bonding agent, welding or secured with one-way screws. If access is generally
not required, a permanently fixed barrier is the preferred option.

Where access to the hazard is infrequent, the installation of a fitted guard that
can be removed by use of a tool may be an acceptable control, where the tool
to remove the barrier or guard is not normally available to the operator.

Adjustable guarding incorporates movable sections or panels of the guard and

allows for material or parts to be fed into the guarded area while still preventing
bodily contact.
Tunnel guards provide a tunnel, aperture or chute in which material can be inserted into the
machinery and equipment, but due to the restrictive design and depth of the opening, fingers,
hands, arms or the entire person is prevented from intruding into the danger area. Where frequent
cleaning is required, the guard may be constructed of mesh that prevents intrusion of body parts
but allows for hosing. Food production workplaces that use conveyors in areas where hygiene or
food safety is an integral part of the operation use fixed mesh guarding of conveyor end rollers.
Interlock guarding occurs when the act of moving the guard (opening, sliding
or removing) to allow access stops the action of the hazardous mechanism.

Interlock guarding works by:

a) mechanically disconnecting the drive mechanism (applies a brake or disengages

a clutch or geared mechanism)
b) isolating the power source of the drive mechanism (stops the motor)
c) a combination of mechanical and power disconnection.

Interlock guarding is generally achieved via mechanical or electrical means, but may also
include hydraulic or pneumatic control systems. The energy stored in moving parts (momentum)
can cause the mechanism of the machine or equipment to run on for some time after the source of
driving energy has been removed. For access panels or doors supporting an interlocking device
that allows access to mechanical parts that move for periods after the energy source is removed, a
separate mechanism to delay release of the retaining or locking mechanism
may be incorporated.
 Captive key systems rely upon a single key that is shared between the control panel (‘on’
switch) and the access gate lock of the physical barrier to the danger area. Removal of the key
from the control panel can only occur when the switch is in the off position, and the gate will only
release the key when in the locked position. Captive key systems do not provide full isolation of
the power source, but may provide limited temporary access under controlled conditions. Effective
supervision, instruction and training are required as administrative controls to ensure that only one
key is available for the system, and the key is not removed from the access gate or guard by a
second operator while a person is exposed to the danger area of the plant. Operations such as
maintenance, repair, installation service or cleaning may require all energy sources to be isolated
and locked out to avoid accidental start-up.

 Working at height :

Providing people with a suitable work platform for the task being undertaken
reduces the risk of injury from falling from machinery and equipment.
Often ‘safe access’ equipment made available during installation of machinery or
equipment is removed after commissioning. Workplace managers may not have
considered or recognised the need to provide similar means to gain safe access
to parts of machinery and equipment at height or in awkward locations for
maintenance, repair, service or cleaning activities.
Safe access at height can be broken into three categories. Each category has in
common the need to provide a stable, safe platform suitable for the work to be
undertaken, and to be equipped to support and retain a person within the confines
of the platform.
1. Fixed or permanently installed access platforms:
a) Gantries
b) mezzanine floors
c) fixed platforms
d) stairways.
2. Mobile elevated work platforms (EWPs):
a) scissor lifts
b) knuckle booms.
Note: Safe work practices must take into account the risk of trapping an
operator between the EWP and a fixed structure, e.g. overhead beams,
electrical cables, pipes.
3. Temporary platforms:
a) scaffolding
b) ladders.
Where safe working platforms are used and the risk of a fall remains, travel restraint and fall arrest
harnesses can be used where a suitable point of attachment exists. Harness systems, anchor points
and shock absorbing lanyards must be compatible at each point of attachment from the anchor
point to the harness, with approved and rated latching devices to ensure the integrity of the system.
When using fall arrest systems, specialist assistance may be necessary to select appropriate
equipment, provide effective training in use and inspection, and develop an emergency retrieval
plan to recover a person suspended in a fall arrest harness. People suspended by a harness for short
periods of time may suffer serious health effects or may have incurred injury during the fall prior
to the fall arrest device deploying. Emergency retrieval plans should allow for immediate local
response in safely retrieving people to avoid fatalities.

• THE FUNCTION OF FOOTINGS AND FOUNDATIONS:

To put it simply, the function of a structure is to do nothing. The most successful structures stay
still. That’s the goal of the exercise. Getting slightly more technical, we can look at footings and
foundations as having two functions:
Transfer Loads: 1.To transfer the live and dead loads of the building to the soil over a large
enough area so that neither the soil nor the building will move

Resist Frost: 2.In areas where frost occurs, to prevent frost from moving the building Dead loads
are the weight of the building materials and the soil surrounding the foundations. Live loads
include the weight of people, furniture, snow, rain, and wind. Wind may be a vertical force
downward, a horizontal force, or an uplift force. A live load may also be exerted by water in the
soil around the foundations (Figure 1.1). Wet soil exerts much more force than dry soil. Frozen soil
exerts much more force than wet soil.

Direction of Loads: The weight of objects is caused by gravity and results in a vertical downward
load. Wind can be in any direction, as mentioned earlier. The soil exerts forces in all directions, but
foundations usually see the horizontal thrust of the soil on the outside of the foundation wall. The
forces of frost are also in all directions. Most frost failures in buildings include horizontal
movement (foundation walls cracking, bowing, or collapsing inward) and frost heaving (upward
movement of the building as the soil under the building expands due to frost)

• SOILS:

Soil Quality Is the Key: Buildings rely on the soil beneath them to stay put. If the soil under the
house moves up, down, or sideways, the house is in trouble. Designers of homes may know quite a
bit about the soil conditions at a site and may design the building exactly for those conditions.
More commonly, soil conditions are assumed to be a certain type, and footings and foundations are
designed with a margin of safety to account for adverse soil conditions, within reasonable limits.
Occasionally we guess wrong and the building moves, but for an average site, it costs more to find
out how good the soil is over the whole site than to design a system that will work
on most soils.
 Soil Types: While we won’t be talking about any soils engineering or geology, and we
certainly don’t encourage you to offer soil testing as part of your home inspection, let’s just give
you some very crude rules and rank soil types in order of their bearing capacity (Figure 1.3). You
should understand that many soils are a combination of these types, and many building sites
contain more than one soil type. The soil profile can change as you move across a site from side to
side, and it can change as you go down into the soil. With all those qualifiers, here is a ranking of
soil types from strongest to weakest.
o Strong :

1. Bedrock
2. Gravel
3. Coarse sand
4. Fine sand
5. Clay
6. Silt

Organic material With the exception of organic material, all of the soil types can be built on,
given appropriate consideration for the soil type. Again, while it’s beyond our scope to get
specific, the soil-bearing capacity changes with moisture levels for most soil types, in some cases
dramatically.
o Function depends on: The function of footing and foundation systems varies with
location. Perimeter Location foundations have to resist the lateral thrust of soil outside the
foundation wall. Interior foundations and footings under columns, for example, see more purely
vertical loads.

• FROST:

The Strategy Varies : Have you ever wondered why there are basements in houses in the northern
part of North America but not in the southern parts? Many of you probably know that the answer
lies in one word: frost. Frost expands soil and exerts tremendous pressure.
Frost-induced pressures can lift houses up or push foundation walls in. If you are building in the
north, you have to dig down far enough to get below the frost line the depth to which frost
penetrates into the soil. That’s where the footings should be.

Basements Where There’s Frost:

The foundations have to be tall enough to extend up through the soil above the grade so that we
can put the house on top of the foundation. Since we have There’s Frost to dig a trench for the
footings and foundations, we may as well create a hole and use the below-grade space. That’s how
basements were invented.

Slab-on-Grade or Crawlspaces:

If the building is not likely to see frost to any great depth, there’s little risk of Where There’s No
Frost the building heaving. As a result, the weight of the building can be spread out on footings
near the surface. Adding a basement becomes quite expensive. Most of the living space is above
grade in areas where frost is not an issue. Incidentally, when we build at grade level in southern
climates, we remove the organic soil (topsoil) from the surface, since it is not very stable. While
we might scrape off the surface, that’s different from digging holes to get below the frost line.

Exceptions:
Since this is home inspection, there are always exceptions to the rule .If you build on bedrock in
frost areas, frost is not an issue and you don’t have to put footings down below the frost line.
Similarly, if you build on gravel or coarse.

No Frost in Cold Areas:

Sand that is free draining , and the water table is far enough down, frost isn’t likely to be a
problem. Free-draining soils allow the water from rain and melting snow to fall through very
quickly, and as long as the water doesn’t stick around, it doesn’t matter how cold the sand and
gravel gets; it won’t expand if there’s no water in it.

Homes with Basements Need Heat:

For those of you who live in frost areas, it’s important to understand that once you dig a hole and
make a basement, you’ve got to keep the building heated. We’re trying to stop the frost from
getting under the building. As long as we keep the inside of the building heated, frost can’t get
down under the basement floor. As long as the foundations are deep enough to extend below the
frost line outside, the frost can’t get under the building from the outside either.
Unheated Houses Can Heave A problem arises when we have a house with a basement that is left
unheated over the winter. If the frost depth in an area penetrates 3 to 4 feet into the soil, the
footings have to be at or below that depth. An unheated house allows frost to penetrate the soil 3 to
4 feet under the basement floor. If there is adequate moisture in the soil, it will heave, picking the
whole house up with it, or more commonly, parts of the house .Very serious structural damage can
result.

• BASEMENTS, CRAWL SPACES, AND SLAB-ON-GRADE CONSTRUCTION

We’ve just been talking about basements, one of the common foundation configurations.
Crawlspaces are another, which you can think of as short basements. Crawlspaces are used in areas
where holes have to be dug to a slight depth to get below organic material or frost depth, but the
area is not tall enough to create a basement, or basement space is not desirable. Crawlspaces may
be built very similar to basements. They may have continuous perimeter foundations or they may
have piers. The third common configuration is slab-on-grade construction. A concrete floor slab is
poured at grade level. These slabs may be supported on continuous foundations, piers or piles and
grade beams, or grade beams directly on isolated footings, for example. These foundations often
serve as the building floor, as well
as the support for the house loads. footings, for example. These foundations often serve as the
building floor, as well as the support for the house loads.
Floor slabs may be—

 Floating 1. Floating—supported by the ground and independent of perimeter foundations

 Supported 2. Supported—with the floor slab integrated into the foundation system for
the building, in which case the foundations support the slab.
 Monolithic 3. Monolithic—with the slab an integral part of the footing . Slabs are
typically concrete and may be reinforced, depending on how they’re built. They may be thickened,
typically on the underside, to support the weight of interior load-bearing members such as
columns. Alternatively, the column may go through the slab, and a separate footing may be
provided for the column.
• FOOTING AND FOUNDATION TYPES

 Spread Footings: This leads us to the configuration of footings. Houses may have spread
footings (strip footings) that support the perimeter walls. These footings are wide pads that are
continuous around the perimeter of the house. In some cases, the pads may be widened and/or
thickened to accommodate concentrated loads from fireplaces, pilasters, etc.

 Pilasters :A pilaster is a thickening of a foundation wall. It may be thickened to receive

the concentrated load of a beam resting on top of the pilaster, or it may be acting as a stiffener to
prevent the foundation wall from bowing inward.

 Pad Footings: Pad footings are similar to continuous footings except they are usually
under a single pier or column. Pad footings spread the load out, usually in a square, with the
column or pier sitting in the middle of the square. It’s common for houses to have strip footings
around the perimeter and pad footings on the building interior under columns.
 Piles: Piles are typically used instead of footings where the soil quality is poor. They
are, generally speaking, more expensive to install and have to be driven into the
ground with specialized equipment.

They can work one of two ways

o End Bearing 1. Piles can be driven down to a point where they bear on bedrock or other
sound substrate.
o Friction 2. Piles can be driven into soil far enough that the friction of the soil against the
sides of the pile is enough to resist any downward movement. Incidentally, if a house is supported
on piles, they probably won’t be visible and you may not know it.
 Piers: Piers are columns that may be completely concealed in the soil or may project above
it. Most of you will be familiar with the piers that are commonly used to build exterior wood decks
and porches. These piers may be poured concrete, often with the concrete poured into a cardboard
cylinder in a hole dug in the ground. Piers usually, but not always, have footings (Figure 1.11).
Piers can either be thought of as posts or columns, or can be thought of as short piles that bear on
their ends.
 Grade Beams Grade beams are usually concrete beams that are supported on footings,
piles, or piers and are located at grade. In some cases they extend below grade; usually they extend
only slightly above grade. Grade beams transfer the loads from the building down to the footings
or piles.
 Caissons: Caissons are foundation systems created by drilling holes and filling them with
concrete. A caisson pile is a cast-in-place pile that has a hollow tube driven into the ground. The
earth is excavated from the tube, and concrete is poured into the tube. Some caisson piles are flared
out at the bottom to create a larger bearing surface. These are sometimes called bell caissons.

By now it should be clear that footings and foundations are—

 _ important to the stability of the house
_ expensive
_ mostly out of sight

Materials Footings and foundations should be strong so they can transfer loads and durable with
respect to exposure from air, water, soil, and insect attack. Most modern footings are concrete
(sometimes reinforced). Footings on older buildings may be brick or stone. While we won’t talk
much about preserved wood foundation systems, these systems sometimes employ a wood footing.
Foundations may be concrete, concrete block, cinder block, brick, hollow clay tile (terra cotta),
stone (either dry laid or laid in mortar), or Wood was common on very old buildings and has
become common again to the extent that preserved wood foundations are used. Piles are typically
concrete, steel, or wood. Again, you likely won’t see these. Piers might be wood, concrete,
concrete block, brick, or stone.

SPECIAL FOUNDATIONS
Raft or Mat Foundations: Raft or mat foundation systems are not common, and you would not
usually know that is what you’re looking at in the field. Their construction materials and failure
modes are the same as what we will be looking at, in any case. So we won’t go into more detail.

Preserved Wood Foundations: Preserved wood foundations have become popular in some areas
over the last few years .Wood in a below-grade, damp soil environment has historically not had a
long life, particularly as a structural member. As a result, there are several design challenges with
respect to wood foundations. They are more likely to be successful in dry soils than in wet soils.
For the most part, their modes of failure will be similar to what we will look at on most other
foundation systems, with a couple of exceptions. Since wood is less brittle or more flexible than
concrete, for example, cracking is likely to be less common and Rot and Insects bowing may be
prevalent. Rot and insect damage are obviously possibilities with wood foundations, while these
are not issues with most other foundation and footing
materials. In most cases, the interiors of preserved wood foundations are finished as living space,
and it may be difficult to identify the foundation system, let alone inspect it.

Post-Tensioned Foundations: Some areas have expansive soils that make it risky to use
conventional footings and foundations. A special reinforcement technique for concrete grade
beams and floor slabs is sometimes used to resist the forces of the soil and to prevent differential
movement of the structure.

Post-tensioned slabs and grade beams use steel cables or tendons that are laid in place before the
concrete is poured. The cables are most often surrounded by a Cables or Tendons plastic
sheathing: After the concrete is poured, jacks are used to pull the cables tight, strengthening the
assembly. You may be able to see the anchors and cable ends on the exterior of foundations near
grade level. These post-tensioned cables sometimes snap, and in some cases they shoot out from
the foundation or come up through floor slabs. Fortunately, this problem is rare, at least so far.

INSPECTION TIPS:

No Access into Crawlspaces: If there is no access to a part of a house structure that you ordinarily
would see, this should be a red flag. You should document the limitations to your inspection and
make your client understand that you couldn’t do everything you normally do. This is important
because problems in living spaces or highly visible areas tend to get addressed, whereas those that
are concealed tend to get ignored. If you can’t get into the crawlspace, chances are no one has been
in there. There may be considerable damage or distress that has developed over time. If you fail to
make it clear to clients that you couldn’t get into a crawlspace, which is important, you’ll probably
regret it eventually.

Macro and Micro: It’s very important to look at the structure from far away and up close. Step
back from the house and look at it from every angle. Where possible, line up the walls of the house
you’re looking at with adjacent houses or structures. Do the corners line up, or is one of the
buildings leaning?

Look Inside and Out: You have to look at the outside and inside to complete your structure
inspection.
In many cases, after having looked outside, you’ll see something inside.
There is nothing wrong with going back outside to have a second look.

• Pile Foundations:

Friction 2.: Piles can be driven into soil far enough that the friction of the soil against the sides of
the pile is enough to resist any downward movement. Incidentally, if a house is supported on piles,
they probably won’t be visible and you may not know it. Piers Piers are columns that may be
completely concealed in the soil or may project above it. Most of you will be familiar with the
piers that are commonly used to build exterior wood decks and porches. These piers may be
poured concrete, often with the concrete poured into a cardboard cylinder in a hole dug in the
ground. Piers usually, but not always, have footings .Piers can either be thought of as posts or
columns, or can be thought of as short piles that bear on their ends. Grade Beams Grade beams are
usually concrete beams that are supported on footings, piles, or piers and are located at grade. In
some cases they extend below grade; usually they extend only slightly above grade. Grade beams
transfer the loads from the building down to the footings or piles. Caissons Caissons are
foundation systems created by drilling holes and filling them with concrete. A caisson pile is a
cast-in-place pile that has a hollow tube driven into the ground. The earth is excavated from the
tube, and concrete is poured into the tube. Some caisson piles are flared out at the bottom to create
a larger bearing surface. These are sometimes called bell caissons.

By now it should be clear that footings and foundations are

■ important to the stability of the house

■ expensive
■ mostly out of sight Materials Footings and foundations should be strong so they can transfer
loads and durable with respect to exposure from air, water, soil, and insect attack. Most modern
footings are concrete (sometimes reinforced). Footings on older buildings

There are different types of foundation for building construction and their uses depends on soil
condition and loads from the structure. It is advisable to know suitability of each types of
foundation before making any decision for their selection in any construction project.

Types of Foundation and their Uses:

1. Spread footings and wall footings:

Spread footings are those whose base is more wider than a typical load bearing wall foundations.
This is used in case of buildings. The wider base of this footing type spreads the weight from the
building structure over more area and provides better stability.
 Fig: Spread Footing

Spread footings and wall footings are generally used for individual columns. walls and bridge
piers. These footings
ings are used where the bearing soil layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the ground
surface. The soil bearing capacity must be sufficient to support the weight of the structure over the
base area of the structure.
These foundations should not be used on soils
soils where there is any possibility of ground flow of
water above bearing layer of soil which may result in scour or liquefaction.
Mat Foundations:
Mat foundations are the types of foundation which are spread across the entire area of the building
to support heavy structural loads from columns and walls.

 Mat Foundation:
The use of mat foundation is for columns and walls foundations where the loads from the
structure on columns and walls are very high. This type of foundation is used to prevent
differential settlement
ettlement of individual footings, thus designed as a single mat (or combined
footing) of all the load bearing elements of the structure.This type of foundation is suitable
for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less for suitability of spread footing
footings and wall
footings. This type of footing is economical generally when one-half
one half area of the structure is
covered with individual footings and wall footings is provided.
These foundations should not be used where the ground water table is above the bearing
surface of the soil. Use of foundation in such conditions may lead to scour and liquefaction
 Fig: Mat Foundation

3. Pile Foundations:

Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used to transfer heavy loads from the
structure to a hard rock strata much deep below the ground level.

Fig: Pile Foundation

Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of structures through columns to hard soil strata
which is much below ground level and where shallow foundations such as spread footings and mat
footings cannot be used. This type of foundation is also used to prevent uplift of structure due to
lateral loads such as earthquake and wind forces.

Pile foundations are generally used for soils where soil conditions near the ground surface
surf is not
suitable for heavy loads. The depth of hard rock strata may be 5m to 50m (15 feet to 150 feet) deep
from the ground surface.
The pile foundations resists the loads from structure by skin friction and by end bearing. Use of
pile foundations
ndations also prevents differential settlement of foundations.

4. Drilled Shafts:

Drilled shafts is also a type of deep foundation and has action similar to pile foundations discussed
above, but are high capacity cast-in-situ
cast foundations. It is also called as caissons. It resists loads
from structure through shaft resistance, toe resistance and / or combination of both of these. The
construction of drilled shafts or caissons are done using an auger.

Fig: Drilled Shafts or Caisson Foundation (Source: Hayward

Hayward Baker)

This foundation can transfer column loads larger than pile foundations. It is used where depth of
hard strata below ground level is location within 10m to 100m (25 feet to 300 feet).Drilled shafts
or caisson foundation is not suitable when deep deep deposits of soft clays and loose, water-bearing
water
granular soils exists. It is also not suitable for soils where caving formations are difficult to
stabilize, soils made up of boulders, artesian aquifer exists.

What are the different types of plant machinery?

If you work in the construction industry, chances are you would benefit from investing in plant
machinery and equipment, such as excavators, cranes and dumpers, to enable your staff to work
more effectively.
But with a wide range of machinery, all designed to carry out specific jobs, it can be difficult to
know which is best suited for your purposes and environment. Have a read through our quick
guide below to discover more about the commonly utilised plant machines in the construction
industry:

 180 Degree Backhoe Loader

A backhoe loader features powerful hydraulics to provide exceptional digging, trenching, back
back-
filling and material-handling
handling functions. Their versatile and robust build means that they are utilised
throughout the construction industry for digging foundations for some of the largest building
projects, as well to assist with breaking asphalt and road surfacing, and with demolition and
excavating projects. They are also heavily relied on in the landscaping industry, as they can shift a
lot of material in a very short space of time.
Backhoes provide great power alongside precise handling and performance, allowing you to work
in areas of restricted size, where a larger machine may not be able to gain access or safely operate.
Ultimately, their smaller size and versatility makes them a more effective and productive tool to
invest.

 360 Degree Excavator

An excavator, sometimes known as a digger or mechanical shovel, is a huge piece of heavy

construction equipment. Its versatility means that it is a very common piece of equipment and is
used for everything from trenching, material handling and digging foundations to forestry,
landscaping, mining and even river dredging.
The cab of the machine is situated on a rotating platform, the ‘house’, which features a boom, stick
and bucket, all on top of the carriage which either has wheels or tracks for manoeuvring.
Loading Shovel A loading shovel is a heavy duty vehicle used throughout the construction
industry. Because it is a wheeled vehicle it is extremely versatile and has been specifically
designed to assist with an array of tasks. They are most commonly utilised in the moving and
loading of materials in a range of applications, such as quarrying, ground clearance, block
handling, waste and recycling handling and agriculture.

 Overhead Gantry Crane

Overhead gantry cranes (bridge cranes, suspension cranes or overhead travelling cranes) are large
pieces of machinery featuring a crane that can lift heavy objects via a hoist system which is
attached to a trolley.
The ends are supported by a gantry beam which rests on wheels and runs along rails. Gantry cranes
are usually installed on the side walls of a factory or large building, as well as docks and outdoor
construction areas, meaning the crane can lift and carry objects the entire length of the building.
Most commonly utilised in the manufacturing of large equipment and vehicles, loading and
materials handling.

 Lorry Loader:

A lorry loader crane, or articulating crane, is a hydraulic articulated arm fitted to a truck or lorry
that is most commonly used for loading and unloading materials from the vehicle, popular because
the transport and movement of the load only requires one vehicle, rather than a lorry to transport
and a separate crane to load/unload.
The ‘arm’ is made up of sections that can be folded away when not required, and can have a
telescopic section fitted for higher lifting capabilities. Most cranes allow the operator to see the
load from the cab of the vehicle, but because of the positioning of the arm, the operative would
either need a fully trained banks man to direct the movement or would need to operate the crane
from a remote or cabled control panel that allows them to leave the cab and view the operation.

 Forward Tipping Dumper:

A forward tipping dumper is smaller, but an incredibly useful piece of onsite machinery. It is
usually a 4-wheeled vehicle, with a load skip situated at the front, allowing the driver to keep an
eye on the load whilst transporting it around site.Commonly used to transport waste and materials,
the front skip can be tipped to dump the load when the driver reaches the required location. As a
robust and sturdy vehicle, it can also be utilised as a towing vehicle to move other equipment or
vehicles around the site.

 Ride On Road Roller

A ride on roller (sometimes known as a roller-compactor or roller) is a compacting
engineering vehicle, used to compress soil, gravel or asphalt. Ranging in size to suit
different applications, they use the weight of the large drum at the front of the vehicle to
compress the surface beneath. They are most commonly utilized in construction and road
works, or to prepare ground foundations for building projects, but are also used in
agriculture and at landfill sites to compact waste materials into smaller spaces.

• Construction Structure :
Definition: Within the context of the built environment , the term ‘structure’ refers to
anything that is constructed or built from different interrelated parts with a fixed location on the
ground. This includes buildings, but the term structure can also be used to refer to any body of
connected parts that is designed to bear loads, even if it is not intended to be occupied by people.
Engineers sometimes refer to these as 'non-building' structures.
Common examples include:
1. Aqueducts and viaducts.
2. Bridges.
3. Canals.
4. Cooling towers and chimneys.
5. Dams.
6. Railways.
7. Roads.
8. Retaining walls.
9. Tunnels.
Structural engineers design, assess and inspect structures to ensure that they are efficient and
stable. Structural engineers work on a very wide range of structures, including; buildings, bridges,
oil rigs and so on.

Civil engineers design, construct, maintain and improve the physical environment, including;
bridges, tunnels, roads, railways, canals, dams, coastal defences, and so on. The term ‘civil’
engineer is a more broad one than ‘structural’ engineer that can include infrastructure such as
pipelines, transportation, environmental engineering, maritime engineering and so on. It was
originally coined to distinguish it from military engineering. Structural engineering was initially
considered a sub-discipline of civil engineering, however it has developed into an important and
complex specialism and is now be considered an specific engineering discipline in its own right.
According to William R Spillers 'Introduction to Structures', structural analysis ‘…is for the most
part concerned with finding the structural response (the lateral deflection of a building under wind
load, the reaction of a bridge to a moving train,…) given external loads. In all but the most trivial
cases, real structures, that is structures without the simplifications commonly associated with
analysis, turn out to be impossibly complex. And what is finally analyzed – the structural model –
may appear at first glance to be quite different than the real structure’.

In their most simple form, structural elements can be classified as:

a) One-dimensional: Ropes, struts, beams, arches.

b) Two-dimensional: Membranes, plates, slab, shells, vaults.
c) Three-dimensional: Solid masses.

Structural building engineering includes all structural engineering related to the design of
buildings. It is a branch of structural engineering closely affiliated with architecture. Structural
building engineering is primarily driven by the creative manipulation of materials and forms and
the underlying mathematical and scientific ideas to achieve an end which fulfills its functional
requirements and is structurally safe when subjected to all the loads it could reasonably be
expected to experience. This is subtly different from architectural design, which is driven by the
creative manipulation of materials and forms, mass, space, volume, texture and light to achieve an
end which is aesthetic, functional and often artistic. The architect is usually the lead designer on
buildings, with a structural engineer employed as a sub-consultant. The degree to which each
discipline actually leads the design depends heavily on the type of structure. Many structures are
structurally simple and led by architecture, such as multi-storey office buildings and housing,
while other structures, such as tensile structures, shells and gridshells are heavily dependent on
their form for their strength, and the engineer may have a more significant influence on the form,
and hence much of the aesthetic, than the architect.
The structural design for a building must ensure that the building is able to stand up safely,
able to function without excessive deflections or movements which may cause fatigue of structural
elements, cracking or failure of fixtures, fittings or partitions, or discomfort for occupants. It must
account for movements and forces due to temperature, creep, cracking and imposed loads. It must
also ensure that the design is practically buildable within acceptable manufacturing tolerances of
the materials. It must allow the architecture to work, and the building services to fit within the
building and function (air conditioning, ventilation, smoke extract, electrics, lighting etc.). The
structural design of a modern building can be extremely complex, and often requires a large team
to complete.

Structural engineering specialties for buildings include:

1. Earthquake engineering
2. Façade engineering
3. Fire engineering
4. Roof engineering
5. Tower engineering
6. Wind engineering

 Machinery safety:

The following parts of machinery -

(a) every flywheel and moving part of prime mover;
(b) every part of transmission machinery; and
(c) every dangerous part of other machinery (whether or not driven by mechanical power)
are effectively guarded unless they are in such a position or of such construction as to be as safe
to every workman on the construction site as they would be if they were effectively guarded.

Effective guarding can be achieved by one or more of the following methods-

(a) an automatic guard;

(b) a fixed guard;
(c) an interlocking guard;
(d) a trip guard;
(e) a two-hand control device.

 No young person (aged 15 to 17) shall be permitted to clean any dangerous part of a
machinery or plant while the machinery or plant is in motion by the aid of any mechanical
power.

Mechanical equipment shall only be operated by a workman who is –

(a) at an age of 18 years or above; and

(b) trained and competent to operate it, or if the workman is not so qualified, he is
operating it under the supervision of another worker who is so qualified.
 No person under 18 years of age is employed to give signals to the operator of the
equipment.

What are the common hazards when working at or below ground level?

Although obviously hazardous, working at or below ground level should create no hazards for
anyone on a construction project. Spend 10 minutes thinking about why hazards arise, and list
ten possible causes.

Causes of hazards when working at or below ground level:

Many of the hazards that do arise have the following causes:

a) Inadequate site investigation

b) Poor technical design leading to collapse under load or working conditions
c) Poor mechanical design of plant & equipment (breaks in use, not powerful
enough, components fracture or malfunction)
d) Failure to control groundwater
e) Poor workplace design
f) Poor general super vision
g) Signaling systems (manual, mechanical, electronic) malfunction
h) Misuse of plant & equipment (not used as designed)
i) Collisions with moving plant & equipment
j) Poor maintenance (breaks or emits noxious gases)

These cause the following hazards:

a) Earthworks collapse or cave in

b) Exposure to ‘unexpected’ risks in excavations
c) Vehicles fall into excavations
d) Loads fall from vehicles
e) Crushing due to impact of moving or toppling plant and equipment
f) Impact from release of pressure
g) Falling from plant and equipment
h) Falls caused by swinging loads, plant and equipment
i) Limbs or bodies caught in machinery
j) Poor ergonomics
k) Physiological and psychological damage through repetitive work
l) Physiological and psychological damage caused by poor environment (wet conditions,
noise, heat, poor ventilation, chemicals, noxious gases)

 WORK AT HEIGHT:
 Scaffolding: Scaffold foundation should be verified before erection. Loose or friable
packing like bricks should not be used as support. For height more than 15 mt, steel
scaffold should be preferred and not a wooden one. Inspection after 7 days and after every
damage is necessary. Points to be checked include: stability, ties and fixing, alignment of
members, bending, tightness of lashing or couplers, planks, platforms, guard rails, toe
boards and condition of ladders. Warning notice should be displayed near incomplete or
damaged scaffold. Dismantling should be carried out in the reversed order to erection.
Materials should not be thrown from heights and should not be left lying here and there.
They should be properly collected. After completion of work, all scaffold materials should
be stored in a dry protected place using racks, boxes or trays. The damaged parts should be
replaced or repaired, cleaned, treated with preservative or paint. Couplers and other fittings
should be lubricated. Chapter-XIX (R.188 to 205) of the Building and Construction
Workers Central Rules, 1998 gives provisions regarding scaffold. 

Main hazards with scaffolding are:

1. Unsuitable or faulty material of construction.

2. Inadequately supported scaffold boards.
3. Improper platform width and thickness.
4. Non-securing or bracing scaffold to the structure. Damaged or wrong couplers.
5. Unsecured ladders slipping.
6. Omission of guard rails or toe boards.
7. Overloading the scaffold.
8. Erected on uneven ground.
• Scaffolding :
General Requirements:
A scaffold is a temporary structure that provides support for workers, plant
and materials used in building, construction, maintenance, repair and demolition work. The
scaffold serves two purposes. One is to provide a convenient platform for persons to work
at height and the other is to provide a safe means of access to all places where any person
may be required to work at any time. Accidents at scaffolds are generally caused either due
to direct collapse of the scaffold or as a result of persons or material falling off the scaffold.
The scaffolds should be of sound material, sufficient strength (4 times the expected load)
and properly designed. Their erection, alteration and dismantling should be done under the
supervision of a competent person. They should be securely supported or suspended and
should be properly strutted or braced to ensure stability. Normal size is 4 cm thick x 23 cm
wide x 3-4 m long. Steel components of tubular (normally 5 cm dia) scaffolds should
conform to IS:2750 and 4014 for Steel Scaffoldings. Wood and bamboo should meet the
specifications laid down by the Forest Research Institute and College, Dehra Dun.
Overhead protection, not more than 3 m above the work platform of the scaffold becomes
necessary if overhead work is going on. Similarly for the persons working or passing under
a scaffold, at least 30 cm projected canopy or screen should be provided at the scaffold
working level. In high wind or storm work on scaffold should be avoided. No hot work
should be carried out on wooden platform. Fire Fighting facility should be kept nearby.

Means of Access: Failure to provide such access has caused serious accidents. The safe
means of access may be ladders, portable or fixed, ramps, runways, gangways or stairways.
It is recommended that portable ladders should not be used as a means of access where the
height of the scaffold platforms exceeds 3.75 m. Slope of the ladder should be 4 vertical to
1 horizontal. It should rise 1 m above landing platform and securely fixed at upper end. The
use of cross braces or framework of the scaffold as a means of access should not be
permitted.

Width of working platforms:

The following minimum widths are recommended as a general rule.

1. If the platform is used as a footing only 0.7 m

2. If the platform is used for the deposit of material 0.9 m

3. If the platform is used for support of any higher platform 1.1 m

4. If the platform is one upon which stone or bricks are dressed or roughly shaped 1.3 m

5. If the platform is used for support of any higher platform and is one upon which stone or
bricks are dressed or roughly shaped 1.5 m

Railings and toe-boards: A common cause of accidents at scaffolds is the failure to

provide railings at the exposed sides of the scaffold platforms. Often, the failure is when
the scaffolding is erected for jobs of short duration. Where materials are stacked on a
platform, the height of the toe-board may have to be raised; or it may even be necessary to
cover the entire space between the top rail and the toe-board with wire netting or planks.
Normal height of railing is 1 m and toe board 15 cm.

Boards and planks in working platforms, gangways and ramps:

For platforms of wooden planks, in general, the spacing should not exceed the following:

Planks 32 mm thick 1 m
 Planks 38 mm thick 1.5 m
Planks 50 mm thick 2.6 m

Boards or planks which form part of a working platform, gangway or ramp should
not project beyond their end supports to a distance exceeding four times the thickness of
the board or plank. 50 mm projection is desirable. Overlapping of boards is unsafe.

• Hazards and Safety measures: Scaffolds should never be loaded in excess of the
working load for which they are designed. Wood scaffolds are not generally painted.
However, in case of ladders and certain permanent types of scaffolds such as the mobile
scaffold, protection is generally provided by periodically treating them with a coating of
linseed oil.

• Types of Scaffold :

Some common types of scaffold are as follows:

1. Pole type scaffolds: It may be an independent structure or the putlog type erected and supported
near wall or another structure. The uprights (vertical poles) should rest on strong foundation to
support load without settlement. They should not be kept more than 3 mt apart. Tubular uprights
have steel base plates placed on wooden sole plates. Soft ground should be well rammed and
levelled. Fixings like steel bolts, nails or fibre rope of approved size, joint pins and couplers should
be properly fitted. For load bearing right-angled or swivel couplers should be used. Putlog couplers
are useful for putlog members only. Putlog members (horizontal) should at least 10 cm be inserted
in wall. Bracing (diagonal connection) should be tied to ensure structural stability and prevent
buckling. To prevent overturning the scaffold should be secured at intervals not greater than 7.6 m
vertically and horizontally.

2. Rolling Scaffolds or Mobile Towers: Such scaffolds move on rollers (wheels) or castors with
wheel locking device. They are portable and most useful for maintenance work. To prevent
overturning, height should not be more than three times the minimum width of the base. Minimum
base length should be 4 ft. While pushing or pulling the tower, persons should not ride on it. Tools
and materials should be removed before moving. The top working platform must have handrails
and toe boards. It should support 30 lb/ft2 distributed load. Rigidity of the tower is secured by
diagonal bracing on all four sides and on plan. Moving the tower by pulling at the top or leaning
sideways should be avoided.

3. Outrigger Scaffolds: It is a balcony type cantilever scaffold resting on wall. If other types of
scaffold are possible, this type should not be used. The outriggers should be passed right through
the wall and be secured on the inner side. Supporting hook between brick joints is dangerous.
Platform should not project beyond 2 mt from the wall. Guard rail and toe board should be
provided.

4. Swinging (Hanging) Scaffolds: Here the platform is hanging by two chain pulley blokes, ropes
and hooks on supporting beam. Suspended platform can be raised or lowered as per need.
Movement of both the ends should be simultaneously. The anchorage and the suspension gear
should be strong enough to withstand the load with good factor of safety. Suspension ropes should
withstand 6 times the intended load. Rope diameter shall be more than 0.75 inch. A safety rope
shall be provided in addition to the suspension ropes. The width of the platform should be more
than 50 cm and less than 90 cm. Guard rails and toe boards necessary on all the three sides open.
The platform should be lashed or secured while in use, to prevent swaying. Each person working
on swinging scaffold should wear safety belt with lifeline attached to an anchorage other than the
scaffold itself.

5. Suspended Scaffolds: Two or more platforms are suspended by ropes from overhead outriggers
anchored to the building. Such scaffolds are designed with a factor of safety 4 and shall never be
overloaded. Anchor plates should be tied with U bolts. Counter weights are used to prevent
overturning. Wire ropes (FS 6) are used to support scaffold. Hoisting drum (like winch) is used
with at least 2 dead turns. Gap between handrail and toe board should be covered by a wire mesh
of 38 mm and 16 gauge wire. Overhead protection should be provided if risk of falling objects is
possible.

1. Boatswain’s Chair: Boatswain’s chair is used for supporting and hoisting single person in
sitting position. General chair (seat) size is 60 cm x 30 cm, with 25 mm thick timber. Cleats
extending in front to at least 23 cm should be securely fixed under the chair at both ends.
The chair is supported by a suitable sling passing through the four corner holes in the chair
for proper stability. The suspension rope is fixed to an overhead support or passed through
a pulley block fastened to such support. The free end is secured to a conveniently
accessible anchorage and the person in chair must wear a safety belt, the life line of which
is secured to the tackle supporting the chair. Fibre rope slings should not be used if the
person in the chair has to do welding or cutting work.

 SHUTTERING / FORM WORK:

Types of Frmwork (Shuttering) for Concrete Construction and its Properties

Formwork (shuttering) in concrete construction is used as a mould for a structure in which fresh
concrete is poured only to harden subsequently. Types of concrete formwork construction depends
on formwork material and type of structural element.
 Formworks can also be named based on the type of structural member construction such as slab
formwork for use in slab, beam formwork, column formwork for use in beams and columns
respectively etc.

The construction of formwork takes time and involves expenditure upto 20 to 25% of the cost of
the structure or even more. Design of these temporary structures are made to economic
expenditure. The operation of removing the formwork is known as stripping. Stripped formwork
can be reused. Reusable forms are known as panel forms and non-usable are called stationary
forms.

Timber is the most common material used for formwork. The disadvantage with timber formwork
is that it will warp, swell and shrink. Application of water impermeable cost to the surface of wood
mitigates these defects.

A good formwork should satisfy the following requirements:

1. It should be strong enough to withstand all types of dead and live loads.
2. It should be rigidly constructed and efficiently propped and braced both horizontally and
vertically, so as to retain its shape.
3. The joints in the formwork should be tight against leakage of cement grout.
4. Construction of formwork should permit removal of various parts in desired sequences without
damage to the concrete.
5. The material of the formwork should be cheap, easily available and should be suitable for reuse.
6. The formwork should be set accurately to the desired line and levels should have plane surface.
7. It should be as light as possible.
8. The material of the formwork should not warp or get distorted when exposed to the elements.
9. It should rest on firm base.

Economy in Formwork
The following points are to be kept in view to effect economy in the cost of formwork:

1. The plan of the building should imply minimum number of variations in the size of rooms, floor
area etc. so as to permit reuse of the formwork repeatedly.
2. Design should be perfect to use slender sections only in a most economical way.
3. Minimum sawing and cutting of wooden pieces should be made to enable reuse of the material a
number of times. The quantity of surface finish depends on the quality of the formwork.

Formwork can be made out of timber, plywood, steel, precast concrete or fiberglass used
separately or in combination. Steel forms are used in situation where large numbers of re-use of the
same forms are necessary. For small works, timber formwork proves useful. Fibre glass made of
 precast concrete and aluminium are used in cast-in-situ construction such as slabs or members
involving curved surfaces.

Types of Formwork (Shuttering) for Concrete Construction:

Timber Formwork:
Timber for formwork should satisfy the following requirement:

It should be

1. Well Seasoned
2. light in weight
3. easily workable with nails without splitting
4. free from loose knots

Timber used for shuttering for exposed concrete work should have smooth and even surface on all
faces which come in contact with concrete.

Normal sizes of members for timber formwork:

Sheeting for slabs, beam, column side and 25 mm to 40mm thick

beam bottom

Joints, ledges 50 x 70 mm to 50 x 150 mm

Posts 75 x 100mm to 100 x 100 mm

 Plywood Formwork:

Resin bonded plywood sheets are attached to timber frames to make up panels of required sizes.
The cost of plywood formwork compares favourably with that of timber shuttering and it may even
prove cheaper in certain cases in view of the following considerations:

1. It is possible to have smooth finish in which case on cost in surface finishing is there.
2. By use of large size panels it is possible to effect saving in the labour cost of fixing and
dismantling.
3. Number of reuses are more as compared with timber shuttering. For estimation purpose, number of
reuses can be taken as 20 to 25.
  Steel Formwork
This consist of panels fabricated out of thin steel plates stiffened along the edges by small steel
angles. The panel units can be held together through the use of suitable clamps or bolts and nuts.
The panels can be fabricated in large number in any desired modular shape or size. Steel forms are
largely used in large projects or in situation where large number reuses of the shuttering is
possible. This type of shuttering is considered most suitable for circular or curved structures.

Steel forms compared with timber formwork:

1. Steel forms are stronger, durable and have longer life than timber formwork and their reuses are
more in number.
2. Steel forms can be installed and dismantled with greater ease and speed.
3. The quality of exposed concrete surface by using steel forms is good and such surfaces need no
further treatment.
4. Steel formwork does not absorb moisture from concrete.
5. Steel formwork does not shrink or warp.

Construction of Concrete formwork:

This normally involves the following operations:

1. Propping and centring

2. Shuttering
3. Provision of camber
4. Cleaning and surface treatment

Order and Method of Removing Formwork:

The sequence of orders and method of removal of formwork are as follows:

1. Shuttering forming the vertical faces of walls, beams and column sides should be removed first as
they bear no load but only retain the concrete.
2. Shuttering forming soffit of slabs should be removed next.
3. Shuttering forming soffit of beams, girders or other heavily loaded shuttering should be removed
in the end.

Rapid hardening cement, warm weather and light loading conditions allow early removal of
formwork. The formwork should under no circumstances be allowed to be removed until all the
concrete reaches strength of atleast twice the stresses to which the concrete may be subjected at the
time of removal of formwork. All formworks should be eased gradually and carefully in order to
prevent the load being suddenly transferred to concrete.

Figure 1 to 6 shows formwork for different types of members in civil engineering construction.
Figure 1(a): Details of timber formwork for RCC beam and slab floor

Figure 1(b): Details at section (A) shown in above figure

Figure 2(a): Elevation

Figure 2(b): Details of timber formwork for circular RCC column

Figure 3(a): 150 3D View

Figure 3(b): Details of timber formwork for square or rectangular RCC column

Figure 4: Sectional plan showing details of timber formwork for an octagonal column
Figure 5: Details of formwork for stair
Figure 6: Timber formwork for RCC wall
Table: Period of Removal of Formwork

S. No Description of structural member Period of time

1 Walls, columns and vertical sides 1 to 2 days
of beams
2 Slabs (props left under) 3 days
3 Beam soffits (props left under) 7 days
4 Removal of props to slabs
(a) For slabs spanning upto 4.5 m 7 days
(b) For slabs spanning over 4.5 m 14 days
5 Removal of props to beams and
arches
 (a) Spanning upto 6 m 14 days

(b) spanning over 6 m 21 days

Formwork Safety Checklist during Design:

1. Formwork should be properly designed for the structural element considered and its working
drawing should be available at site.

2. Design of formwork should consider all the loads it will experience during casting of concrete
structural members.

Strength of materials used for formwork should be adequate to support structural load as well as
other loads imposed on it.

4. Formwork design should indicate the rate of concrete pour, height of concrete pour, temperature
and sequence and schedule of concrete pours.

5. Working drawing of formwork should have detailed dimensions including pouring pocket size,
compaction opening and cleanouts.

6. Formwork design should consider the safe bearing capacity of soil.

Formwork Safety Checklist during Construction:

Following inspection should be carried out before starting the concreting of structural member:

1. Inspection of entire formwork system for details from bottom to top of formwork for proper load
transfer in safe manner.

2. Inspection of working scaffolds, ladders, runways, ramps and crossings.

3. Maintenance of good housekeeping around working area and passage.

4. Guarding of peripheral edges and floor openings.

5. Adequate space for safe working.

6. Safety training of workmen involved in formwork and concreting works.

7. Use of all personal protective equipment (PPEs).

8. Formwork, rigging inserts and connections checked for correct installation and periodically
checked for wear and correct position.

9. Removal of all unused and hanging forms, loose materials etc. stored on exposed floors.

10. Inspection of all props and shores for adequacy to handle all the loads.

11. Removal of defective props.

12. Alignment of props such as verticality, height and spacing between props should be inspected.

13. All props should be rested on bearing plates.

14. Props should be placed on hard bearing surface.

15. Safe nailing and firm locking of clamps on adjustable props.

16. Lateral stability of formwork and complete fixity at the joint between props when one prop is
placed on the top of the other.

17. Proper bearing below the stringers and joists at points of supports.

18. De-shuttering and removal of props below concrete slabs and beams after development of
adequate strength in concrete.
19. Construction loads not placed on freshly cast slab or beams while removal of formwork or
before concrete attaining required strength.

There can be many more checklists for formwork which has not been written here. If you think any
addition has to be made, please write those in comments.

 Formwork (Shuttering) for Different Structural Members -Beams, Slabs,

Columns, Footings:-

Concrete formworks (shutterings) are required for fresh concrete constructions such
as walls, slabs, beams, columns, footings etc. Formworks requirements for different
structural members are different and they are named based on type of structural
member. Formwork (shuttering) is a temporary mould to provide support to fresh
concrete when placed in structural member until the concrete has set. This helps the
structural member to gain sufficient strength to carry its self-load and load from
other members. There are many types of structural formwork or shuttering based on
its material, their use and the type of structural members. They can be named based
on that. However, core functioning of the formwork remains the same.

 Types of Formwork (Shuttering) Based on Structural Member: Formworks are

used in construction of reinforced concrete foundations, columns, slabs, walls etc.,
and these are named as follows:

 Footing Forms – Formworks for foundation

 Column Forms – Formwork for RCC Column construction
 Wall Forms – Formwork for RCC wall construction
 Floor Forms – Formwork for construction of RCC Slabs

Footing Forms – Formworks for Foundation

The first step for any concrete construction starts with the construction of foundation.
Foundation can
n be for columns or walls. So, based on type of structural member, the
shape and size of footing are designed. Thus formwork size and shape depends on the
type and dimension of the footing.

Components of Footing Forms:

Column Forms – Formwork for Concrete Column Construction

Reinforced concrete column forms are subjected to lateral pressure because of their
small cross section, large heights and relatively high rates of concrete placement. Thus
It is necessary to provide tight joints and strong tie
ti support to the formwork.

Fig: Components of Footing Formwork – For Shallow Footing – Continuous

Footing Formwork
As the sizes of concrete column increases, the stiffness of the formwork must be increased by
either increasing thickness of sheathing or vertical stiffeners must be added to prevent sheathing
deflection.

Wall Forms – Formwork for RCC Wall Construction: Formwork for wall construction are
subjected to relatively lower lateral pressure than column forms due to their large cro
cross-sectional
area.

The components of wall forms are:

Panel sheathing – It is used to shape the wall and retain the concrete until it sets.

Studs – to support the sheathing or Wales by forming a framework to keep the forms aligned and
support the studs.

Braces – It is used to prevent deflection of forms under lateral pressure and keep the formwork
erect.

Ties and spreaders – These are used to hold the sides of the forms at the correct spacing
spacing.
Fig: Components of a Wall Formwork

Floor Forms – Formwork for construction of RCC Slabs

Formwork for reinforced concrete slabs depends on the type of slabs to be constructed. The floor
slabs can be structural slabs supported on a steel or concrete structural frame, or slab-on-grade.

The design of formwork varies with the type of slab.

Structural Slab Formwork assembly is carried out as follows:

Positioning of the girder or beam form at the bottom.

Girder side forms overlaps the bottom form and rests on the shore heads and the sides of the
column form.
Side forms is held in place by ledger strips nailed to the shore heads with double-headed nails.
Larger girders should have the side forms vertically stiffened to prevent buckling.
When constructing the girder and beam forms each part must be removed without disturbing the
remainder of the form; strike-off formwork will commence with the beam and girder sides,
followed later by the column forms, and finally by the beam and gird bottoms.
Fig: Structural Slab Formwork Components

Slab-on-Grade Forms are forms for concrete slabs placed on grade. These slab formworks are
usually quite simple as concrete is placed on compacted earth or gravel leveled base. Thus no
support is required for concrete at the bottom.

Slab-on-Grade Formwork assembly is carried out as follows:

Plank, plywood, or steel forms are used for forming / supporting the open edges of concrete.
These forms are held in place by supporting with wooden pegs.
The reinforcement in slab (if specified in the structural drawing) should be placed on its proper
location according to the drawing on chairs, bolsters, and spacers made of either metal or concrete.
If the slab is to be casted in sections, construction joints must be provided between them, which
will transmit shear from one to the other. The details of construction joints should be followed as
per structural drawing.

Fig: Components of a Slab-on-Grade Slab Formwork

Methods of Measurement of Concrete Formworks for Payment Calculation:

Measurements of formwork (shuttering) is required for payment to the contractor for the concrete
work completed. The payment to contractor depends on whether the cost is included with the
concrete construction per unit quantity or formwork is paid separately, as mentioned in the
conditions of contract.

The formwork is measured in terms of area that is in contact with the concrete surface.
 Fig: Parts of Formworks for Beams and Slabs

For example, the formwork for concrete footing will be calculated as the surface area of four sides
of foundation only. Bottom of the footing is resting on earth, there is no need of any formwork and
top of footing is open.
Fig: Pan and Elevation of RCC Footing

From the above footing plan and elevation, it can be seen that formwork area required will be

2 x (2 + 3) x 0.6 = 6 m2

Similarly, for a reinforced concrete beam, the measurement of formwork will be taken as the
combined surface area of two sides and bottom of the beam.

Issues in Formwork Measurements:

Normally, the forms are used more than once in concrete construction. But the payment is
calculated based on the total contact area of the formwork with concrete and reuse of the forms is
not taken into account. Thus, the price per unit area of formwork can be reduced for reuse of the
forms. Aluminium and steel forms are reused for many number of times than wooden forms.
Complicated shape of concrete makes the formwork installation costlier than the simple formwork
installation because of labor cost and inability to reuse these forms.
A construction plan is required to reuse the forms maximum number of times to make the
construction cost effective.
Deduction of formwork area should not be taken for:

Intersection of beams
Intersection of beams and columns and walls
Any openings or cutouts in slabs
Unit of Formwork Measurement:

Formworks are measured in terms of area. So any unit such as square meter, square foot, square
centimetre can be adopted. But generally, square meter and square foot of the contact area with
concrete is taken as the unit of measurement. The dimensions of a formwork should be measure
correct to the centimetre or inches whichever the case may be.
Formworks are measured as just contact area, not area of formwork, as shown below:

Measurements of formwork (shuttering)

Contact Area = 2h(L+B)

The measurements of formwork are carried out separately for each type of concrete works such as
following:

a) Foundations, footings, bases of columns etc. and for mass concrete and precast shelves.

b) Walls of any thickness including attached pilasters, buttresses, plinth and string courses etc.

Suspended floors, roofs, landings, shelves and their supports and balconies.

d) Lintels beams, girders and cantilevers

e) Columns, pillars, posts and struts.

f) Stairs (excluding landings) except Spiral Staircase

g) Spiral staircases (including landings)

h) Arches

i) Domes, vaults, shells roofs, archribs and folded plates

j) Chimneys and shafts

k) Well steining

l) Vertical and horizontal fins individually or forming box, louvers and bands

m) Waffle or ribbed slabs

n) Edges of slabs and breaks in floors and walls

o) Cornices and mouldings.

 Ladders:

The use of ladders to gain ready access to work sites as a means of carrying out some work
activity is a necessity on construction work. Employers, employees and others required to
use ladders should:

• Select the most suitable type of ladder for the work to be carried out.

• Provide or be provided with appropriate training in the use of ladders.

• Restrain ladders at both the top and bottom to prevent accidental displacement.

• Position ladders as close as possible to the work.

• Where a ladder is used to gain access to a working platform, ensure that it extends 1 metre
above the working platform.

• Store ladders so as to avoid sagging.

• Keep ladders clean and free from foreign materials.

• Use two people to carry heavy, long ladders.

• Place the feet of single or extension ladders 1/4 of the ladder's working length away from the
base structure.

• Use only step ladders with lockable spreader bars on both sides connected to the front and rear
stiles.

• Not allow over reaching from any ladder. Where the work cannot be accessed from the
ladder's position, the ladder should be moved to allow ease of access within the confines of
the ladder

 Concrete:
Concrete is a composite material composed of coarse aggregate bonded together with a
fluid cement that hardens over time. Most concretes used are lime-based concretes such
as Portland cement concrete or concretes made with other hydraulic cements, such as ciment
fondu. However, asphalt concrete, which is frequently used for road surfaces, is also a type of
concrete, where the cement material is bitumen, and polymer concretes are sometimes used where
the cementing material is a polymer.
When aggregate is mixed together with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a
fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts chemically with the
water and other ingredients to form a hard matrix that binds the materials together into a durable
stone-like material that has many uses.[2] Often, additives (such as pozzolans or super plasticizers)
are included in the mixture to improve the physical properties of the wet mix or the finished
material. Most concrete is poured with reinforcing materials (such as rebar) embedded to
provide tensile strength, yielding reinforced concrete.
Famous concrete structures include the Hoover Dam, the Panama Canal, and the Roman Pantheon.
The earliest large-scale users of concrete technology were the ancient Romans, and concrete was
widely used in the Roman Empire. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and the
concrete dome of the Pantheon is the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome. Today, large
concrete structures (for example, dams and multi-storey car parks) are usually made with
reinforced concrete.
After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was
redeveloped in the mid-18th century. Today, concrete is the most widely used human-made
material (measured by tonnage).
Composition of concrete:

Many types of concrete are available, distinguished by the proportions of the main ingredients
below. In this way or by substitution for the cementitious and aggregate phases, the finished
product can be tailored to its application. Strength, density, as well chemical and thermal resistance
are variables.

Aggregate consists of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a coarse gravel or
crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, along with finer materials such as sand.

Cement, most commonly Portland cement, is associated with the general term "concrete." A range
of other materials can be used as the cement in concrete too. One of the most familiar of these
alternative cements is asphalt concrete. Other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag
cement, are sometimes added as mineral admixtures (see below) - either pre-blended with the
cement or directly as a concrete component - and become a part of the binder for the aggregate.

To produce concrete from most cements (excluding asphalt), water is mixed with the dry powder
and aggregate, which produces a semi-liquid slurry that can be shaped, typically by pouring it into
a form. The concrete solidifies and hardens through a chemical process called hydration. The water
reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, creating a robust stone-like
material.

Chemical admixtures are added to achieve varied properties. These ingredients may accelerate or
slow down the rate at which the concrete hardens, and impart many other useful properties
including increased tensile strength, entrainment of air and water resistance.

Reinforcement is often included in concrete. Concrete can be formulated with high compressive
strength, but always has lower tensile strength. For this reason it is usually reinforced with
materials that are strong in tension, typically steel rebar.

Mineral admixtures are becoming more popular in recent decades. The use of recycled materials as
concrete ingredients has been gaining popularity because of increasingly stringent environmental
legislation, and the discovery that such materials often have complementary and valuable
properties. The most conspicuous of these are fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants,
ground granulated blast furnace slag, a byproduct of steelmaking, and silica fume, a byproduct of
industrial electric arc furnaces. The use of these materials in concrete reduces the amount of
resources required, as the mineral admixtures act as a partial cement replacement. This displaces
some cement production, an energetically expensive and environmentally problematic process,
while reducing the amount of industrial waste that must be disposed of. Mineral admixtures can be
pre-blended with the cement during its production for sale and use as a blended cement, or mixed
directly with other components when the concrete is produced.

The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete is mixed and
delivered, and how it is placed to form the structure.
 Cement:
Main article: Cement
A few tons of bagged cement. This amount represents about two minutes of output from a 10,000
ton per day cement kiln.
Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic ingredient of
concrete, mortar and many plasters. British masonry worker Joseph Aspdin patented Portland
cement in 1824. It was named because of the similarity of its color to Portland limestone, quarried
from the English Isle of Portland and used extensively in London architecture. It consists of a
mixture of calcium silicates (alite, belite), aluminates and ferrites - compounds which combine
calcium, silicon, aluminium and iron in forms which will react with water. Portland cement and
similar materials are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay or shale (a source
of silicon, aluminium and iron) and grinding this product (called clinker) with a source
of sulfate (most commonly gypsum).
In modern cement kilns many advanced features are used to lower the fuel consumption per ton of
clinker produced. Cement kilns are extremely large, complex, and inherently dusty industrial
installations, and have emissions which must be controlled. Of the various ingredients used to
produce a given quantity of concrete, the cement is the most energetically expensive. Even
complex and efficient kilns require 3.3 to 3.6 gigajoules of energy to produce a ton of clinker and
then grind it into cement. Many kilns can be fueled with difficult-to-dispose-of wastes, the most
common being used tires. The extremely high temperatures and long periods of time at those
temperatures allows cement kilns to efficiently and completely burn even difficult-to-use fuels.
Water:
Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of hydration.
The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and makes it flow more freely.
As stated by Abrams' law, a lower water-to-cement ratio yields a stronger, more durable concrete,
whereas more water gives a freer-flowing concrete with a higher slump. Impure water used to
make concrete can cause problems when setting or in causing premature failure of the structure.
Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the reactions
proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bond together the individual sand
and gravel particles and other components of the concrete to form a solid mass.
Reaction:
Cement chemist notation: C3S + H → C-S-H + CH
Standard notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O → (CaO)·(SiO2)·(H2O)(gel) + Ca(OH)2
Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O → 3(CaO)·2(SiO2)·4(H2O)(gel) + 3Ca(OH)2 (approximately;
the exact ratios of the CaO, SiO2 and H2O in C-S-H can vary)
Aggregates:
Crushed stone aggregate
Main article: Construction aggregate
Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural
gravel, and crushed stone are used mainly for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from
construction, demolition, and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial
replacements for natural aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates,
including air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash are also permitted.
The size distribution of the aggregate determines how much binder is required.
Aggregate with a very even size distribution has the biggest gaps whereas adding
aggregate with smaller particles tends to fill these gaps. The binder must fill the gaps
between the aggregate as well as pasting the surfaces of the aggregate together, and is
typically the most expensive component. Thus variation in sizes of the aggregate
reduces the cost of concrete. The aggregate is nearly always stronger than the binder,
so its use does not negatively affect the strength of the concrete.
Redistribution of aggregates after compaction often creates inhomogeneity due to the
influence of vibration. This can lead to strength gradients.
Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes
added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular
among landscape designers.
In addition to being decorative, exposed aggregate may add robustness to a concrete.

Reinforcement:
Constructing a rebar cage. This cage will be permanently embedded in poured concrete
to create a reinforced concrete structure.
Main article: Reinforced concrete
Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression
load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can
crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete adds either steel reinforcing
bars, steel fibers, glass fibers, or plastic fibers to carry tensile loads.
 Chemical admixtures:
Chemical admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the
concrete to give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In
normal use, admixture dosages are less than 5% by mass of cement and are added to
the concrete at the time of batching/mixing. (See the section on Concrete Production,
below.)The common types of admixtures are as follows:

 Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical materials

used are CaCl
2, Ca(NO3)2 and NaNO3. However, use of chlorides may cause corrosion in steel
reinforcing and is prohibited in some countries, so that nitrates may be favored.
Accelerating admixtures are especially useful for modifying the properties of
concrete in cold weather.
 Retarders slow the hydration of concrete and are used in large or difficult pours
where partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable.
Typical polyol retarders are sugar, sucrose, sodium gluconate, glucose, citric acid,
and tartaric acid.
 Air entraining agents add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete, which
reduces damage during freeze-thaw cycles, increasing durability. However,
entrained air entails a trade off with strength, as each 1% of air may decrease
compressive strength 5%.If too much air becomes trapped in the concrete as a
result of the mixing process, Defoamers can be used to encourage the air bubble to
agglomerate, rise to the surface of the wet concrete and then disperse.
 Plasticizers increase the workability of plastic or "fresh" concrete, allowing it be
placed more easily, with less consolidating effort. A typical plasticizer is
lignosulfonate. Plasticizers can be used to reduce the water content of a concrete
while maintaining workability and are sometimes called water-reducers due to this
use. Such treatment improves its strength and durability characteristics. Super
plasticizers (also called high-range water-reducers) are a class of plasticizers that
have fewer deleterious effects and can be used to increase workability more than is
practical with traditional plasticizers. Compounds used as super plasticizers
include sulfonated naphthalene formaldehyde condensate, sulfonated melamine 
 formaldehyde condensate, acetone formaldehyde condensate and poly carboxylate
ethers.
 Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.
 Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel bars in
concrete.
 Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete (typically
a type of polymer) with wide temperature tolerance and corrosion resistance.
 Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the paste and reduce separation and
bleeding.

Concrete production:

Concrete plant facility showing a Concrete mixerbeing filled from the ingredient silos.
Concrete production is the process of mixing together the various ingredients—water, aggregate,
cement, and any additives—to produce concrete. Concrete production is time-sensitive. Once the
ingredients are mixed, workers must put the concrete in place before it hardens. In modern usage,
most concrete production takes place in a large type of industrial facility called a concrete plant, or
often a batch plant.
In general usage, concrete plants come in two main types, ready mix plants and central mix plants.
A ready mix plant mixes all the ingredients except water, while a central mix plant mixes all the
ingredients including water. A central mix plant offers more accurate control of the concrete
quality through better measurements of the amount of water added, but must be placed closer to
the work site where the concrete will be used, since hydration begins at the plant.
A concrete plant consists of large storage hoppers for various reactive ingredients like cement,
storage for bulk ingredients like aggregate and water, mechanisms for the addition of various
additives and amendments, machinery to accurately weigh, move, and mix some or all of those
ingredients, and facilities to dispense the mixed concrete, often to a concrete mixer truck.
Modern concrete is usually prepared as a viscous fluid, so that it may be poured into forms, which
are containers erected in the field to give the concrete its desired shape. Concrete formwork can be
prepared in several ways, such as Slip forming and Steel plate construction. Alternatively, concrete
can be mixed into dryer, non-fluid forms and used in factory settings to manufacture Precast
concrete products.
A wide variety of equipment is used for processing concrete, from hand tools to heavy industrial
machinery. Whichever equipment builders use, however, the objective is to produce the desired
building material; ingredients must be properly mixed, placed, shaped, and retained within time
constraints. Any interruption in pouring the concrete can cause the initially placed material to
begin to set before the next batch is added on top. This creates a horizontal plane of weakness
called a cold joint between the two batches.[46] Once the mix is where it should be, the curing
process must be controlled to ensure that the concrete attains the desired attributes. During
concrete preparation, various technical details may affect the quality and nature of the product.
When initially mixed, Portland cement and water rapidly form a gel of tangled chains of
interlocking crystals, and components of the gel continue to react over time. Initially the gel is
fluid, which improves workability and aids in placement of the material, but as the concrete sets,
the chains of crystals join into a rigid structure, counteracting the fluidity of the gel and fixing the
particles of aggregate in place. During curing, the cement continues to react with the residual water
in a process of hydration. In properly formulated concrete, once this curing process has terminated
the product has the desired physical and chemical properties. Among the qualities typically
desired, are mechanical strength, low moisture permeability, and chemical and volumetric stability.
Mixing concrete
See also: Volumetric concrete mixer and Concrete mixer

Thorough mixing is essential for the production of uniform, high-quality concrete. For this reason
equipment and methods should be capable of effectively mixing concrete materials containing the
largest specified aggregate to produce uniform mixtures of the lowest slump practical for the work.
Separate paste mixing has shown that the mixing of cement and water into a paste before
combining these materials with aggregates can increase the compressive strength of the resulting
concrete. The paste is generally mixed in a high-speed, shear-type mixer at a w/cm (water to
cement ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass. The cement paste premix may include admixtures such as
accelerators or retarders, super plasticizers, pigments, or silica fume. The premixed paste is then
blended with aggregates and any remaining batch water and final mixing is completed in
conventional concrete mixing equipment.

Decorative plate made of Nano concrete with High-Energy Mixing (HEM)

Workability:

Pouring and smoothing out concrete at Palisades Park in Washington DC.

Main article: Concrete slump test
Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly with the
desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability depends on
water content, aggregate (shape and size distribution), cementitious content and age (level
of hydration) and can be modified by adding chemical admixtures, like superplasticizer. Raising
the water content or adding chemical admixtures increases concrete workability. Excessive water
leads to increased bleeding or segregation of aggregates (when the cement and aggregates start to
separate), with the resulting concrete having reduced quality. The use of an aggregate blend with
an undesirable gradation[49] can result in a very harsh mix design with a very low slump, which
cannot readily be made more workable by addition of reasonable amounts of water. An undesirable
gradation can mean using a large aggregate that is too large for the size of the formwork, or which
has too few smaller aggregate grades to serve to fill the gaps between the larger grades, or using
too little or too much sand for the same reason, or using too little water, or too much cement, or
even using jagged crushed stone instead of smoother round aggregate such as pebbles. Any
combination of these factors and others may result in a mix which is too harsh, i.e., which does not
flow or spread out smoothly, is difficult to get into the formwork, and which is difficult to surface
finish.
Workability can be measured by the concrete slump test, a simple measure of the plasticity of a
fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test standards. Slump is
normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with a sample from a fresh batch of concrete. The
cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-absorptive surface. It is then filled in three
layers of equal volume, with each layer being tamped with a steel rod to consolidate the layer.
When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed material slumps a certain amount, owing to
gravity. A relatively dry sample slumps very little, having a slump value of one or two inches (25
or 50 mm) out of one foot (305 mm). A relatively wet concrete sample may slump as much as
eight inches. Workability can also be measured by the flow table test.
Slump can be increased by addition of chemical admixtures such as plasticizer
or superplasticizer without changing the water-cement ratio. Some other admixtures, especially air-
entraining admixture, can increase the slump of a mix.
High-flow concrete, like self-consolidating concrete, is tested by other flow-measuring methods.
One of these methods includes placing the cone on the narrow end and observing how the mix
flows through the cone while it is gradually lifted.
After mixing, concrete is a fluid and can be pumped to the location where needed.
Curing:

A concrete slab ponded while curing.

A common misconception is that concrete dries as it sets, but the opposite is true - damp concrete
sets better than dry concrete. In other words, "hydraulic cement" needs water to become strong.
Too much water is counterproductive, but too little water is deleterious. Curing allows concrete to
achieve optimal strength and hardness.[52] Curing is the hydration process that occurs after the
concrete has been placed. In chemical terms, curing allows calcium-silicate hydrate (C-S-H) to
form. To gain strength and harden fully, concrete curing requires time. In around 4 weeks,
typically over 90% of the final strength is reached, although strengthening may continue for
decades.[53] The conversion of calcium hydroxide in the concrete into calcium carbonate from
absorption of CO2 over several decades further strengthens the concrete and makes it more
resistant to damage. This carbonation reaction, however, lowers the pH of the cement pore solution
and can corrode the reinforcement bars.
Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is critical. Abnormally fast drying
and shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from wind during placement may lead to
increased tensile stresses at a time when it has not yet gained sufficient strength, resulting in
greater shrinkage cracking. The early strength of the concrete can be increased if it is kept damp
during the curing process. Minimizing stress prior to curing minimizes cracking. High-early-
strength concrete is designed to hydrate faster, often by increased use of cement that increases
shrinkage and cracking. The strength of concrete changes (increases) for up to three years. It
depends on cross-section dimension of elements and conditions of structure
exploitation.[54] Addition of short-cut polymer fibers can improve (reduce) shrinkage-induced
stresses during curing and increase early and ultimate compression strength.
Properly curing concrete leads to increased strength and lower permeability and avoids cracking
where the surface dries out prematurely. Care must also be taken to avoid freezing or overheating
due to the exothermic setting of cement. Improper curing can cause scaling, reduced strength,
poor abrasion resistance and cracking.
Curing techniques:
During the curing period, concrete is ideally maintained at controlled temperature and humidity.
To ensure full hydration during curing, concrete slabs are often sprayed with "curing compounds"
that create a water-retaining film over the concrete. Typical films are made of wax or related
hydrophobic compounds. After the concrete is sufficiently cured, the film is allowed to abrade
from the concrete through normal use.
Traditional conditions for curing involve by spraying or ponding the concrete surface with water.
The picture to the right shows one of many ways to achieve this, ponding – submerging setting
concrete in water and wrapping in plastic to prevent dehydration. Additional common curing
methods include wet burlap and plastic sheeting covering the fresh concrete.
For higher-strength applications, accelerated curing techniques may be applied to the concrete.
One common technique involves heating the poured concrete with steam, which serves to both
keep it damp and raise the temperature, so that the hydration process proceeds more quickly and
more thoroughly.
Specialty concretes:
Pervious concrete
Main article: Pervious concrete

Pervious concrete is a mix of specially graded coarse aggregate, cement, water and little-to-no fine
aggregates. This concrete is also known as "no-fines" or porous concrete. Mixing the ingredients in
a carefully controlled process creates a paste that coats and bonds the aggregate particles. The
hardened concrete contains interconnected air voids totalling approximately 15 to 25 percent.
Water runs through the voids in the pavement to the soil underneath. Air entrainment admixtures
are often used in freeze–thaw climates to minimize the possibility of frost damage.
Nano concrete :

Two-layered pavers, top layer made of pigmented HEM Nanoconcrete.

Nanoconcrete is created by high-energy mixing (HEM) of cement, sand and water. To ensure the
mixing is thorough enough to create nano-concrete, the mixer must apply a total mixing power to
the mixture of 30 - 600 watts per kilogram of the mix. This mixing must continue long enough to
yield a net specific energy expended upon the mix of at least 5000 joules per kilogram of the
mix.[57] A plasticizer or a superplasticizer is then added to the activated mixture which can later be
mixed with aggregates in a conventional concrete mixer. In the HEM process, the intense mixing
of cement and water with sand provides dissipation of energy and increases shear stresses on the
surface of cement particles. This intense mixing serves to divide the cement particles into
extremely fine nanometer scale sizes, which provides for extremely thorough mixing. This results
in the increased volume of water interacting with cement and acceleration of Calcium Silicate
Hydrate (C-S-H) colloid creation.
The initial natural process of cement hydration with formation of colloidal globules about 5 nm in
diameter[58] spreads into the entire volume of cement – water matrix as the energy expended upon
the mix approaches and exceeds 5000 joules per kilogram.
The liquid activated high-energy mixture can be used by itself for casting small architectural
details and decorative items, or foamed (expanded) for lightweight concrete. HEM Nanoconcrete
hardens in low and subzero temperature conditions and possesses an increased volume of gel,
which reduces capillarity in solid and porous materials.
Microbial concrete:
Bacteria such as Bacillus pasteurii, Bacillus pseudofirmus, Bacillus cohnii, Sporosarcina pasteuri,
and Arthrobacter crystallopoietes increase the compression strength of concrete through their
biomass. Not all bacteria increase the strength of concrete significantly with their
biomass.[59]:143 Bacillus sp. CT-5. can reduce corrosion of reinforcement in reinforced concrete by
up to four times. Sporosarcina pasteurii reduces water and chloride permeability. B.
pasteurii increases resistance to acid.[59]:146 Bacillus pasteurii and B. sphaericuscan induce calcium
carbonate precipitation in the surface of cracks, adding compression strength.
Polymer concrete:
Main article: Polymer concrete

Polymer concretes are mixtures of aggregate and any of various polymers and may be reinforced.
The cement is more costly than lime-based cements, but polymer concretes nevertheless have
advantages, they have significant tensile strength even without reinforcement, and they are largely
impervious to water. They are frequently used for repair and construction of other applications
such as drains.

Safety: Concrete, when ground, can result in the creation of hazardous dust. The National Institute
for Occupational Safety and Health in the United States recommends attaching local exhaust
ventilation shrouds to electric concrete grinders to control the spread of this dust.[60]

Properties:

Main article: Properties of concrete

Concrete has relatively high compressive strength, but much lower tensile strength. For this reason
it is usually reinforced with materials that are strong in tension (often steel). The elasticity of
concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as
matrix cracking develops. Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion and shrinks as
it matures. All concrete structures crack to some extent, due to shrinkage and tension. Concrete
that is subjected to long-duration forces is prone to creep.

Tests can be performed to ensure that the properties of concrete correspond to specifications for
the application.

Compression testing of a concrete cylinder

Different mixes of concrete ingredients produce different strengths. Concrete strength values are
usually specified as the compressive strength of either a cylindrical or cubic specimen, where these
values usually differ by around 20% for the same concrete mix.

Different strengths of concrete are used for different purposes. Very low-strength - 14 MPa (2,000
psi) or less - concrete may be used when the concrete must be lightweight.[61] Lightweight
concrete is often achieved by adding air, foams, or lightweight aggregates, with the side effect that
the strength is reduced. For most routine uses, 20 MPa (2,900 psi) to 32 MPa (4,600 psi) concrete
is often used. 40 MPa (5,800 psi) concrete is readily commercially available as a more durable,
although more expensive, option. Higher-strength concrete is often used for larger civil
projects.[62] Strengths above 40 MPa (5,800 psi) are often used for specific building elements. For
example, the lower floor columns of high-rise concrete buildings may use concrete of 80 MPa
(11,600 psi) or more, to keep the size of the columns small. Bridges may use long beams of high-
strength concrete to lower the number of spans required.[63][64] Occasionally, other structural
needs may require high-strength concrete. If a structure must be very rigid, concrete of very high
strength may be specified, even much stronger than is required to bear the service loads. Strengths
as high as 130 MPa (18,900 psi) have been used commercially for these reasons.[63]

Building with concrete:

Concrete is one of the most durable building materials. It provides superior fire resistance
compared with wooden construction and gains strength over time. Structures made of concrete can
have a long service life. Concrete is used more than any other human-made material in the world.
As of 2006, about 7.5 billion cubic meters of concrete are made each year, more than one cubic
meter for every person on Earth.

Mass concrete structures

Main article: Mass concrete

Aerial photo of reconstruction at Taum Sauk (Missouri) pumped storage facility in late November,
2009. After the original reservoir failed, the new reservoir was made of roller-compacted concrete.

Due to cement's exothermic chemical reaction while setting up, large concrete structures such as
dams, navigation locks, large mat foundations, and large breakwaters generate excessive heat
during hydration and associated expansion. To mitigate these effects post-cooling[67] is
commonly applied during construction. An early example at Hoover Dam, installed a network of
pipes between vertical concrete placements to circulate cooling water during the curing process to
avoid damaging overheating. Similar systems are still used; depending on volume of the pour, the
concrete mix used, and ambient air temperature, the cooling process may last for many months
after the concrete is placed. Various methods also are used to pre-cool the concrete mix in mass
concrete structures.

Another approach to mass concrete structures that minimizes cement's thermal byproduct is the use
of roller-compacted concrete, which uses a dry mix which has a much lower cooling requirement
than conventional wet placement. It is deposited in thick layers as a semi-dry material then roller
compacted into a dense, strong mass.

Surface finishes

Main article: Decorative concrete

Raw concrete surfaces tend to be porous, and have a relatively uninteresting appearance. Many
different finishes can be applied to improve the appearance and preserve the surface against
staining, water penetration, and freezing. Examples of improved appearance include stamped
concrete where the wet concrete has a pattern impressed on the surface, to give a paved, cobbled or
brick-like effect, and may be accompanied with coloration. Another popular effect for flooring and
table tops is polished concrete where the concrete is polished optically flat with diamond abrasives
and sealed with polymers or other sealants. Other finishes can be achieved with chiselling, or more
conventional techniques such as painting or covering it with other materials. The proper treatment
of the surface of concrete, and therefore its characteristics, is an important stage in the construction
and renovation of architectural structures.

Prestressed concrete structures

Main article: Prestressed concrete

Prestressed concrete is a form of reinforced concrete that builds in compressive stresses during
construction to oppose those experienced in use. This can greatly reduce the weight of beams or
slabs, by better distributing the stresses in the structure to make optimal use of the reinforcement.
For example, a horizontal beam tends to sag. Prestressed reinforcement along the bottom of the
beam counteracts this. In pre-tensioned concrete, the prestressing is achieved by using steel or
polymer tendons or bars that are subjected to a tensile force prior to casting, or for post-tensioned
concrete, after casting. More than 55,000 miles (89,000 km) of highways in the United States are
paved with this material. Reinforced concrete, prestressed concrete and precast concrete are the
most widely used types of concrete functional extensions in modern days. See Brutalism.

Cold weather concreting

Extreme weather conditions (extreme heat or cold; windy condition, and humidity variations) can
significantly alter the quality of concrete. In cold weather concreting, many precautions are
observed.Low temperatures significantly slow the chemical reactions involved in hydration of
cement, thus affecting the strength development. Preventing freezing is the most important
precaution, as formation of ice crystals can cause damage to the crystalline structure of the
hydrated cement paste. If the surface of the concrete pour is insulated from the outside
temperatures, the heat of hydration will prevent freezing.

The American Concrete Institute (ACI) definition of cold weather concreting, ACI 306, is:

A period when for more than three successive days the average daily air temperature drops below
40 ˚F (~ 4.5 °C), and

Temperature stays below 50 ˚F (10 °C) for more than one-half of any 24 hour period.

In Canada, where temperatures tend to be much lower during the cold season, the following
criteria is used by CSA A23.1:

When the air temperature is ≤ 5 °C, and

When there is a probability that the temperature may fall below 5 °C within 24 hours of placing the
concrete.

The minimum strength before exposing concrete to extreme cold is 500 psi (3.5 MPa). CSA A 23.1
specified a compressive strength of 7.0 MPa to be considered safe for exposure to freezing.

Concrete roads

Concrete roads are more fuel efficient to drive on, more reflective and last significantly longer than
other paving surfaces, yet have a much smaller market share than other paving solutions. Modern-
paving methods and design practices have changed the economics of concrete paving, so that a
well-designed and placed concrete pavement will be less expensive on initial costs and
significantly less expensive over the life cycle. Another major benefit is that pervious concrete can
be used, which eliminates the need to place storm drains near the road, and reducing the need for
slightly sloped roadway to help rainwater to run off. No longer requiring discarding rainwater
through use of drains also means that less electricity is needed (more pumping is otherwise needed
in the water-distribution system), and no rainwater gets polluted as it no longer mixes with
polluted water. Rather, it is immediately absorbed by the ground.

Energy efficiency

Energy requirements for transportation of concrete are low because it is produced locally from
local resources, typically manufactured within 100 kilometers of the job site. Similarly, relatively
little energy is used in producing and combining the raw materials (although large amounts of CO2
are produced by the chemical reactions in cement manufacture). The overall embodied energy of
concrete at roughly 1 to 1.5 megajoules per kilogram is therefore lower than for most structural
and construction materials.

Once in place, concrete offers great energy efficiency over the lifetime of a building .Concrete
walls leak air far less than those made of wood frames. Air leakage accounts for a large percentage
of energy loss from a home. The thermal mass properties of concrete increase the efficiency of
both residential and commercial buildings. By storing and releasing the energy needed for heating
or cooling, concrete's thermal mass delivers year-round benefits by reducing temperature swings
inside and minimizing heating and cooling costs. While insulation reduces energy loss through the
building envelope, thermal mass uses walls to store and release energy. Modern concrete wall
systems use both external insulation and thermal mass to create an energy-efficient building.
Insulating concrete forms (ICFs) are hollow blocks or panels made of either insulating foam or
rastra that are stacked to form the shape of the walls of a building and then filled with reinforced
concrete to create the structure.

Fire safety: A modern building: Boston City Hall (completed 1968) is constructed largely of
concrete, both precast and poured in place. Of Brutalist architecture, it was voted "The World's
Ugliest Building" in 2008. Concrete buildings are more resistant to fire than those constructed
using steel frames, since concrete has lower heat conductivity than steel and can thus last longer
under the same fire conditions. Concrete is sometimes used as a fire protection for steel frames, for
the same effect as above. Concrete as a fire shield, for example Fondu fyre, can also be used in
extreme environments like a missile launch pad. Options for non-combustible construction include
floors, ceilings and roofs made of cast-in-place and hollow-core precast concrete. For walls,
concrete masonry technology and Insulating Concrete Forms (ICFs) are additional options. ICFs
are hollow blocks or panels made of fireproof insulating foam that are stacked to form the shape of
the walls of a building and then filled with reinforced concrete to create the structure. Concrete
also provides good resistance against externally applied forces such as high winds, hurricanes, and
tornadoes owing to its lateral stiffness, which results in minimal horizontal movement. However
this stiffness can work against certain types of concrete structures, particularly where a relatively
higher flexing structure is required to resist more extreme forces.

Earthquake safety

As discussed above, concrete is very strong in compression, but weak in tension. Larger
earthquakes can generate very large shear loads on structures. These shear loads subject the
structure to both tensile and compressional loads. Concrete structures without reinforcement, like
other unreinforced masonry structures, can fail during severe earthquake shaking. Unreinforced
masonry structures constitute one of the largest earthquake risks globally. These risks can be
reduced through seismic retrofitting of at-risk buildings, (e.g. school buildings in Istanbul,
Turkey).
Concrete degradation:

Concrete spalling caused by the corrosion of rebar

Main article: Concrete degradation

Concrete can be damaged by many processes, such as the expansion of corrosion products of the
steel reinforcement bars, freezing of trapped water, fire or radiant heat, aggregate expansion, sea
water effects, bacterial corrosion, leaching, erosion by fast-flowing water, physical damage and
chemical damage (from carbonatation, chlorides, sulfates and distillate water).[citation needed]
The micro fungi Aspergillus Alternaria and Cladosporium were able to grow on samples of
concrete used as a radioactive waste barrier in the Chernobyl reactor; leaching aluminium, iron,
calcium and silicon.

Useful life:The Tunkhannock Viaduct began service in 1912 and was still in regular use more than
100 years later. Concrete can be viewed as a form of artificial sedimentary rock. As a type of
mineral, the compounds of which it is composed are extremely stable. Many concrete structures
are built with an expected lifetime of approximately 100 years, but researchers have suggested that
adding silica fume could extend the useful life of bridges and other concrete uses to as long as
16,000 years. Coatings are also available to protect concrete from damage, and extend the useful
life. Epoxy coatings may be applied only to interior surfaces, though, as they would otherwise trap
moisture in the concrete.

A self-healing concrete has been developed that can also last longer than conventional concrete.
Another option is to use hydrophobic concrete.

Effect of modern concrete use:

Ambox current red.svg

Parts of this article (those related to past projections) need to be updated. Please update this article
to reflect recent events or newly available information. (August 2017) Concrete is widely used for
making architectural structures, foundations, brick/block walls, pavements, bridges/overpasses,
highways, runways, parking structures, dams, pools/reservoirs, pipes, footings for gates, fences
and poles and even boats. Concrete is used in large quantities almost everywhere mankind has a
need for infrastructure. Concrete is one of the most frequently used building materials in animal
houses and for manure and silage storage structures in agriculture.

The amount of concrete used worldwide, ton for ton, is twice that of steel, wood, plastics, and
aluminum combined. Concrete's use in the modern world is exceeded only by that of naturally
occurring water. Concrete is also the basis of a large commercial industry. Globally, the ready-mix
concrete industry, the largest segment of the concrete market, is projected to exceed $100 billion in
revenue by 2015. In the United States alone, concrete production is a $30-billion-per-year industry,
considering only the value of the ready-mixed concrete sold each year.Given the size of the
concrete industry, and the fundamental way concrete is used to shape the infrastructure of the
modern world, it is difficult to overstate the role this material plays today.

Environmental and health:

Main article: Environmental impact of concrete

The manufacture and use of concrete produce a wide range of environmental and social
consequences. Some are harmful, some welcome, and some both, depending on circumstances.A
major component of concrete is cement, which similarly exerts environmental and social
effects.[59]:142 The cement industry is one of the three primary producers of carbon dioxide, a
major greenhouse gas (the other two being the energy production and transportation industries). As
of 2001, the production of Portland cement contributed 7% to global anthropogenic CO2
emissions, largely due to the sintering of limestone and clay at 1,500 °C (2,730 °F)Concrete is
used to create hard surfaces that contribute to surface runoff, which can cause heavy soil erosion,
water pollution, and flooding, but conversely can be used to divert, dam, and control flooding.
Concrete is a contributor to the urban heat island effect, though less so than asphalt. Workers who
cut, grind or polish concrete are at risk of inhaling airborne silica, which can lead to silicosis.
Concrete dust released by building demolition and natural disasters can be a major source of
dangerous air pollution. The presence of some substances in concrete, including useful and
unwanted additives, can cause health concerns due to toxicity and radioactivity. Fresh concrete
(before curing is complete) is highly alkaline and must be handled with proper protective
equipment. Recycled crushed concrete, to be reused as granular fill, is loaded into a semi-dump
truck.

Concrete recycling:
Main article: Concrete recycling

Concrete recycling is an increasingly common method for disposing of concrete structures.

Concrete debris was once routinely shipped to landfills for disposal, but recycling is increasing due
to improved environmental awareness, governmental laws and economic benefits. Concrete, which
must be free of trash, wood, paper and other such materials, is collected from demolition sites and
put through a crushing machine, often along with asphalt, bricks and rocks. Reinforced concrete
contains rebar and other metallic reinforcements, which are removed with magnets and recycled
elsewhere. The remaining aggregate chunks are sorted by size. Larger chunks may go through the
crusher again. Smaller pieces of concrete are used as gravel for new construction projects.
Aggregate base gravel is laid down as the lowest layer in a road, with fresh concrete or asphalt
placed over it. Crushed recycled concrete can sometimes be used as the dry aggregate for brand
new concrete if it is free of contaminants, though the use of recycled concrete limits strength and is
not allowed in many jurisdictions. On 3 March 1983, a government-funded research team (the
VIRL research.codep) estimated that almost 17% of worldwide landfill was by-products of
concrete based waste.[citation needed]

World records:

The world record for the largest concrete pour in a single project is the Three Gorges Dam in
Hubei Province, China by the Three Gorges Corporation. The amount of concrete used in the
construction of the dam is estimated at 16 million cubic meters over 17 years. The previous record
was 12.3 million cubic meters held by Itaipu hydropower station in Brazil. The world record for
concrete pumping was set on 7 August 2009 during the construction of the Parbati Hydroelectric
Project, near the village of Suind, Himachal Pradesh, India, when the concrete mix was pumped
through a vertical height of 715 m (2,346 ft). The world record for the largest continuously poured
concrete raft was achieved in August 2007 in Abu Dhabi by contracting firm Al Habtoor-CCC
Joint Venture and the concrete supplier is Unibeton Ready Mix. The pour (a part of the foundation
for the Abu Dhabi's Landmark Tower) was 16,000 cubic meters of concrete poured within a two-
day period. The previous record, 13,200 cubic meters poured in 54 hours despite a severe tropical
storm requiring the site to be covered with tarpaulins to allow work to continue, was achieved in
1992 by joint Japanese and South Korean consortiums Hazama Corporation and the Samsung C&T
Corporation for the construction of the Petronas Towers in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. The world
record for largest continuously poured concrete floor was completed 8 November 1997, in
Louisville, Kentucky by design-build firm EXXCEL Project Management. The monolithic
placement consisted of 225,000 square feet (20,900 m2) of concrete placed within a 30-hour
period, finished to a flatness tolerance of FF 54.60 and a levelness tolerance of FL 43.83. This
surpassed the previous record by 50% in total volume and 7.5% in total area. The record for the
largest continuously placed underwater concrete pour was completed 18 October 2010, in New
Orleans, Louisiana by contractor C. J. Mahan Construction Company, LLC of Grove City, Ohio.
The placement consisted of 10,251 cubic yards of concrete placed in a 58.5 hour period using two
concrete pumps and two dedicated concrete batch plants. Upon curing, this placement allows the
50,180-square-foot (4,662 m2) cofferdam to be dewatered approximately 26 feet (7.9 m) below sea
level to allow the construction of the Inner Harbor Navigation Canal Sill & Monolith Project to be
completed in the dry.
• Cofferdam:
Underwater excavation is carried out by

(1) Pumping out the water if inflow is not excessive

(2) Isolating the site by a cofferdam (temporary bund)

(3) Sinking caisson (box) with or without compressed air or

(4) Chemical consolidation.

The cofferdam is a temporary structure to exclude water from water-logged soil, river or
the sea to enable the excavation and construction to be carried out in the dry. The cofferdam can be
made out of earth, concrete, sheet piles or sheet cell. The earthen cofferdam is possible in shallow
water with low velocity of current. The earthen bank is constructed 1 mt of the top water level.
Due to water seeping and leaking such dam can fail. Therefore constant watch is necessary. Sheet
piled cofferdam can be constructed by using a floating structure with machinery and crew. All
members of floating pile-driving crew should be trained to handle boats. The interlocking sheet
piles and bracing in a cellular form are placed through water. Fuel tanks below deck of a floating
pile-driving equipment should be vented to the outside air with flame arresters. Workers handling
piles should wear leather gloves. A competent person should constantly supervise. After erecting
the cofferdam, inside water is pumped out. The excavation is done in dry soil up to a sound strata,
the foundation is laid down and the structure is built. The cofferdam is dismantled thereafter.

 Irrigation :

Irrigation projects such as barrages, canals, aqueducts, lift irrigation, flood banks etc. demand
speed & efficiency. Our equipment helps meet these challenges across various types of jobs.

 Earthwork

Our Hydraulic Excavators are extensively deployed for excavation of earth in irrigation projects.
Their faster cycle time, coupled with low fuel consumption make them versatile and an attractive
proposition in jobsites, where production is of utmost importance.

 Dozing / Levelling

Irrigation work also comprises dozing / leveling activities wherein the ground has to be cleared or
flattened for movement of tipper trucks, making trenches, etc. This work is accomplished by
dozers and motor-graders. In projects such as construction of dams, dozers are used intensively for
getting a flat base.

Our small and medium-size dozers have proven their versatility in ripping, dozing and leveling
operations in irrigation projects. Motor graders are also deployed for leveling activity and for
making haul roads for movement of tippers / dumpers.

 Dredging
Dredging involves the removal of sand, soil or silt from water bodies like the backwaters in
shallow ports, rivers and lakes. This can be accomplished by using clam-shells, draglines or de-
weeding buckets. These special application attachments are designed to suit the specific site
conditions and mounted on excavators. For shallow water dredging, the machines are mounted on
pontoons – with or without the undercarriage

 Safety in uses and portion related machinery and equipment :

General provisions: Scope and application

This code applies to any work activity in which machinery is used. The code is intended to apply
generally to the design, manufacture, supply and use of machinery for use at work. It does not take
into account the particular specificities relating to certain categories of machinery, such as
weapons, pressure vessels, medical devices, seagoing vessels, vehicles and trailers solely for
transportation of passengers by rail, road, air or water, machinery for military use and household
appliances for domestic use, which are typically covered by special legislation at the national level.
This code applies to all stages of the life cycle of the machinery, including second-hand, rebuilt,
modified or redeployed machinery for use at work.

Objectives

The objective of this code is to protect workers from the hazards of machinery and to prevent
accidents, incidents and ill health resulting from the use of machinery at work by providing
guidelines for:

(a) ensuring that all machinery for use at work is designed and manufactured to eliminate or
minimize the hazards associated with its use;

(b) ensuring that employers are provided with a mechanism for obtaining from their suppliers
necessary and sufficient safety information about machinery to enable them to implement effective
protective measures for workers; and Safety and health in the use of machinery

(c) ensuring that proper workplace safety and health measures are implemented to identify,
eliminate, prevent and control risks arising from the use of machinery.

Hierarchy of controls

Unless a particular hazard is removed, the risk associated with such a hazard can never be
completely eliminated.

The approach most commonly used is referred to as the hierarchy of controls, from preferred to
least desirable, as follows:

(a) elimination;

(b) substitution;
(c) engineering controls;

(d) administrative (procedural) controls; and

(e) personal protective equipment (PPE).

Definitions

The following definitions apply for the purposes of this code:

– Competent authority: A minister, government department or other public authority with the
power to issue regulations, orders or other instructions having the force of law.

– Competent person: A person with suitable training and sufficient knowledge, experience and
skill for the safe performance of the work in question. The competent authority may define
appropriate criteria for designating such persons and may determine the duties to be assigned to
them.

– Dangerous occurrence: Readily identifiable event, as defined under national laws and
regulations, with potential to cause injury

General provisions

or disease to people at work or the general public, for example a “near miss” or a “near hit”.

– Employer: Any physical or legal person that employs one or more workers.

– Fault tolerance: Ability of a functional unit to continue to perform a required function in the
presence of faults or errors.

– Guard: A part of machinery specifically designed to provide protection by means of a physical

barrier.

– Hazard: The inherent potential to cause injury or damage to people’s health.

– Incident: An unsafe occurrence arising out of or in the course of work where no personal injury
is caused.

– Life cycle: All phases of the life of machinery, i.e.:

(a) transport, assembly and installation;

(b) commissioning;

(c) use; and

(d) decommissioning, dismantling and disposal.

– Machinery: An assembly fitted with, or intended to be fitted with, a drive system other than one
using only directly applied human or animal effort, consisting of linked parts or components, at
least one of which moves, and which are joined together for a specific application.

– Maintenance: Workplace activities such as constructing, installing, setting up, testing, adjusting,
inspecting, modifying, and maintaining machinery on a preventive, periodic and predictive basis.
These activities include lubrication, cleaning or unjamming Safety and health in the use of
machinery of machinery and making adjustments or tool changes where a worker may be exposed
to the unexpected energization or startup of the machinery or release of hazardous stored energy.

– Manufacturers: Any natural or legal persons responsible for marketing machinery under their
names or trademarks, whether they actually design and manufacture the machinery themselves or
contract those tasks to a third party. This includes cases in which the machinery is manufactured
exclusively for their use.

– OSH management system: A set of interrelated or interacting elements to establish

occupational safety and health (OSH) policy and objectives, and to achieve those objectives.

– Protective device: A safeguard other than a guard which reduces risk, either alone or in
conjunction with a guard.

– Risk: A combination of the likelihood of an occurrence of a hazardous event and the severity of
injury or damage to health of workers caused by this event.

– Risk assessment: The process of evaluating the risks to safety and health arising from hazards at
work.

– Safety and health committee: A committee with representation of workers’ safety and health
representatives and employers’ representatives established and functioning at organization level
according to national laws, regulations and practice.

– Supplier: Any natural or legal person in the supply chain, including the manufacturer, importer
and distributer, who makes the machinery available, including second-hand machinery.

– Worker: Any person who performs work, either regularly or temporarily,for an employer.

General provisions

– Workers’ representative: In accordance with the Workers’ Representatives Convention, 1971

(No. 135), any person who is recognized as such by national law or practice, whether they are:

(a) trade union representatives, namely, representatives designated or elected by trade unions or by
members of such unions; or

(b) elected representatives, namely, representatives who are freely elected by the workers of the
organization in accordance with provisions of national laws or regulations or of collective
agreements and whose functions do not include activities which are recognized as the exclusive
prerogative of trade unions in the country concerned.

 Fragile roofs:

What is fragile?

Falls through fragile roofs account for 22% of all the deaths that result from a fall from height in
the construction industry. A fragile material is one that does not safely support the weight of a
person and any load they are carrying. The fragility of a roof does not depend solely on the
composition of the material in it, the following factors are also important:

■ thickness of the material;

■ the span between supports;

■ sheet profile;

■ the type, number, position and quality of fixings;

■ the design of the supporting structure, eg the purlins; and

■ the age of the material.

Remember that even those roofs that were deemed to be ‘non-fragile’ when they were installed
will eventually deteriorate and become fragile over time. Sometimes the entire roof surface is
fragile, such as many fibre cement roofs. Sometimes part of the roof is fragile, eg when fragile roof
lights are contained in an otherwise non-fragile roof. Sometimes a roof is temporarily fragile, such
as during ‘built up’ roof construction when only the liner is installed or sheets have not been
secured. Sometimes the fragility of a roof may be disguised, eg when old roofs have been painted
over. This guidance applies to all these situations. The fragility, or otherwise, of a roof should be
confirmed by a competent person before work starts. If there is any doubt, the roof should be
treated as fragile unless, or until, confirmed that it is not. It is dangerous to assume that a roof is
non-fragile without checking this out beforehand.

 Prevent un authorised access:

Make sure that un authorized access to the roof is prevented, eg by implementing a permit-to-work
regime or blocking off roof access ladders. Make sure that appropriate warning signs are displayed
on existing roofs, particularly at roof access points.

 Working on fragile materials

Work on fragile materials must be carefully planned to prevent falls through the roof:

■ all work should be carried out from beneath where this is practicable;

■ where this is not possible, consider using a MEWP that allows operatives to carry out the work
from within the MEWP basket without standing on the roof itself; Health and Safety Executive
Working on roofs
■ if access onto the fragile roof cannot be avoided, edge protection should be installed around the
perimeter of the roof and staging should be used to spread the load. Unless all the access and work
is on staging and platforms that are fitted with guard rails, safety nets should be installed under the
roof or a harness system should be used.

■ Where harnesses are used, they require adequate anchorage points. They also rely on user
discipline, training and supervision to make sure that they are used consistently and correctly.
Support platforms should be of sufficient dimensions to allow the worker to move safely and use
any equipment or materials safely. Make sure that support platforms are long enough to provide
adequate support across roof members. They should span across at least two purlins. Using a
platform may spread the load, but it will not provide enough support if the only thing supporting it
is the fragile material. Never try to walk along the line of the roof bolts above the purlins or along
the ridge, as the sheets can still crack and give way; they are not designed to support your weight.
Workers should not have to constantly move platforms about the roof. It is not acceptable to rely
on using a pair of boards to ‘leap-frog’ across a fragile roof. Make sure there are enough platforms
provided to avoid this. Precautions are needed to prevent a person falling from the platform.
Provide the platform with edge protection comprising top rail, intermediate rail (or equivalent
protection) and toe board.

 Working near fragile material:

Protection is needed when anyone passes by or works near to fragile materials, eg:

■ during access along valley gutters in a fragile roof;

■ when fragile roof lights or smoke vents are contained in an otherwise non-fragile

roof; or

■ during access to working areas on a fragile roof.

Wherever possible make sure that all fragile materials 2 m or closer to the people at risk are
securely covered and a warning notice displayed. Alternatively, provide continuous physical
barriers with warning notices around or along the fragile material to prevent access to it. (Make
sure that appropriate precautions are taken when installing such protection, eg the use of netting,
birdcage scaffold or a harness system.) Sometimes it will not be reasonably practicable to provide
such protection, usually if the proximity to fragile material is irregular and short duration, ie a
matter of minutes. Safety harnesses will usually be the appropriate solution and may be used in
conjunction with any permanently installed running line systems. Boundaries can be established
identifying ‘safe’ areas containing the workplace and routes to and from it. If these are used:

■ the boundary should be at least 2 m from the nearest fragile material;

■ the boundary does not need to comply with full edge protection standards, but there should be a
continuous physical barrier (a painted line or bunting is not acceptable); and

■ tight discipline is essential to make sure everyone stays inside the safe area at all times.
• Tower cranes:

Tower cranes are widely used for lifting operations in the construction industry. Statistics show
that tower cranes contribute to quite a number of serious accidents. Property damage and bodily
injuries can be avoided if the y are properly used. Tower cranes are a modern form of balance crane
that consist of the same basic parts. Fixed to the ground on a concrete slab (and sometimes
attached to the sides of structures as well), tower cranes often give the best combination of height
and lifting capacity and are used in the construction of tall buildings. The base is then attached to
the mast which gives the crane its height. Further the mast is attached to t he slewing unit (gear and
motor) that allows the crane to rotate. On top of the slewing unit there are three main parts which
are: the long horizontal jib (working arm), shorter counter-jib, and the operators cab

The long horizontal jib is the part of the crane that carries the load. The counter-jib carries a
counterweight, usually of concrete blocks, while the jib suspends the load to and from the center of
the crane. The crane operator either sits in a cab at the top of the tower or controls the crane by
radio remote control from the ground. In the first case the operators cab is most usually located at
the top of the tower attached to the turntable, but can be mounted on the jib, or partway down the
tower. The lifting hook is operated by the crane operator using electric motors to manipulate wire
rope cables through a system of sheaves. The hook is located on the long horizontal arm to lift the
load which also contains its motor.

Definitions:

• Automatic safe load indicator:

It means a device intended t o be fitted to a crane that automatically giv es an audible and visible
warning to the operator thereof that the crane is approaching its safe working load, and that
automatically gives a further audible and visible warning when the crane has exceeded its safe
working load (Regulation 3(1) of the LALGR).

• Certified plan:

It includes drawings, details, diagrams, calculations, structural details, structural calculations, geo
technical details and geo technical calculations which are certified by safety supervision personnel.

• Competent person:
A competent person, in relation to any duty required to be performed by him under the LALGR,
means a person who is -

a) appointed by the owner required by those regulations to ensure that th e duty is carried out by a
competent person; and

b) by reason of training and practical experience, competent to perform the duty (Regulation 3(1)
of the LALGR).

• Climbing frames:

Frames of a climbing crane, which transfer the loading from the crane on to the structure that
supports it.

• Climbing ladders: V Vertical structural frameworks by means of which some types of

climbing cranes are raised.

• Condition of tippin g: A condition when a crane is subject to an overturning moment

which cannot be increased by even a small amount without causing the crane to fall over.

• Free-standing height: The maximum height at which a tower crane can operate without
being held by ties or guys. The dimension between the inner faces of the rail heads of the rail track
of a crane.

• Height alteration: It means climbing of a tower crane or the addition or removal of mast
section to or from the main tower.

• Overlapping zone: An overlapping zone is the space which may be swept by the load, its
attachment or any part of the tower crane, and common to at least two tower cranes.

• Rail ties: Ties used to retain rails at the correct distance apart and to withstand the imposed
tensile and compression forces.
• Wedges: The means of securing the tower within tie frames or climbing frames of a tower
crane.

• Working space limiter: A working space limiter is a limiting device to prevent the load,
its attachment or any part of the tower crane from entering an overlapping zone.

• Types of tower cranes: Static and mobile tower cranes are available in a wide variety of
types and configurations according to the particular combination of tower, jib and type of base
which they employ.

• Tower configurations: Tower cranes are available with either fixed or slewing towers. On
the fixed tower type the slewing ring is situated at or near the top of the tower and the jib slews
about the vertical axle of the stationary tower. The slewing ring on the slewing tower type is
situated at the bottom of the tower and the whole of the tower and jib assembly slew relative to the
base of the crane. The towers can be further classified as being mono towers, inner and outer
towers and telescopic towers.

• Mono Towers: The jib is carried by a single tower structure which may be either fixed or
slewing. Provision may be made in the design to permit the tower to be extended.

• Inner and Outer Towers: They are characterized by the jib being carried by a fixed or
slewing inner tower which is supported at the top of the fixed outer tower. Provision may be made
in the design to permit the outer tower to be extended.

• Telescopic Towers: The tower structure consists of two or more main sections which nest
into each other to enable t he height of the crane to be altered without the need for partial
dismantling and re-erection. Telescopic

towers are usually of slewing type and more common on rail-mounted and mobile tower
cranes.

• Jib configurations: The main types of jib used on tower cranes are horizontal trolley jibs,
luffing jibs, fixed-radius jibs, rear-pivoted luffing jibs and articulated jibs.
 Horizontal trolley ji bs (“A” frame type) : They are held in a horizontal or slightly raised
position by tie bars or ropes connected to an “A” frame on the top of the tower crane. The hook is
suspended from a trolley which moves along the jib to alter the hook radius. A suitable allowance
needs to be made for deflection when calculating the clearance between adjacent cranes.

 Horizontal trolley jibs (flat top type): They are connected directly to the tower top and do
not require tie bars or ropes connected to an “A” frame. This reduces the overall height of the
crane. The hook is suspended from a trolley which moves along the jib to alter the working radius.
A suitable allowance needs to be made for deflection when calculating the clearance between
adjacent cranes.

• Luffing jibs: They aree pivoted at the jib foot and are supported by luffing cables. The hoist
rope which supports the load usually passes over a sheave at the jib hea d, and the hook radius is
altered by changing the angle of inclination of the jib.

• Fixed-luff jibs: They are also mounted on pivots at the jib foot. Unlike the luffing jibs,
these are held by jib-ties at a fixed angle of inclination. On some types, the hook is suspended from
the jib head and the hook radius cannot be altered, whereas on others the hook is suspended from a
saddle or trolley which travelson the jib.

• Rear-pivoted luffing jibs: The jib pivot of this type of jib is situated at the top and behind
the center line of the tower and the hook is supported by the hoist rope which passes over a sheave
at the jib head.

o Articulated jibs: The jib has a pivot point somewhere in its middle area. Some models are
level-luffing; that is, the hook elevation remains constant as radius changes. It is possible to
provide either a trolley or a fixed-location hook or even a concrete pump-discharge line.
Articulated jibs are mounted
o on towers identical to those used with horizontal trolley jibs.

Horizontal trolley jibs (“A” frame type):

 Horizontal
z trolley jibs (flat top type):

Luffing jibs:
Fixed Luff jibs:

Rear-pivoted luffing jibs:

Articulated jibs:

 Mounting configurations:

Tower cranes are also characterized according to their mounting co nfiguration. They are
available as static bases, rail-mounted
mounted units and mobile units.

• Static bases:: There are three main types of static bases.

 In-situ base: The crane is mounted on special corner angles, frames or an expendable
tower section, cast into the concrete foundation block.
 On own base - The crane is mounted on its own base section or chassis which, without
wheels and traveling gear, but with ballast, stands on a concrete base.

o Climbing base - The crane is supported by the structure which it is being used to construct,
and to which it is atta ched by climbing frames and wedges. The height of the cranes can be
extended as the height of the structure increases by means of climbing supports attached to
the frames. Climbing support can be metal ladders, rods or tubes. A climbing crane may be
mounted
ted initially on a fixed base and its support be later transferred to climbing frames and
supports.

• Rail-mounted units:: The cranes are mounted on a chassis frame which is supported on rail
wheels. The wheels are usually double flange. When all wheels are rem oved, some tower cranes
can be used as static based cranes.

• Mobile units: The mobile mounting configuration consists of truck mounted, wheel
wheel-
mounted / crawler mounted units.

• Truck-mounted tower cranes cranes: Tower cranes mounted on truck or lorry chassis are
available. It is essential that t his type of crane has its outriggers extended. The outriggers should be
securely set up and level on its jacks when handling loads.

• Wheel-mounted tow er cranes:

cranes These are not normally Self Prop elling and may be moved
by towing by a suitable vehi cle. They are provided with stabilizers or outriggers and jacks which
should be set (and the wheels either removed or raised clear of the supporting surfaces) before
commencing erection or lifting operations.

• Crawler-mounted
mounted tower cranes:

There are two principal types of crawler bases used on this type of to wer cranes. One is a twin
track type which is mounted on one pair of crawler tracks. The crane requires outriggers to be
extended and jacks set when handling loads. The other is the straddle
straddle-type
type which is mounted on
four widely spaced crawler
rawler tracks, each of which can be adjusted to height. Both types of tower
cranes should be set firm and level when handling their rated safe working loads. In general, they
do not have the same freedom of mobility as for example crawler-mounted mounted mobile cranes.
Reference should be made to the crane specification and to the manufact urer regarding conditions
under which these machines may travel in their erected state.
 Types of static base for tower cranes

On own base:

In-situ base Climbing base

Rail-mounted tower cranes:

a. With saddle jib and fixed tower b. With luffing jib and slewing tower
Fig. 2 Truck-mounted
mounted tower crane Fig.3Wheel mounted tower cranes

a. Twin track type Side view a. Four track straddle type Side view

Identification:: The crane should have a permanent durable plate bearing the manufacturer's name,
machine model, serial number, year of manufacture
manufacture and weight of the unit for identification
purpose. Every major structural, electrical and mechanical component of the machine should have
a permanent durable plate / a clear indication bearing the manufacturers' name, machine model
number, serial number, year of original sale by the manufacturer and weight of the unit. Besides,
identification numbers should be clearly marked on all basic remo vable components and
attachments of the machine (such as counterweights etc.) to show that they belong to that machine.
It is important that these components should be used only on that machine or identical models or
equipment for which they were specifically intended by the manufacturer.

• Automatic safe load indicator: All types of crane, except those with a maximum safe
working load of 1 tonne or less or those operate with a grab or by electromagnetic means, shall be
fitted with an automatic safe load indicator (Regulation 7B of the LALGR). The automatic safe
load indicator is usually used in association with overloading cutout devices. The specification of
automatic safe load indicator should conform to British Standard 7262 or equivalent standards.

• Operation Features of Tower Cranes:

• Operating controls:

All controls must be located within easy reach of the operator and all ow him ample room for
operation. The controls should be of dead man switches in that they return to neutral automatically
when released. The main power switch should be lockable and located within easy reach of the
operator. Each control must be clearly labeled and marked to show the m o tion and the direction of
movement that it controls. Where practicable, controls should be arranged so that accidental
displacement is prevented andd inadvertent pressure on them does not cause the crane to be set into
motion.

• Guards and protective structures: All exposed moving parts of a tower crane such as
gears, pulleys, belts, chains, shafts, flywheels, etc. which might constitute a hazard under normal
operating conditions shall be effectively guarded

• Limiting switches: All tower cranes of every configuration must ebequipped with built-in
safety devices which operate automatically to prevent damage to the machine should the operator
make an error. The most important of these are the limit switches which would eliminate the
possibility of crane overload or over-travel of crane components.
 Every tower crane must have :

1) a hook height limit switch that causes the hoist drum to stop whenever the load hook
reaches a predetermined maximum height position;

2) luffing jib limit switc hes that cause the jib hoist drum to stop whenever the jib is raised
to too high an angle or lowered to too low an angle. These switches should be adjusted by raising
up and lowering down slowly (without load) and allowing the jib to come in contact with the
striker switches;

3) a trolley travel limit switch that causes trolley motion to stop whenever the trolley reaches
reac a
predetermined maximum out or maximum in position;

4) an overload limit switch that causes the hoist drum to stop whenever the load being hoisted
exceeds the maximum rated load for any radius or jib angle or whenever the over
over-turning moment
exceeds the rated load moment. The overload limit switch should be installed in association with
the automatic safe load indicator; and

5) travel limit switches for rail mounted cranes that apply the carriage brake whenever the
crane comes near the ends of the tracks.

• Crane standing or supporting conditions:

(a) The ground or foundation ,s temporary supporting structures, grill ages, packing's, connections
and anchorages for tower cr nesa should be of sufficient strength to withstand the maximum in in-
service and out-of-service
service loading without failure. In particular, suitable preparation of ground
surface for fixed tower cranes should be carried out for safety reason.

(b) It is essential that the ground on which a tower crane stands has adequate bearing capacity.
ca In
assessing this, account should be taken of seasonal variations in ground conditions. The bearing
capacity must not be exceeded under the most severe static and dynamic crane loading conditions.
(c) The siting of the crane, the assessment of maximum loads and the design of foundations,
supporting structures and ancillary details should be certified by a safety supervision personnel.
Particular care should be taken to ensure that the imposed loadings are not underestimated. Careful
assessment of probable wind pressures should also be made, taking into account the degree of
exposure of the site and any other special factors.

(d) Although tower crane manufacturer's instructions may specify maximum wind speed for
service conditions, they cannot give recommendations for survival wind conditions on a particular
site. On tall cranes, wind forces will have a considerable influence on the strength requirements of
the supports and foundation.

• Underground hazards:

(e) Cranes should not be sited where there is danger to their foundations, supporting structures
from cellar whether filled or not, temporary shoring, excavations, embankments, buried pipes and
mains, and etc. With these underground hazards, it may be necessary to provide additional special
foundations to ensure the safety of the crane.

• Tidal or flood water areas:

(f) In areas subject to tidal or seasonal flooding, or where there is a high water table, the crane may
require deep foundations or special ground consolidation. In such situations, all machinery and
electrical equipment should be positioned where it is not in danger from any rise in the water level.
Unless adequate precautions are taken, the crane should not be sited where there is danger to
foundations, rail tracks or temporary access roads from surface water drainage, flooding or rises in
the water level.

• Erection, Dismantling and Height Alteration:

• General precautions:

Accidents may occur during crane erection, dismantling and height alteration operations due to
failure to follow the correct procedures specified by the crane manufacturers, use of incorrect
parts, the wrong size or type of bolt, the incorrect assembly or sequence of assembly, or taking
apart of components
• To avoid dangerous and expensive consequences, the following points should be observed:

(a) the owner should arrange to conduct a risk assessment before the commencement of any
erection, dismantling or height alteration operation on tower crane to identify the hazards inherent
in the operation and the hazards which could result from adjacent activities, the risk assessment
should be conducted in accor dance with the details

(b) the owner should formulate measures for avoiding the hazards identified in risk assessment, or
where this is not possible, devise measures for minimizing their likelihood of occurrence /
mitigating their consequences.

These measures include but not limited to the following:

• installation of fall protection system for workers working at height;

• suspension of work activities within an exclusion zone around the tower crane until an
operation is completed;

• provision of personal protective equipment such as protective gloves, ear protectors and
reflective vests;

• sufficient rest breaks;

• provision of proper training for competent person and workmen engaged in tower crane
erection, dismantling or height alteration operations;

• provision of adequate lighting between floors; and ensure the work is carried out by
competent workmen and competent person.

• all measures for avoiding or mitigating the hazards identified in the risk assessment;

• step-by-step procedures supplemented by diagrammatic illustrations;

• highlighting of critical hazards and safety precautions by specific warning words such as
“Danger”, “Caution” and “Hold Points”;

• procedure and instruction on dealing with “Hold Points” of critical parts;

• procedures for avoiding hazards to personnel working adjacent to the tower crane;
• clear statements on therole and tasks of members of the working crew; and

• arrangements for effective communication;

(c) if applicable, copies

opies of risk assessment report (including the method statement) should be
distributed to the competent specialist contractor, who should be advised of the estimated duration
of the operation and the boundaries of the exclusion zone;

(d) if practicable, erection, di mantling

s or height alteration operation during night time should be
avoided;

(e) most manufacturers specify limiting wind velocities for the erection, dismantling and height
alteration operations, and these operations should not be undertaken in
in high wind speeds.
Particular care should be taken in gusty conditions and where there are shielding and funneling
(venture) effects in the vicinity of tall buildings;

(f) assemblies should be slung from the points recommended by the manufacturer and in such
suc a
way that they will not swing or become unstable or sustain damage when lifted;

• Erection of tower:

When the base or chassis has been set up, the tower (which may include the slewing gear and
tower head) is then erected andn attached to it using a second crane or a self-erection
erection procedure. In
either case the tower should be correctly orientated within the base s ection. Where the jib is
attached to the tower head before the tower is raised from horizontal to the vertical position, some
means, such as a plank or board should be placed beneath the outer end of the jib to ensure that it
can move freely across the ground as the tower is raised. Where a second crane is used for
erection, the number of sections in any tower sub-assembly should be minimum as to eliminate
excessive stresses in the assembly when it is raised from the horizontal to the vertical position. It is
recommended that jib-tiesties are attached before the jib is raised and positioned at the top of the
tower section. When a tower section or sub-assembly has been placed in position, all bracing,
locking devices, etc., should be attached and bolts securely tightened before proceeding with the
next stage of the erection operation. It is essential to ensure that any specially strengthened tower
sections are positioned where required. It may be necessary to guy or support the tower depending
on its free standing height. When tension the guys, ensure that the pull is even on each and that the
tower remains perfectly plumb. Ensure also that blocking is installed in the tower to support the
guys and to prevent the tower from being damaged.

• Weather conditions:

Cranes shall not be used under weather conditions likely to endanger its stability. Before a crane is
taken into use after exposure to weather conditions likely to have affected the stability of the crane,
the crane's anchorage or ballast shall be tested by a competent
competent examiner (Regulation 7G of the
LALGR)

Any instructions issued by the crane manufacturers advising conditio ns under which a crane
should be taken out of service and recommending the conditions in w ich ith should be placed
should be strictly followed. During adverse weather conditions such as rainstorm and lightning,
adequate precautions should be taken to prevent personnel associated with the use of the crane
from being endangered.

Craneses are generally designed to operate in conditions of normal steady wind speed and should not
be operated in wind speeds that are in excess of those specified in the operating instructions for the
crane. Gusty wind conditions may have an adverse effect on safe working loads and machine
stability. Even in relatively light wind conditions it is prudent to avoid handling loads presenting
large wind-catching
catching surfaces. Name boards or other items presenting a wind catching area should
not be fitted to the jib, counter
unter jib, or tower of a tower crane without the express approval of the
manufacturer. An anemomet er or wind speed measuring device should be provided at a suitably
elevated position on all tower cranes. Where practicable the indicator of the instrument should be
fitted at the crane operator's station. Necessary actions on the operatio n of tower cranes which
correspond to various magnitudes of measur
measured
ed wind speed as recommended by the manufacturers
should be strictly adhered to.
• Monthly Inspection nd
a Maintenance of Tower Crane:

(1) Further to weekly full inspection by competent person, inspection a nd maintenance to tower
crane(s) should be carried out at least once in a month by the inspection and maintenance
technicians for tower crane.

(2) The inspection and maintenance technicians should properly record all their work performed
and the respective findings.

(3) The record should be read and signed by inspection and maintenance t echnician(s).

(4) Inspection and maintenance record should include the following, if applicable:

• basic information such as crane model, the date of the inspecti n, workplace
o reference,
workplace address, crane owner, wind speed, running hour of the crane and voltage of the power
supply to the crane should be logged;

• details of inspection, maintenance and repair work carried out should be logged in the
record with details of the condition of the parts inspected and whether lubrication was applied. If
repair work is required or has been carried out, the details should be entered into the record;

• the inspection, maintenance and repair work carried out on critical mechanism of the tower
crane, including but not limited to, if applicable:

(5) hoisting operation of the tower crane such as:

• inspection and adjustment (if required) of the braking system for hoisting, auxiliary
hydraulic braking system, hook height limit switch, moment cutout switch and overload cutout
switch;

• inspection of electrical parts for hoisting system, gearbox oil lev l and
e refill, hoist winch
and main axle, lubrication andoiling;

• fixing of the base for hoisting parts, connection pins/bolts for gearbox and footings;

• inspection of the connections for all pulleys, hooks and pins;

• inspection of the lubrication, wear and tear condition of wire ropes;

• inspection of the swivel/anti-twist device for wire ropes at jib; and

• inspection of safety latches of all hooks;

(6) luffing operation of the tower crane such as:

• inspection and adjustment of hydraulic braking system, luffing travel limit switch and
trolley limit cutout switch;

• inspection of electrical parts for luffing;

• fixing of luffing parts, pins bolt and nuts;

• inspection of the lubrication, wear and tear condition of trolley pulleys;

• inspection of the lubrication, wear and tear condition of wire ropes; and boom stops.

(7) slewing parts such as:

• inspection and adjustm

ent to slewing limit switches;

• inspection of electrical parts for slewing;

• inspection and securing of V-Belt to the slewing motor;

• inspection of the slewing gearbox oil level and refill;

• inspection and fixing of the bolts of slewing bearing;

• lubrication of the slewing bearing with grease;

• lubrication of the slewing ring with grease; and fixing of connection pins/bolts for gearbox;

(8) steel structure and main structural parts such as:

• inspection of tower base and mast base;

• inspection of the connections of all mast sections, checking for any mi
missing
ssing split pins /
bolts and nuts;

• inspection of the connections and split pins at jib and other steel structural parts / bolts and
nuts;

• inspection of the welding parts of all structural components such as mast sections, slewing
ring, tie bar and foundation anchor etc.;

• inspection for any deformation at tower mast sections, jib and counter-jib
counter (vertical parts
and tie bars); inspection of theconnections of climbing collars (or wall tie )s

• inspection of pins and bolts of ballast blocks; and

• inspection of climbing ladders of tower crane; and

Routine checks:

At the beginning of each shift or working day, the operator, if competent for the purpose, or a
competent person, should carry out the following routine checks, as appropriate:

a) checks as required by the manufacturer’s instructions;

b) check that the automatic safe load indicator is correctly set and/or fitted with the correct jib
length

c) (or jib and fly-jib

jib lengths) and falls of hoist rope;

d) check that the correct load-radius

radius scale appropriate to the jib (or fly-jib)
fly jib) length is fitted on the
visual indicator;

e) check crane level indicator (where applicable);

f) check working space limiter/anti

limiter/anti-collision
e system (where applicable);

g) check audio and visual alarming devices;

h) check the security of the counterweight or ballast where this is in the form of removable
weights, check that the weights fitted correctly correspond to those shown on the counterweight
chart for the operating condition.

i) check the oil level(s), fuel level and lubrication;

j) check hook for signs of cracks and wear;

k) check loosening of pins, bolts and nuts;

L) check the ropes, and rope terminal fittings and anchorages for obvious damage and wear;

m) check the condition and inflation pressure(s) of tyres (where applicable);

n) check that all water is drained from any air receivers;

o) check the jib structure for damage;

p) check the operating pressures in any air and/or hydraulic system(s);

q) check leakage of brake fluid and hydraulic oil;

r) check the operation of the crane through all motions with particular attention to brakes to ensure
that these are operating efficiently;

s) check the operation of all limit switches or cut-outs (use caution in making the checks in case of
non-operation);

t) on rail-mounted cranes the wheels and axles are in good condition; the cable drum is free to
revolve and the cable does not foul on any part of the crane structure;

u) all rail clamps and out-of-service anchorages have been released;

v) the track is in good condition and clear of obstructions, and that there is no undue settlement,
loose joints, cracks, or gaps between adjacent length of rail;

w) the crane is placed out of service when the wind speed registered is near the manufacturer's safe
working limit and that where an anemometer is fitted to the crane, it is in working order;

x) split pins and locking cellars are in position on jib and counter-jib ties and counter balance
hanger bars;

y) the travel warning device operates;

z) on a climbing crane all climbing frames and wedges are secure, and that the anchorages and
wedges on any tower ties or tie frames are secure and locked in position where necessary.
  Different Types of Temporary Building Structures:

Temporary doesn’t mean short-lived or fragile when it comes to temporary building structures.
These sturdy structures stand the test of time and have a variety of different uses. Temporary
building structures are multi-purpose, portable structures that offer protection under all weather
conditions. They are great alternatives to conventional structures and offer some impressive
advantages that include quick delivery, portability, and low cost.

Temporary Building Structures as Garages

Car dealers, automobile auctions, and repair shops are just a few automotive type businesses that
have used temporary building structures for garages. The large size of these shelters can house
dozens of cars at one time. Vehicles are instantly protected from bird droppings, dirt, wind, rust,
acid rain, sap, hail, snow, and the sun. An instant garage alleviates worry about damage to
vehicles. Garage shelters are designed for quick and easy assemblage. No slabs, footers, or
concrete are required. When rain, wind, snow, or freezing temperatures make it next to impossible
to perform vehicle maintenance, temporary building structures as garages can provide a warm
shelter away from the inclement weather. Not only are the vehicles protected, but employees are
kept happy and healthy.

Large-scale Greenhouses for Cultivation

When businesses need a large-scale solution for indoor growing, temporary building structures
step in and provide a climate-controlled environment. They can provide year-round growing and
multiple harvests per year.

One rather new use for cultivating in temporary building structures is growing cannabis. With 23
states allowing the sale of medical or recreational marijuana, warehouse space is becoming scarce.
Tension fabric buildings are a perfect solution. They can use translucent fabric to allow light in and
they are sturdy enough to hold heavy lighting that is required to grow cannabis indoors.

Nursery businesses are making use of temporary building structures too. They are an economical
solution that can provide seedlings, plants, and flowers to customers. Indoor growing provides
harsh element protection. Plants are easily weakened by heavy winds, burning heat, driving rain,
and mild frost. Higher yields and healthier vegetation can occur with the use of temporary building
structures.

Barn and Farm Storage : Protect animals from the inclement, foul weather with temporary
building structures. They can be customized to serve as run in sheds, storage shelters, horse arenas,
or housing structures. Temporary building structures are superior alternatives when the cost is
considered. Portable housing is easy to build.
Horse shelter canopies or canopies for pigs, cows, goats, and other animals are excellent uses for
temporary buildings. The shade protects animals from intense solar radiation. The temporary
building structures can be ventilated to protect, and, therefore, improve, the welfare and health of
animals by providing a better environment. Healthy, stress-free, and productive livestock result.

Other Uses of Temporary Building Structures

Innovative technology is used in the construction of these multi-use shelters that often offer a
better alternative to conventional structures. They have been used as:
 Boat and RV Storage
 Workshops
 Disaster Relief Stations
 Screen Houses
 Pool Enclosures
 Airplane Hangars
Temporary building structures are made from UV-treated fabric. The structural frames have been
tested and can withstand severe environmental conditions. They might be temporary…but they’re
built to last.

CHAPTER 3.

GENERAL SAFETY MEASURES

 Workplace Housekeeping Checklist for Construction Sites:

What is an example of a workplace housekeeping checklist for construction sites?

DO

 Gather up and remove debris to keep the work site orderly.

 Plan for the adequate disposal of scrap, waste and surplus materials.
 Keep the work area and all equipment tidy. Designate areas for waste
materials and provide containers.
 Keep stairways, passageways, ladders, scaffold and gangways free of
material, supplies and obstructions.
 Secure loose or light material that is stored on roofs or on open floors.
 Keep materials at least 2m (5 ft.) from openings, roof edges, excavations or
trenches.
 Remove or bend over nails protruding from lumber.
 Keep hoses, power cords, welding leads, etc. from laying in heavily
travelled walkways or areas.
 Ensure structural openings are covered/ protected adequately (e.g. sumps,
shafts, floor openings, etc.)

DO NOT

 Do not permit rubbish to fall freely from any level of the project. Use chutes
or other approved devices to materials.
 Do not throw tools or other materials.
 Do not raise or lower any tool or equipment by its own cable or supply hose.

 Flammable/Explosive Materials
  Store flammable or explosive materials such as gasoline, oil and cleaning
agents apart from other materials.
 Keep flammable and explosive materials in proper containers with contents
clearly marked.
 Dispose of greasy, oily rags and other flammable materials in approved
containers.
 Store full barrels in an upright position.
 Keep gasoline and oil barrels on a barrel rack.
 Store empty barrels separately.
 Post signs prohibiting smoking, open flames and other ignition sources in
areas where flammable and explosive materials are stored or used.
 Store and chain all compressed gas cylinders in an upright position.
 Mark empty cylinders with the letters "mt," and store them separately from
full or partially full cylinders.
 Ventilate all storage areas properly.
 Ensure that all electric fixtures and switches are explosion-proof where
flammable materials are stored.
 Use grounding straps equipped with clamps on containers to prevent static
electricity buildup.
 Provide the appropriate fire extinguishers for the materials found on-site.
Keep fire extinguisher stations clear and accessible.

 Safety - Electrical Hazards on Construction Sites:

Construction sites tend to be full of potential electrical fire dangers. Fires on

construction sites happen all too frequently, and they pose a tremendous risk of
serious injury or even death for the workers on site. Construction site fires also pose
a risk to the general public as well as the property around a jobsite. Damage to both
the worksite and the surrounding property can add up to significant, unforeseen
costs to a construction company.

The awareness of electrical and fire hazards on construction sites has grown
through the years as frequent incidents of fires and accidents could not be
overlooked. Improvements in general construction site procedures and safety
measures are already making a difference, but more can always be done. Some of
the major areas of concern in terms of the risk of electrical fires are whenever any
large, high-wattage power tools are in use. The potential for electrical fire is
heightened whenever portable generators bring electricity to a jobsite or when a
new electrical system is being installed or tested in a building.You can reduce the
likelihood of electrical fires and other electrical accidents by taking a few
precautions.

 General Preventative Safety Measures:

 Put an effective lockout/tagout on live, energized circuits

 Wear protective eyewear and appropriate gloves while working
  Keep the work area neat and tidy by removing all debris daily
 Avoid mishaps by installing guard rails if working on elevated surfaces.

 Provide Adequate Training and Supervision: Be sure to provide thorough, up-to-

date training and supervision for all of your employees, especially those working
directly with electricity. Pay close attention to new employees so that you can
ensure they know how to handle themselves around high voltage equipment.
 Safety During Welding: The welding, cutting and brazing processes can produce
sparks and extremely hot flying particles. Showers of sparks can move molten metal
far from the work area where they are not seen, and could start a fire. Put shields
around the welding site to prevent this. Remove all combustible materials, liquids
and containers from the work area. Position tool cords safely and make sure sparks
or molten metal do not burn any power cords.
 Temporary Electrical Service Safety: At times a construction site requires a
temporary electrical service to be installed outside of a building in progress until the
building has its own electricity system. If this is the case, make sure the temporary
service never becomes overloaded. Take measures to ensure that they're protected
from any stormy or rainy weather.
 Onsite Fire Extinguishers

Be sure to provide the correct type of fire extinguishers onsite for the specific tasks
your employees will be performing. The Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) lists five primary types of extinguishers available for the
workplace and personal use. They run from A to E, but type C fire extinguishers are
the ones used for electrical fires - whether caused by electric motors, fuse boxes or
welding machines. Be sure to have them on hand whenever electricity is in use at
your jobsites.

 MATERIALS HANDLING AND EQUIPMENT

INTRODUCTION:
1. This chapter addresses the safety and health requirements for Smithsonian Institution
(SI) materials handling and storage and applies to all SI worksites. All materials
handling and storage shall be performed in accordance with the requirements contained
in the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) standards in 29 CFR
1910 Subpart N, “Materials Handling and Storage,” and the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) Standard 505, “Powered Industrial Trucks Type Designations,
Areas of Use, Maintenance, and Operations.” Since injuries may result from
improperly handling and storing materials, it is important to be aware of incidents that
 may occur from unsafe or improperly handled equipment and improper work practices
when handling and storing materials. Topics discussed in this chapter include:
a. Moving Loads (General)
b. Loading Docks Material Handling
c. Manually Moving Loads
d. Forklifts/Powered Industrial Trucks
e. Hoists
f. Scissor Lift Work Platforms
g. Slings And Hooks
h. Cranes And Gantries
i. Other Material Handling Equipment
j. Storage Requirements (General)
k. Storage Of Hazardous Materials/Chemicals (General)
l. Storage Of Other Materials

ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES:

1. Safety Coordinators shall:
a. Assist supervisors in complying with this Chapter and ensuring that resources are
available to fully comply.
b. Ensure retention of all employee equipment training certificates.
2. Supervisors shall:
a. Ensure hazard controls detailed in this chapter are implemented.
b. Develop Job Hazard Analyses per Chapter 4, “Safety Risk Management Program”,
of this Manual for the more hazardous, non-routine material handling operations.
c. Ensure employees receive training prior to operating and demonstrate they are
competent to operate material handling equipment.
d. Allow employees to only operate material handling equipment for which they have
been trained;
e. Ensure employees follow all safety requirements and perform safely.
f. Ensure employees have and use personal protective equipment to include safety
shoes and hard hats when moving objects that are overhead and goggles when
moving liquids that could pose a splash hazard.
3. Employees shall:
a. Perform material handling operations and operate material handling equipment
safely to prevent injury or damage;
b. Inspect and perform safety checks on material handling equipment before each use
to ensure equipment is in proper working order and is appropriate for material
being handled;
c. Report any deficiencies found during pre-use inspections to supervisor;
d. Not operate material handling equipment for which they have not been trained.
e. Follow all safety requirements, use required personal protective equipment and
perform their duties safely.
  HAZARD IDENTIFICATION:
1. Back injury is the number one injury associated with improper material handling.
2. Heavy or unbalanced loads could fall and injure employees, especially head and feet.
3. Vehicle becomes unbalanced and overturns with driver not wearing seat belts.
4. Improper or unsafe use of material handling equipment could cause injury or property
damage.
5. Falls from working platforms or ladders could occur
6. Damaged or poorly maintained equipment could cause injury.
7. Battery charging and filling pose significant risks
8. Loading docks pose numerous risks for injury or property damage to include:
a. falls from unguarded dock edges,
b. slips/trips due to wet or icy surfaces,
c. caught between/under due to crowded staging areas, unbalanced loads,
d. collision due to numerous pieces of moving equipment or vehicles,
e. tip over due to steep inclines improperly traversed,
f. lift platforms could fail or operate improperly,
g. Wheeled vehicles could roll if not properly secured, or damage to vehicles could
occur due to tight maneuver room,
h. Overhead doors may open or close unexpectedly,
i. Hazardous chemicals with their commensurate risks may be involved during
loading/unloading operations
j. Any fuel-operated material-handling vehicle poses the risk of fire and explosion.
k. Material handling equipment used in cramped spaces or populated areas pose
significant hazards of injury or property damage.

HAZARD CONTROLS:
1. Moving Loads (General)
a. Check the load first to decide how best to move it—forklift, hand truck, hoist,
conveyor, manually, etc. Then check the route to be taken and remove obstacles,
or find another route if the obstacle cannot be moved. Make sure there is space for
the load at its destination and that equipment, platforms, elevators, etc. are rated to
handle the load weight and bulk.
b. Forklifts, hand trucks, dollies, or other material handling equipment (MHE)
carrying unbalanced loads or loads that obstruct the operator’s view may be
dangerous to the operator and any other employees in the area. Place loads
carefully so they are stable and will not fall off or tip the equipment over. Load
heaviest objects at the bottom and secure/strap any bulky or awkward items.
Ensure operator has sufficient view in direction of movement.
c. Whenever MHE are equipped with seat belts, operators will wear them.
d. Consider a ground guide when negotiating bulky loads through narrow aisles or
crowded spaces.
 e. When operating on a ramp or steep incline, employees shall keep loads downhill to
prevent the load from rolling over them if they lose control.
f. Employees shall inspect material handling equipment before each use:
(1) Check the framework for obvious signs of damage such as broken welds or
fractured boards.
(2) Check the tires for large pieces missing from solid tires and air missing from
pneumatic tires.
(3) Ensure accessories (e.g., handle extensions, nose plate extensions, stair
climbers, etc.) are properly attached.
(4) Inspect straps and ratchets for damage or deterioration. Test wheel brakes to
ensure they work.
(5) If damage/defects are noted, remove the equipment from service and tag with
a “Do Not Use” sign until it is repaired.

2. Loading Docks Material Handling:

a. Employees shall keep loading docks clear of water and ice as much as possible.
b. Adequate space shall be available for the safe loading/unloading of docked
materials.
c. Employees shall stay away from unguarded dock edges.
d. Secure movable dock loading/unloading plates.
e. Check dock plate load capacity before loading it.
f. Block or chock truck/trailer wheels to keep them from moving.
g. Be alert to overhead door movements.
h. Employees shall protect their hands from being crushed against solid objects and
watch for pinch points when going through doorways or other tight spaces. Use
hand and forearm protection (e.g., long-cuff, heavy work gloves) and safety shoes
to protect from falling loads or wheeled vehicles in tight spaces.
3. Manually Moving Loads: Manual lifting and moving loads is a major potential source of
back injuries among workers. When manually moving materials, employees shall follow proper
lifting techniques. Employees shall seek additional assistance when:
(1) A load is so bulky they cannot grasp or lift it;
(2) When they cannot see around/over the load;
(3) When the load is too heavy to handle for one person, and
(4) When a worker cannot safely handle the load manually.
Supervisors shall assist employees in reducing the potential for back injuries by employing the
following lifting principles whenever possible:
(1) Eliminate the need to handle materials manually by using/installing mechanical lifting aids
(e.g. lift truck, conveyor, hoist, etc.);
(2) Manually move the load with a handling aid (e.g. cart, dolly, etc.);
(3) Reduce the size or weight of the objects lifted;
(4) Change the height of a pallet or shelf.
 Using safe manual lifting techniques may reduce back injuries such as pulls and disc
impairments. Leg muscles are stronger than back muscles, so workers should lift with their legs
and not with their back.
4. Forklifts/Powered Industrial Trucks:

o OSHA defines “powered industrial trucks” as “mobile, powered, driven vehicles used to
carry, pull, push, lift, stack, or tier materials.”

o Trucks shall have a label indicating acceptance by a nationally recognized testing

laboratory. No one shall be permitted to make modifications or additions affecting the
capacity or safe operation of a powered industrial truck without the manufacturer’s prior
written approval. Any modifications and additions shall be added to the truck’s capacity,
operation, and maintenance information and postings.

o Forklifts/powered industrial trucks shall also comply with the National Fire Protection
Association (NFPA) Standard 505, “Powered Industrial Trucks Type Designations, Areas
of Use, Maintenance, and Operations.”

o Powered industrial trucks operating in potentially hazardous atmospheres must be approved

for that purpose and have additional safeguards for use. Refer to OSHA 29 CFR
1910.178(b) for more detail on these requirements.

o Because of the fire hazard, only electrically powered material handling equipment will be
used in museums, collections areas and populated spaces. Newly purchased forklifts will
be battery powered. Large, gas-powered equipment required for lifting extremely large
exhibits may only be used when no visitors are present.
o Trucks shall not be parked and left unattended in areas occupied by or frequented by the
public.
o Contact the Office of Safety, Health and Environmental Management if clarification is
required on which powered industrial trucks may be used in what type of environments.
o Forklifts/powered industrial trucks shall be inspected prior to use and documented on
Attachments 1 and 2. Keep on hand the last five (5) checklists for auditing purposes to
ensure documentation of inspections.
o Forklifts/powered industrial trucks have a high center of gravity and may tip over if not
driven slowly and carefully by trained, authorized operators. Materials lifted incorrectly or
placed improperly on the forks may easily slip, causing a hazard to the operator and any
other employees in the area. When picking up materials with a forklift/powered industrial
trucks, operators shall:
(1) Follow the manufacturer’s operational instructions.
(2) Keep forks and loads low and tilted back while moving.
(3) Center the load on the forks as close to the mast as possible, which minimizes tipping or
chances of the load falling.
(4) Do not overload forklifts/powered industrial trucks because it will impair the controls and
cause tipping. Do not put extra weight on the rear of a counter-balanced forklift/powered
industrial truck to allow an overload.

(5) Adjust the load to the lowest safe position when traveling.

(6) If the load obstructs the operator’s forward view, then the operator shall travel with the
load trailing the vehicle. Consider the use of a ground guide if needed.
(7) Pile and cross-tier stacked loads correctly.

j. Additional safety precautions for forklifts/powered industrial trucks:

(1) Provide sufficient head room under overhead installations, lights, pipes, and sprinkler systems.
(2) Forklifts shall be equipped with a cage over the operator’s seat to protect them from shifting or
falling loads. The forklift shall also be equipped with a vertical load back rest extension when the
load presents a hazard to the operator.
(3) Forklifts shall be equipped with a back-up alarm and a horn. When a forklift is used inside a
building it must have a strobe light attached to its roll cage.
(4) Be careful when approaching doorways, aisle crossings, and other intersections—sound a
warning signal whenever pedestrians or other moving equipment are operating in the same area.
When more than one forklift is operating in the same area, follow the rules of the road- e.g. yield
to the right, stop at intersections and clear before preceding, etc.
(5) Where applicable provide signage to warn pedestrians to be on the look-out for powered
industrial trucks and stay out of the way when truck is in use.
(6) Park a forklift with the forks lowered and tilted flat, brake set, and keys removed. Block the
wheels if the truck is parked on an incline. These precautions will be followed when an operator
will be more than 25 feet away from the vehicle or the vehicle is out of sight.
(7) Set the brakes when using the truck to load/unload materials. The dock/board/bridge plate
shall be secured so they will not move when equipment drives over them.
(8) Additional riders are prohibited on forklifts/powered industrial trucks.
(9) Never stand or walk under the raised part of a forklift/powered industrial truck.
(10) Do not put arms/legs between the uprights of the mast or outside the running lines of a
forklift/powered industrial truck.
(11) Locate battery-charging installations in designated areas, and ensure fire extinguishers are
within 25 feet when charging. This area must be designated as a “No Smoking” area. Spill control
supplies must be available for neutralizing and flushing spilled electrolyte. The battery-charging
equipment shall be protected from truck damage. Provide ventilation of battery-charging gases.
(12) Disconnect battery before repairing an electrical system.
(13) Provide auxiliary directional lighting on forklifts/powered industrial trucks when the general
lighting is less than 2 lumens/square foot.
5. Hoists:
a. OSHA requires that all hoisting equipment be inspected initially and per the inspection
section ”n” below, according to standards set by the individual manufacturer and ANSI.
Inspections:
(1) Prior to First Use/Major Alteration: Following assembly and erection of hoists, and before
being put in service, an inspection and test of all functions and safety devices shall be made under
the supervision of a Competent Person (one who is capable of identifying existing and predictable
hazards in the surroundings or working conditions which are hazardous or dangerous to
employees, and who has authorization to take prompt corrective measures to eliminate them). A
similar inspection and test shall be required following major alteration of an existing installation.
(2) Daily (or prior to use) inspections: Daily (or prior to use if hoists are not used daily)
inspections shall be performed by the operator at the start of each shift, or at the time the hoist is
used for the first time during each shift. The inspection regimen shall include, but not be limited
to, an examination of the chain for wear, twists, excessive dirt, broken links, and proper
lubrication. Hooks shall be inspected for deformations, cracks, damage, and properly operating
latches.
(3) Frequent inspections: Frequent inspections are the next level up from daily inspections.
Frequent inspections shall be performed by a person who is trained, experienced, and qualified to
perform hoist inspections. How often the frequent inspections are done is a function of hoist
service. If the hoist is seeing normal service, then the frequent inspections should be conducted
once a month. For heavy service, the frequent inspections should be weekly to monthly. Severe
service applications warrant frequent inspections, daily to weekly. During frequent inspections,
check the hoist more thoroughly than the operator’s daily inspections. Use American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME) Standard B30.16, “Overhead Hoists (Underhung),” and the
manufacturer's recommendations to determine frequent inspection criteria. ASME B30.16 outlines
construction, installation, operation, inspection, and maintenance requirements for hand chain-
operated chain hoists and electric and air-powered chain and wire rope hoists used for, but not
limited to, vertical lifting and lowering of freely suspended, unguided, loads which consist of
equipment and materials.
(4)Periodic inspections: Periodic inspections shall be performed by a qualified inspector, and at
intervals recommended by the manufacturer and according the severity of the service. Hoists shall
also be inspected and tested at not less than three month intervals. Periodic inspections are more
thorough than frequent inspections. According to the severity of the service, the inspector shall
refer to ASME B30.16 and the manufacturer’s recommendations. Disassembly is not required for
any of these inspections unless the inspection indicates a breakdown is needed. However, prior to
placing the hoist back in service, load testing is required if some disassembly involving load-
bearing components has occurred.
c. The most important variables in safe hoist operation are knowledge about the hoist, the load, and
safe operating practices, and the training and communication that support that knowledge.

d. Safe hoist operation begins with proper hoist selection. The hoist must be matched to the
application. Hoist capacity is of primary importance; it is critical that the hoist selected has a
capacity that exceeds the weight of the load. Consider a powered hoist if the load has to be lifted a
long distance or repeatedly.

e. Ensure the hoist’s load chain is long enough to reach the load. The chain must be straight and
properly seated in the load sheave. Avoid tip loading unless the hook is specifically designed for
point loads.
f. Operator training shall be specific to the type of hoist the operator will be using, including
information about lift capacity as well as inspections and maintenance, slip clutches, load limit
devices, braking mechanisms, and wear limits. Training shall include a discussion of balanced lift
points and safe rigging practices.
g. Slings or other attachments shall be seated in the saddle of the hook and hook latches shall be
present and functioning properly. The hoist's load chain shall never be used as a sling.
h. Loads shall always be lifted slowly at first to ensure everything is seated and operating properly.
Lift loads vertically, and do not side pull a load, which places additional stress on the hoist and
risks uncontrolled load swings.
i. Avoid using the hoist’s travel limits to stop operation. These limits are usually not designed for
regular everyday usage; they are intended for emergency use.
j. When the hoist is coupled to a trolley, take care not to crash the trolley into the end stops on the
beam. Hitting the end stops increases stress on the hoist and may cause dangerous load swings.
k. Jogging the hoist’s motor shall be minimized; it generates heat in the motor’s windings, which
could lead to motor failure.
l. Supervisors shall ensure hoist operators and signal persons can communicate, especially in noisy
environments where lifting operations require a hoist operator and a signal person (e.g., rigging or
hook-up person) to use hand signals or voice communication. Hand signals shall be documented
and posted. Except to obey a stop signal, the operator shall only respond to hand signals from the
designated signal person.
m. Before giving the signal to lift a load, the operator shall inspect their surroundings, to ensure
they have a solid foundation for executing a manual lift, and that all personnel are clear of the load.
The operator shall communicate their intention to begin lifting to employees in the immediate
vicinity of the lift, and pay close attention to the hoist in progress. Operators shall never leave a
load unattended or suspended.
n. It is the hoist inspector's responsibility to alert maintenance workers of an inspection's findings.
Hoists that do not pass inspection need to be tagged "Out of Service" and removed from the
hoisting area until repaired or replaced.
o. The employer shall prepare a certification record for frequent and periodic inspections that
includes the date the inspection and test of all functions and safety devices was performed; the
signature of the person who performed the inspection and test; and a serial number, or other
identifier, for the hoist that was inspected and tested. The most recent certification record shall be
maintained on file.
6. Scissor Lift Work Platforms:
a. Lifting and elevating the work platform must be done on flat, firm surfaces.
b. The safety bar located inside the lifting mechanism must be used to prevent lowering of the
scissor-type lift during maintenance or inspection.
c. DO NOT:
(1) Elevate the work platform if it is not on a firm level surface; or
(2) Exert excessive side force while the work platform is elevated;
(3) Overload (the relief valve does not protect against overloading);
(4) Alter or disable limit switches;
(5) Raise the platform in windy or gusty conditions. (The manufacturer recommends not
raising to full height or half height in windy or gusty wind conditions). The manufacturer follows
a 20 mph wind speed as a guide. The manufacturer recommends not raising the lift if the wind
speed is 20 mph or greater.)
(6) Park the work platform on high traffic sidewalks that will impede foot traffic or wheelchair
traffic.
d. Safety Devices :
(1) The guardrails must be upright and locked in place with locking pins.
(2) The safety bar must be used for inspection and maintenance.
(3) Do not reach through scissor assembly without ensuring that the safety bar in its proper
position.
(4) The operator must wear a personal protective device (positioning device system) to prevent
movement past or over handrails. The personal protective device will consist of a body belt with a
lanyard attached to an anchor point to ensure a 100% no-fall situation. The anchor point must be
positioned so the employee cannot reach the handrail with slack in the lanyard; this will prevent an
employee from being able to fall from the platform.
e. Operators must read and completely understand the operator’s manual before being
allowed on a work platform.
f. Inspect and/or test for the following daily (documentation not required):
(1) Operating and emergency controls;
(2) Safety devices and limit switches;
(3) Tires and wheels;
(4) Outriggers;
(5) Air, hydraulic, and fuel systems for leaks;
(6) Loose or missing parts;
(7) Guardrail systems;
(8) Engine oil level; and
(9) Hydraulic reservoir level.
g. Do not operate unless proper authorization and training have been received.
7. Slings and Hooks:
a. Personnel using slings should adhere to the inspection and safe use criteria established by
OSHA and available in this OSHA guidance document found at the following link: OSHA
Guidance Document
b. Personnel using hooks for moving materials will use hooks with self-closing safety latches
or their equivalent to prevent components from slipping out of the hook.
8. Cranes and Gantries:
a. Some SI departments utilize overhead cranes to facilitate materials handling. Contractors
who use cranes on SI construction sites may affect emergency access, vehicular and pedestrian
traffic flow. Though this machinery facilitates the work, unsafe operators can put lives and
property at risk.
b. Operators of cranes and hoists must be aware of equipment limitations, inspection
requirements, proper rigging, and control functions. OSHA mandates that operators receive
training in these procedures. If your department maintains and operates a crane or gantry, ensure
operators are properly trained and that all requirements of the OSHA Crane Standards are met per
the link OSHA Crane and Hoist Safety.
9. Rated Capacity Markings:
All material-handling equipment (e.g., forklifts/powered industrial trucks, conveyors, hoists,
dollies, carts, etc.) shall have a rated capacity noted on it that determines the maximum weight the
equipment can safely handle and the conditions under which it can handle that weight. Employers
must ensure that the equipment-rated capacity is displayed on each piece of equipment.
10. Storage Requirements (General):
a. Emergencies could become disasters if exits, fire alarms, power switches, sprinklers, light
switches, etc., are blocked – even temporarily. Employees shall not block emergency access or
equipment. Aisles and passageways must be kept clear of obstructions and slip, trip, and fall
hazards. A 36 inch clearance shall be maintained around emergency equipment and the emergency
equipment shall be clearly marked.
b. Do not store materials in excess of supplies needed for immediate operations in
aisles/passageways.
c. Employers shall mark permanent aisles and passageways. Obstructions in aisles (e.g.
columns, posts, etc.) shall be clearly marked.
d. When using aisles and passageways to move materials mechanically, employees shall
allow sufficient clearance for aisles at loading docks, through doorways, wherever turns must be
made, etc. Sufficient clearance will prevent workers from being pinned between the equipment
and objects in the workplace and will prevent the load from striking an obstruction and possibly
falling on an employee.
e. When different levels exist, ramps shall be used by vehicles moving materials.
f. Doors shall be of sufficient height and width to accommodate material handling equipment.
Aisles shall be 2 feet wider than the widest vehicle used. Exit access aisles in storage areas shall
be at least 44 inches wide.
g. There must be enough operating space for handling and stacking materials safely in all
storage areas.
11. Storage of Hazardous Materials/Chemicals using Material Handling Equipment:
a. Read labels and Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDSs) before storing chemicals or
flammable/combustible materials. Match storage conditions to material handling requirements
(e.g., dry, cool, ventilated, etc.). Refer to Chapter 19, “Chemical Handling and Storage”, of this
Manual, for other hazardous materials storage requirements. Smoking and using open flames or
spark-producing devices are prohibited in chemical storage areas. Non-compatible materials must
be segregated in storage. Refer to Chapter 36, “Fire Protection”, of this Manual, for information
on flammable/combustible materials.
b. Trash, brush, long grass, and other combustible materials shall be kept away from areas
where flammable/combustible materials are handled or stored.
c. All spills of flammable/combustible materials shall be immediately cleaned up following
guidelines outlined in the facility Emergency Spill and Leak Response Plan.
12. Storage of Other Materials:
a. When storing materials, employees shall:
(1) Prevent creating hazards when storing materials by being aware of the material’s height
and weight; how accessible the stored materials are to the user – consider the need for availability
of the material; and the condition of the storage containers. All materials stored in tiers must be
stacked, racked, blocked, inter-locked, or otherwise secured to prevent sliding or collapse.
(2) Keep storage areas free from accumulated materials that may cause slips, trips, falls, or
fires or that may contribute to harboring pests.
(3) If possible, place bound materials on racks and secure it by stacking, blocking, or inter-
locking to prevent it from sliding, falling, or collapsing.
(4) Stack lumber no more than 16 feet high if handled manually and no more than 20 feet if
using a forklift.
a. Remove all nails from used lumber before stacking it.
b. Stack and level lumber on supported bracing.
(5) Ensure stacks are stable and self-supporting. Observe height limitations when stacking
materials.
(6) Stack bags and bundles in interlocking rows and limit the height of the stack to keep them
secure.
(7) Block the bottom tiers of drums/barrels/kegs to keep them from rolling if stored on their
side.
a. Stack drums/barrels/kegs symmetrically.
b. Place planks, pallets, etc. between each tier of drums/barrels/kegs to make a firm, flat
stacking surface when stacking on end.
c. Chock the bottom tier on each side to prevent shifting in either direction when stacking two
or more tiers high.
(8) Materials must not be stored on scaffolds or runways in quantities exceeding those needed
for immediate operations.

c. Additional safe material storage practices include:

(1) Ensuring shelves and racks are sturdy and in good condition.
(2) Stacking all materials on a flat base.
(3) Placing heavier objects closer to the floor and lighter/smaller objects higher.
(4) Not stacking items so high that they could block sprinklers (18” of clearance) or come in
contact with overhead lights or pipes.
(5) Using material-handling equipment or a ladder to place or remove items above your head.
(6) Never standing on a shelf, rack, boxes, or a chair.

1. Manual Load Movement.

Employees shall receive back injury prevention training as part of the SI new hire safety
orientation, including:
a. The dangers of improper manual lifting and body warning signals when manually
lifting/carrying a load improperly.
b. Avoidance of unnecessary physical stress and strain. Use mechanical moving equipment
whenever possible.
c. Lifting aids available (e.g. stages, platforms, steps, trestles, shoulder pads, handles, wheels,
mechanical moving equipment, etc.).
d. Awareness of what an employee may comfortably handle without strain—an employee should
understand his/her body strengths and weaknesses.
e. Demonstrate and practice safe manual lifting techniques due to high incidence of back injuries.
f. Consider periodic safety talks at least annually to remind personnel about the importance of safe
lifting techniques.
g. The PPE required for manual movement of loads includes:
(1) Eye protection;
(2) Hand and forearm protection for loads with sharp/rough edges; and
(3) Steel-toed safety shoes/boots. Metatarsal guards shall be required to protect the instep area
from impact if working with heavy loads or moving equipment.

2. Forklift/powered industrial truck training:

a. Supervisors must develop a forklift/powered industrial truck training program specific to

the type of truck to be driven and the work conditions encountered.
b. Purchase of powered industrial equipment shall include as part of the purchase contract that
the dealer provide training to supervisors and operators.
c. Supervisors must evaluate the operator’s performance in the workplace and certify each
operator has received the training needed.
d. Certification shall include the operator’s name, the training date, the evaluation date, the
trainer’s name, and the evaluator’s name.
e. Supervisors must conduct a re-evaluation of each forklift/powered industrial truck
operator’s performance at least every three years.
f. A forklift/powered industrial truck operator must be re-evaluated and must attend
refresher training if:
(1) The operator is observed operating the vehicle in an unsafe manner;
(2) The operator is involved in an accident or a near-miss incident;
(3) The operator’s evaluation shows unsafe operation of the truck;
(4) The operator is assigned to drive a different type of truck; or
(5) The condition of the workplace changes in a manner that could affect safe operation of the
truck.
3. Scissor Lift Work Platform (including cherry pickers and other articulated arm work
platforms) Operator Qualification/Training :
a. Only trained and authorized personnel should use the work platform.
b. Operators must be familiar with the procedures listed for scissor lifts in this chapter before
operating the equipment.
c. Authorized personnel performing training must provide means of evidence that training has
been done. The training document will contain:
(1) Name of entity providing the training;
(2) Name of trainer;
(3) Specific statement that the training covered self-propelled work platforms;
(4) Date of training; and
(5) Name of person receiving training.

d. Workplace Inspection. Before and during use, the user shall:

(1) Check the area for possible hazards such as, but not limited to:
(a) Drop-off or holes;
(b) Slopes;
(c) Bumps;
(d) Debris;
(e) Overhead obstructions;
(f) Wind and weather conditions; and
(g) Presence of unauthorized persons.
(2) Inspect all safety devices and PPE that will be used including:
(a) Body belts (for positioning only)
(b) Lanyards
(c) Emergency stop button
(d) Hand rails
(e) Entry gate
(f) Safety bar
(g) Outriggers

F. REQUIRED INSPECTIONS:
1. Employees shall inspect material handling equipment (MHE) before each use.
2. OSHA requires that all MHE be regularly inspected according to standards set by the individual
manufacturer and ANSI:

a. Following assembly and before being put in service.

b. Following major alteration of an existing installation.
c. Frequent - weekly to monthly (heavy MHE use), and daily to weekly (severe MHE use).
d. Periodic - at no more than three month intervals.
e. Hoist inspection certification records that include the date the inspection and test of all functions
and safety devices was performed; the signature of the person who performed the inspection and
test; equipment a serial number or other identifier for the hoist that was inspected and tested.
f. The most recent certification record shall be maintained on file.
g. Forklifts/powered industrial trucks shall be inspected prior to use.
G. RECORDS AND REPORTS
1. Keep Forklift Inspection Checklists for at least the last 5 uses. For example, if you use the
forklifts on a daily basis, then keep 5 Days worth of checklists. If you use the forklifts less often,
then keep for the dates of the last 5 uses.
2. Keep training records that include the employee’s name, training topic(s), trainer’s name, and
date of training.
3. Inspection records. Unless otherwise noted in previous sections, daily inspection records
need not be kept. Periodic inspections and load testing records shall be maintained for at least one
year. Format could include tags, painting directly on device or forms with appropriate data.

UNDERWATER PORTION:

 Well sinking :
HISTORY
• They had their origin in India. • It have been used for 100 of years as a deep foundation for
important buildings and structures. • Well foundations are used since Mughal period(TAJ MAHAL
is the best example). • They were used for the first time for irrigation structures at Ganga canal at
Roorkee.(middle of 19th century) • In towers of Howrah bridge, wells of size 24.8x53.5m were
used and sinking depth was 31.4m below gnd level.(largest in India) • Many other such examples
are Rajendra Pul,Mahanadi bridge etc. • In spite of excellent development of technology on well
foundations there are still some areas where engineers face difficulty while sinking of wells.
o Benefits of Well Foundation:
• Provides massive and solid foundation.
• Possible to sink well through boulders,logs of wood found at depth.
• Large section modulous with minimum cross sectional area is advantageous.
• The strata through which well passes is known exactly.
• Well raising and steining is done in steps so foundation level can be varied.
• Economical to provide it for unstable soil mass.
Construction Procedure:-
• Layout
• Fabrication of cutting edge.
• Well curb.
• Construction of steining.
• Island construction
• Well Sinking.
• Plugging.
• Sand filling.
• Casting of well cap.
o SINKING OPERATIONS.
a) Erect Cutting Edge.
b) Erect inside shuttering of curb.
c) Fix reinforcement for the curb.
d) Erect outside shuttering of curb.
e) Concrete the curb and ground it.
f) Remove the shuttering.
g) Fix reinforcement in steining.
h) Erect reinforcement for one lift.
SINKING OPERATIONS. • Concrete the steining. • Dredge inside the well. • Sink the well in
stages. • Sinking is done by uniform excavation of material. • Use of water jetting and explosives
may be done. • Normally dewatering should not be done. • Tilts must be rectified wherever
necessary.
Precautions:
• When two wells sunk near each other, they should be sunk alternately.
• Least possible area must be disturbed in vicinity.
• In sinking of dumb bell shaped well, excavation must be done simultaneously.
• Dredged material must not be accumulated near well.
• In sinking of two wells through sand, timber logs are provided between steining.
• Care must be taken when cutting edge approaches junction of strata.
DIFFICULTIES IN SINKING:
Sinking Well Through Clay Strata • It is one of the tough situations to face as well becomes
stationary. • Tilting occurs due to horizontal force by water. • The well becomes vulnerable to tilt
if a step is provided on outside face of the well steining to reduce • It may lead to a very expensive
and time-consuming affair for attempting to make well straight and vertical.
Measures Adopted:
• Remove soil in contact with the outside surface of the well by grabbing to a certain depth.
• Continue grabbing much below the cutting edge level of the well.
• Dewatering well results into increasing effective weight.
• Flushing with jet of water on the outside face of well.
• By Kentledge loading on the well.
CASE STUDY:
• Outside projection of well curb was 75 mm.
• Pipes were not kept in well steining to inject water on the outside surface of well.
• Stiff Clay was observed below the curb.
• It was overcome by cutting stiff clay layer by a jet of water through a pipe using a high pressure
pump.
• This pipe was supported on a circular frame.
• Actually 4 vertical pipes were fixed at 4 quadrants.
• Thus this method was found to be quite effective, safe and efficient method.

13. Elevation of Well and Pipelines.

14. Sinking In Bouldery Strata:
• Bouldery strata is treated in 3 ways-
 If they are lying loose,than with grabbing.
 If cemented but not so firmly, than underwater blasting.
 If cemented very firmly, than Pneumatic sinking.

• Soil investigation is required to decide method to be adopted.

• Three dimensional final element analysis is to be done for eccentric blasting force.
• The steining of well must be designed in vertical direction as well in the transverse direction
providing appropriate design reinforcement.
• The wells of Varanasi Bridge of 13 m dia,2.5 m thick steining and up to 67 m deep is the best
example of it.
 Formation of Heaves.
• When a well passes through soft strata over a considerable depth, the upward resistance acting on
the outside surface of the well is less than the weight of the well.
• Thus the well sinks down and quite often a heap is formed inside the dredge hole.
• Formation of heave at the designed foundation level , creates problem of laying bottom plug.
• Bottom plug laid in the dredge hole, does not serve its purpose.
 Solution for Heave formation.
• Achieving the condition that weight of well will be resisted through outside frictional force only.
• No further concreting of steining well should be done and sinking is continued.
• It will result into constant weight of well, and the frictional force outside will increase very fast.
• When the heave develops, the equilibrium of the well takes place as per following equation:
W = F+ qa
F = frictional force in the vertical direction along the outside surface of the well.
q = bearing pressure of soil.
a = area of the well supported over the heave.
17. Showing additional sinking without any further concreting of steining
18. General Measures for Ease of Sinking.
Appropriate choice of cutting edge and adoption of proper detailing:
• The "Angle iron" cutting edge works well when the well passes through alluvial soil strata
without any hard obstruction.
• A "V type" cutting edge is more appropriate in meeting various obstructive situation provided
correct detailing is adopted.
• The inclined plate should be stopped about 25 mm above the bottom tip of vertical plate.
Adequate no. of Borelogs must be taken in the location of each well.
• Presence of very large boulder covering a part of the well at some depth in the bridge over
Brahmaputra at Jogighopa.
• Similar type of problems including sudden change of bed profile are encountered in various
rivers in India.
CONCLUSION.
• A list of difficult situations, which engineers normally encounter during sinking of well
foundations, is presented.
 • The problems like the formation of hump inside the dredge hole or wells cracking due to sand
blow, or in a stiff clay layer wells becoming stationary and not sinking down are quite common
situations.
• In several cases, how these problems were overcome and what were the solutions adopted are
explained.
• Thus, it was observed that, at most care should be taken while analyzing and designing well
foundation with the help of appropriate data and adoption of correct detailing.

• Caissons:
A caisson is a box type structure to be used as a part of foundation. Unlike cofferdam, it
is a permanent structure and forms an integral part of the bridge or building foundation.
 The caissons are of three types
(1) A box caisson which is closed at the bottom but open at top to the atmosphere
(2) An open caisson which is open at both the ends and
(3) A pneumatic caisson which has a working chamber with roof in which air pressure is
maintained to prevent the entry of water and soil into excavation.
The box caisson is possible where no much excavation is required under water. The box
is prepared of concrete or stone masonry on a dry dock, floated out to the location of sinking, sunk
at the place of foundation bed and filled with mass of concrete or sand. The open caisson is a
hollow cylinder or rectangular hollow shaft made of timber, masonry or RCC. Its bottom edge is
V-shaped (pointed) and known as cutting edge. On reaching foundation level, mass concrete is
placed to plug the cell after which any water is pumped out and further concrete is placed to form
the final seal. Such open caisson is possible on soft soil and not suitable on hard or irregular rock
surface.
Where piles driving or open caisson is not possible, the pneumatic caisson is created by
compressed air to drive water out of the working space for men and voids in material which is
being excavated and thereby making the inside dry for easy working. More than 1 m3 or 285 litres
of fresh air per minute per person should be supplied in the chamber at a pressure below 2.5 bar.
During compression initial pressure is kept about 0.25 bar until it is ascertained that no person is
feeling discomfort, and thereafter it may be raised at a rate not exceeding about 0.5 bar/min.
Standby power should be available to the air compressors. To improve the working condition and
to reduce the incidence of caisson sickness, the air should be warmed in cold weather and cooled
in hot weather. In tropical climate, it should be dehumidified to keep the wet bulb temperature
below 25 0C.
In air and water tight chamber, openings for men and materials are provided at top in
the vertical shafts with air-locks. The shafts (and openings) extend from the roof of the caisson to a
level well above the water level outside. The man-lock should be of sufficient size and equipped
with pressure gauges, communication system and man-lock attendant. Every caisson, shaft,
working chamber, medical lock and man lock should have a minimum internal height of 1.8 mt.
The door between the working chamber and the man lock leading to a lower pressure should be
kept open when any person is working inside and the lock is not in use. Air supplied to the caisson
from a compressor should be clean and non-polluted.
All air lines should be in duplicate and with non-return valves to prevent the air escape
from the chamber if pressure in the lines fails. There should be a standby compressor for
emergencies and two separate power supplies for each compressor. There should be two
independent sources of electrical supply for lighting. Exhaust valves should be provided on
chamber for clearing the air when necessary. Reliable means of communication such as bells,
whistles, telephones etc. should be maintained at all times between the working chamber and
surface installations. An adjustable safety valve should be fitted on the outside of the bulkhead to a
separate pipe leading from the working chamber through the bulkhead to the outside air.
 Every caisson and shaft containing flammable material should have water lines, hose
connections and fire extinguishers. In all tunnels 5 mt or over in diameter or height, a well-guarded
overhead gangway should be provided from the working surface to the nearest airlock with an
overhead clearance of at least 1.8 mt. Effects of air pressure on human body may be light (known
as bends) or severe resulting in paralysis or death. Pain in ears, stomach and joints (like
rheumatism), profuse cold perspiration, dizziness, giddiness, double vision, incoherence of speech,
heat and feeling of resistance to move owing to density and pressure of air are reported. Rapid
lowering of air pressure (decompression) causes severe effect as the nitrogen comes out from the
body fluid (mostly blood). Therefore it must be ensured that the de pressuring must be carried out
slowly.
The workers should be physically fit (not fat, and with normal lungs, kidneys and good
heart rate), above the age of 20 and medically re-examined at least every 2 months or earlier. A
first-aid box should be kept in the working chamber. To counteract the effect of cold, the air-lock
should be warmed, the men coming out (emerging) should be given hot drink and they should
dress warmly. The best cure for ‘caisson disease’ is recompression with slow decompression. This
is achieved by putting the patient in a medical air-lock for this purpose. The trained lock keepers
and medical lock attendants should be employed in the works. The medical lock should have two
compartments so that it can be entered under pressure.

 Cofferdam:
A cofferdam also called a coffer is an enclosure built within, or in pairs across, a body of water
and constructed to allow the enclosed area to be pumped out.[2] This pumping creates a dry work
environment for the major work to proceed. Enclosed coffers are commonly used for construction
and repair of oil platforms, bridge piers and other support structures built within or over water.
These cofferdams are usually welded steel structures, with components consisting of sheet
piles, wales, and cross braces. Such structures are typically dismantled after the ultimate work is
completed.
 INTRODUCTION :
• Cofferdams are temporary enclosures to keep out water and soil so as to permit dewatering and
construction of the permanent facility (structure) in the dry.
• A cofferdam involves the interaction of the structure, soil, and water. The loads imposed include
the hydrostatic forces of the water, as well as the dynamic forces due to currents and waves.
• In construction of cofferdams maintaining close tolerances is difficult since cofferdams are
usually constructed offshore and sometimes under severe weather conditions. Under these
circumstances, significant deformations of cofferdam elements may happen during the course of
construction, and therefore it may be necessary to deviate from the design dimensions in order to
complete the project according to plan.
• The loads imposed on the cofferdam structure by construction equipment and operations must be
considered, both during installation of the cofferdam and during construction of the structure itself.
• Removal of the cofferdam must be planned and executed with the same degree of care as its
installation, on a stage-by-stage basis. The effect of the removal on the permanent structure must
also be considered. For this reason, sheet piles extending below the permanent structure are often
cut off and left in place, since their removal may damage the foundation soils adjacent to the
structure.
• In cofferdam construction, safety is a paramount concern, since workers will be exposed to the
hazard of flooding and collapse.
• Safety requires that every cofferdam and every part thereof shall be of suitable design and
construction, of suitable and sound material and of sufficient strength and capacity for the purpose
for which it is used, proper construction, verification that the structure is being constructed as
planned, monitoring the behavior of the cofferdam and surrounding area, provision of adequate
access, light and ventilation, and attention to safe practices on the part of all workers and
supervisors, and shall be properly maintained.
o Types of cofferdam:
1. Braced: It is formed from a single wall of sheet piling which is driven into the ground to form a
“box” around the excavation site. The box is then braced on the inside and the interior is
dewatered. It is primarily used for bridge piers in shallow water (30 - 35 ft depth)

2. Earth-Type: It is the simplest type of cofferdam. It consists of an earth bank with a clay
core or vertical sheet piling enclosing the excavation. It is used for low-level waters with
low velocity and easily scoured by water rising over the top.

3. Timber Crib: Constructed on land and floated into place. Lower portion of each cell is
matched with contour of river bed. It uses rock ballast and soil to decrease seepage and
sink into place, also known as “Gravity Dam”. It usually consists of 12’x12’ cells and is
used in rapid currents or on rocky river beds. It must be properly designed to resist lateral
forces such as tipping / overturning and sliding.

4. Double-Walled Sheet Pile: They are double wall cofferdams comprising two parallel
rows of sheet piles driven into the ground and connected together by a system of tie rods
at one or more levels. The space between the walls is generally filled with granular
material such as sand, gravel or broken rock.

5. Cellular: Cellular cofferdams are used only in those circumstances where the excavation
size precludes the use of cross-excavation bracing. In this case, the cofferdam must be
stable by virtue of its own resistance to lateral forces.

 Advantages of Cofferdam :
Performing work over water has always been more difficult and costly than performing the same
work on land. And when the work is performed below water, the difficulties and cost difference
can increase geometrically with the depth at which the work is performed. The key to performing
marine construction work efficiently is to minimize work over water, and perform as much of the
work as possible on land.

Below some of the advantages of cofferdams are listed:

 Allow excavation and construction of structures in otherwise poor environment
 Provides safe environment to work
 Contractors typically have design responsibility
 Steel sheet piles are easily installed and removed
 Materials can typically be reused on other projects
Installation
The success of any piling scheme requires satisfactory completion of the following stages.
1. Competent site investigation, sampling and relevant testing to build up an informed picture of
the task.
2. Adequate design of all the stages of the construction.
3. Setting out and installation of the piles.
As with all site operations the relevant legislation and guidance on matters pertaining to safety
must be strictly adhered to. Items needed for installation are pile driving hammer (vibratory or
impact), crane of sufficient size, steel sheet piles are typically used, H-piles and/or wide flange
beams for wales and stringers. In many cases barges may be required for efficient installation of
cofferdams.

• Hazards at Construction:

1. Fall of Persons – Fall from height, fall through opening, collapse of scaffold, structure failure,
tripping. Fall from height may be due to nonuse or failure of safety belt, lack of proper access,
non-use of proper ladder etc. Fall through opening may be due to unguarded opening or poor
guarding. Collapse of scaffold may be due to its improper design, no toe board, no means of
access. Minimum dimensions are : Board width 6”, thickness 1” and guard rail height 30 to 36”.
Tripping may be due to loose object/cables etc.
2. Fire: Due to welding, gas cutting, smoking, gas cylinders, scattered wooden material/ rubbish,
paints/thinners, temporary shed etc.
3. Electrocution: Electric shock, burns, damaged cable, no earthing, no ELCB, no use of 3 pin
plug/socket, work by nonqualified electrician etc.
4. Material Handling: No training, excessive weight lifting, improper or failure of lifting tackles,
slings etc.
5. Transport Accidents: Untrained driver, not obeying traffic rules, reversing without signaling,
over-speed, speed-breakers, poor brakes, poor lighting etc.
6. PPE: Not using helmet, safety shoes, hand gloves, safety belt, respirators etc.
7. Others: Noise, vibration, dust, gas, fumes, cave in, night work, overtime, intoxication etc. This
suggests the direction of accident prevention work in construction activity.

• UNDERWATER WORKS
Work under or over water is required for deep foundation, well sinking, river
dredging, underwater pipelines, tunneling, concreting, cofferdam, floating structure and special
operations pertaining to irrigation and marine purposes.
 General Provisions: Main safety measures necessary are
(1) to prevent workers from falling into water
(2) to rescue them in the event of drowning and
(3) safe and sufficient transport and life Saving equipment.
Life buoys, life jackets, manned boats, fencing, safety nets, safety harness and protection
from reptiles and other animals are also necessary. Bridges, footbridges, pontoons, walkways,
gangways and workplaces should possess sufficient buoyancy, strength and stability, be wide
enough to allow safe movement of workers, free from nails, bolts, knots and tripping hazards,
boarded over, lighted sufficiently, be provided with life Saving equipment, toe-boards, guard-rails,
hand ropes etc., be kept clear of tackle, tools and other obstructions, be made non-slippery by
spraying sand, ashes etc., be anchored to prevent run away, be provided with ladders with safety
hoops. Floating structures should have shelters, lifelines, gaffs, ring buoys. Rafts (logs), if used,
should be strong enough to carry loads, securely moored and have safe means of access. Iron decks
should be studded with non-slip surface and deck openings should be fenced. Floating pipelines
should have safe walkway. No person should enter a hydraulic dredge gear room without
informing the lever man and without being accompanied by a second person.
Hoist lines, drag lines, buckets, cutter heads and bridles should be inspected daily. Workers should
be embarked and disembarked only at safe and suitable landing places and counted regularly.
 Boats:
Boat used to transport workers by water should comply with legal requirements if
any. It should be manned by an adequate and experienced crew and be equipped with lifesaving
appliances. The number of persons that can be transported safely should be marked as clearly
visible and no more person than that must be allowed. Tow-boats should have a device to quick
release tow-rope. Power driven boats should carry suitable fire extinguishers. Row-boats should
carry a spare set of oars. Rescue boats should be properly constructed and of sufficient length and
beam to afford stability. For work in tidal waters or fast flowing rivers a power driven craft should
be provided with a fixed self-starting device on the motor. When not patrolling, their engines
should be run several times a day to ensure full efficiency.

• Rescue and Emergency Procedures:

Buoyancy-aid like life-jackets should be provided to rescue crew. Operatives should

not work alone and they should be trained for emergency procedures. Rule 36, BOC Workers
Rules, 1998, requires emergency action plan to handle emergencies like drowning of workers,
sinking of vessels, fire and explosion, collapse of lifting or transport equipment, building, shed,
structure etc., gas leakage, spillage of dangerous goods, land slide, floods, storms etc. It should be
approved by the Director General.
• Well-Sinking:
Shaft-sinking operation for digging well or tunnel pose various hazards like wet and
slippery footing, cramped working space, insufficient lighting, unknown weakness in rock or soil,
handling of explosives and detonators, hoisting and haulage of muck and accidents due to
machinery and mistakes in working methods. Dewatering pumps, shoring machine guarding and
control devices, use of personal protective equipment, training and supervision are useful remedial
measures.
 USE OF SAFETY EQUIPMENT
In addition to all engineering controls and work permits, personal protective equipment should
not be forgotten while working at height or depth. Safety belts of various types are available. Pole
safety belt, general purpose safety belt with or without remote anchorage and harness (man
hoisting by another man) type safety belt are in common use.
specifications stated. They are available in leather and webbing of natural and Man Made fibres,
of which, webbing is superior to leather. Webbing can withstand loads 3 to 4 times that of leather
of the same size. Web material may be cotton, nylon or dacron. While selecting a belt, its normal
and emergency use should be considered. Life Lines of manila rope of 19 mm diameter or nylon
rope of 13 mm diameter are suitable provided a shock absorbing device is available. Care of belts
is always necessary. Respiratory equipment should be se selected depending upon the working
environment.
 CHAPTER 4

o SAFETY IN HIGH-RISE CONSTRUCTION :

Temporary structures Most accidents in high-rise buildings (as with most structures) occur during
the construction phase. That is because, in general, temporary structures and processes used in
construction are more susceptible to failure than permanent structures themselves:

 “Temporary” nature psychologically leads to neglect.

 Materials, procedures, inspection etc. for temporary structures are all under less scrutiny and
control.

 Foundations for temporary structures are also less known and under less control. General public
rarely gets to see them or use them.

 Personnel involved are mostly uneducated laborers.

 Temporary structures may not be subject to rigorous codes (in countries like India). Personnel
involved are not the ultimate users and hence have no vested interest in their deficiencies.

 They have no direct benefit to users after construction.

 Cost is not a main line item to client, and must be absorbed, to be amortized over repeated uses.

 Must be dismantled and reused many times, their components get damaged at critical locations.

 Scaffolds are considered so simple they need no attention.

 Design lacks construction instructions or contractor does not follow them.

Table 1. The race for the tallest building

Country K.L. Taiwan Shanghai Dubai Jakarta NewYork Shanghai

Height 452 m 508 m 492 m >800m 558 m 541 m 1228 m
Completion 1998 2004 2007 2008 2009 2010 2020

Safety in design and construction – :

Necessity or luxury?
In many countries, concept of safety is still not part of the professionals’ imperative. There is also
the deeply ingrained feeling myth that safety concerns will lead to greater cost and reduced
productivity. Over the last few decades, it has been proved that safety evaluation and control save
money provided , professionals place worker injury and death at the top of their list. Otherwise, it
may become (and remain) a legal necessity and an industry statistic The truth however is that
investment in safety is like planting a tree close to the compound wall: The fruit will be slow in
coming, not immediate; and the branches will grow beyond the property, not just one-on-one.
Which should be quite acceptable for the industry and the nation.

Working safely around asphalt:

Workers can be exposed to fumes from asphalt during road paving, roofing, siding and concrete
work. According to the New Jersey Department of Health and Senior Services, exposure to the
fumes can have both short- and long-term health consequences.

In the short term, asphalt fumes can irritate the eyes, nose and throat, leading to coughing,
wheezing and shortness of breath, the department states. The fumes also can cause headaches,
dizziness, nausea and vomiting. Long-term exposure to asphalt fumes may result in bronchitis.

To reduce workers’ asphalt-fume exposure, the department recommends the following:

• Enclose operations and use local exhaust ventilation at the site of the chemical release, when
possible. If local exhaust ventilation or enclosure is not used, respirators should be worn.

• Use a NIOSH-approved supplied-air respirator with a full face piece operated in a pressure-
demand or other positive-pressure mode if asphalt fumes are greater than the NIOSH-
recommended airborne exposure limit of 5 mg/m3 for longer than 15 minutes.

• Post warning information in work zones about the hazards of exposure as part of an ongoing
education effort.

• Communicate this information to all potentially exposed workers.

• Consider all potential exposures. Employers may need to provide a variety of personal protective
equipment.

According to the department, contact with asphalt itself can irritate and cause severe skin burns,
and may cause dermatitis and lesions similar to acne. Long-term exposure can cause skin pigment
changes, which are made worse by sunlight exposure.

Employees should follow these practices when working with asphalt:

• If clothing has been contaminated, change into clean clothing quickly.

• Ensure eyewash stations are available.

• Emergency shower facilities should be provided so that if skin comes into contact with asphalt,
employees can immediately shower off the chemical.

• Do not eat or drink where asphalt is being handled, as the chemical can be swallowed.

 Electrical supply:

Electricity is almost universally used on construction sites as a power source for a range of
machinery and portable tools, as well as lighting and heating is in wide use on construction sites.
Portable electrical appliances shall be used in damp situations only with one of the following
safeguards.

• A supply isolated from earth with a voltage between conductors not exceeding 230 volts;

• A monitored earth circuit where the supply to the appliance is automatically disconnected in the
event of the earth to the appliance being broken or disconnected,
• The appliance is double insulated;

• A source connected to earth in such a way that the voltage to earth will not exceed 55 volts AC;
or

• A residual current device.

Temporary supply switchboards All supply switchboards used on building and construction sites
should be of substantial construction and should:

• Where installed in outdoor locations, be so constructed that safe operation is not impaired by the
weather;

• Incorporate a stand for the support of cables and flexible extension cords;

• Be provided with a door and locking facility acceptable to the electrical supply authority.

Doors should be designed and attached in a manner that will not damage any flexible cord
connected to the board and should protect the switches from mechanical damage. The door should
be provided with a sign stating “KEEP CLOSED — LEADS THROUGH BOTTOM”.

• Have an insulated slot in the bottom for the passage of leads.

• Be attached to a permanent wall or suitable structure which has been designed for the purpose.

• Where pole or post mounted, be fixed by means of coach screws or bolts.

No part of a crane, digger, excavator, drill rig, or other mechanical plant, structure or scaffold may
be brought closer than 4 m to an overhead line without the written consent of the power line
owner.

 Inspection of equipment:

All electrical tools and equipment should be inspected prior to their first use and thereafter at least
at 3-monthly intervals. All tools and equipment should have an identification tag stating the date of
last inspection and when the next is due.

 Safety in prevention and protection at work site including the collapsing of the
structure :

 Working at heights over 3 metres: The first and essential step in ensuring
that work is done safely is to ensure that it is practicable for the work to be
carried out safely.
  Planning: Those engaged in the architectural and engineering design of
buildings, structures, and roofs should consider the effects that their designs
may have on the safety of people who will undertake the work and work
practices necessary to carry out the work.

 Safe work practices may include one or more of the following:

• Guarding;

• Safety nets; or

• Fall arrest systems.

 Perimeter of working platforms or places of work:

Where a danger exists of any person or any materials or any other things falling from the platform
or place of work. Consideration should be given to how far a person or any materials or other
things might fall.

No account should be taken of any structure or thing temporarily placed below the working
platform or working place unless it constitutes a safe means of arresting the fall of the person or
materials.

Guardrails should be erected along the exposed edge of the working platform or working place in
accordance with the requirements of following.

Where the working platform or working place is situated above a public thoroughfare and a danger
exists of materials or other things falling from the platform or place on to persons using the
thoroughfare, then unless the area below the platform or working place is barricaded off to prevent
public access, screens or projecting platforms should be erected.

 Guardrails/ toe boards;

Where protection is required at the perimeter of the building or openings in roofs, floors or lift
shaft, and is provided by a guardrail system, the guardrail should:

• Be 900-1100 mm above the working place;

• Incorporate a mid-rail; and

• Include the installation of a toe board where there is a risk of tools or materials falling

from the roof/place of work.

 Safety nets :

Safety nets can provide a satisfactory means of protection against falling, while allowing workers
maximum flexibility of movement.

In considering the use of safety nets as a fall protection measure, employers may take into account
the usefulness of safety nets for the safety of persons in other occupations involved with the roof
structure.

Workers installing the nets should be protected from falling. Ideally a mobile work platform
(cherry picker, scissors lift) should be used, but where such mechanical access is not possible, the
workers should have the protection of scaffolding or a safety harness and line.

Nets should be hung as close as possible to the underside of the work area.

Nets should be installed with sufficient clearance to prevent contact with the surface below when a
person falls on them.

 Individual fall arrest systems:

Individual fall arrest systems include inertia reel systems, safety harnesses, lanyards and

static lines. People required to use this equipment must be trained in its use.

Waist type belts should not be used for roof work.

People using safety harnesses should not work alone. It is important that the rescue of a worker
who is suspended in a full body harness should occur within 20 minutes of the arrested fall.

Provision must be made for anchorage points for static lines, inertia reel lines, and/or safety nets as
appropriate.

 Inertia reel systems:

Inertia reel systems can be used to prevent falls where workers are required to carry out their work
near an unprotected edge.

When considering the use of inertia reels, users should bear in mind that they may be less effective
for certain applications, e.g. in arresting a person falling down the inclined surface of a pitched
roof.

Inertia reels are not designed for continuous support but become effective in the event of a fall.
They should not therefore be used as working supports by locking the system and allowing it to
support the user during normal work.

• Project management in construction safety:

Construction Phase For the project execution, the physical resources required are manpower of
different categories, construction materials, equipment and other site specific infrastructure
facilities in terms of water, power, roads, communication and other required facilities.
a) Manpower resources: Manpower resources under the categories of construction workers and
technicians shall be planned for their quantities, skills and time of requirement based on the project
details, WBS, time schedule and estimates. Resource histograms shall be prepared for different
categories of work force which can be done by using standard project management software with
in-built labour constants. Necessary resource levelling shall be carried out to sort out the peak
demands exceeding the resource availability and also to resolve idle labour situations by
rescheduling certain activities within the available floats without delaying project completion time.
Planning shall be done to take care of any situation of non-availability of local labour force
necessitating import from other localities as in case of projects in remote locations.

b) Construction Materials: Construction materials constitute a major proportion of project cost

and hence sound material management process shall be established as a subset of cost management
process. Material resource management essentially involves identification of various categories of
material requirements, market survey about their source of availability, cost and leads involved,
estimation of total quantities, determining the quantum and timing of requirements as per project
schedule, procurement process from suppliers and delivery at site. The site related material
management processes are storage and handling, usage in works, and site practices for
minimization of wastages and prevention of environmental degradation.

c) Construction Equipment: The modern construction practices adopt mechanized construction

through the extensive use of construction equipment for various project activities for improving the
quality and speed of construction. Some of the major construction equipment usage are the
equipment for earthwork operations; concrete production, transportation, placement and
compaction; false work and shuttering; pile foundations; well foundations; launching of girders for
bridges diaphragm wall constructions; road surfacing; material hoisting and handling; and smaller
portable equipment for individual construction activities. During the equipment resource planning
process, the equipment type and production capacities are decided based on the project
requirements including the site constraints, on site availability of the equipment and durations of
their deployment are worked out in relation to project schedule and quantum of work involved. For
example, the capacity of concrete batching plant is worked out based on the quantum of concrete
operations which are levelled considering the peak and low demand volumes. In the procurement
process of equipment, economic considerations of owning and operating costs or hiring on
rental/lease costs needs to be considered. On the whole, the equipment resources should be
properly planned and deployed for improved speed and quality construction at economic costs. As
part of the site management processes, due attention shall be given for the location of the
equipment and their onsite maintenance, planning and location of the site offices and laboratories,
location of the material storage and other safety and site protection measures.

Ladder Guidance:

1. On a construction project, where an employer intends to have work performed at heights, the
employer shall use a scaffold as required by section 125(1) of the Regulation. Where the hazard
assessment for the use of a ladder to perform the work in question determines that there are either
no hazards posed by the use of a ladder or that any identified hazards have been mitigated, an
employer may consider the use of a ladder to perform that work. Where a ladder is used, the
employer shall ensure that the ladder and its use comply with regulatory requirements and that all
reasonable precautions for the protection of the worker when using the ladder are taken.

2. Portable, manufactured ladders must be designed, constructed and maintained so as to not

endanger a worker and must be capable of withstanding all loads to which they may be subjected.
3. Ladders must by used in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions. It is recommended
that heavy-duty CSA-certified ladders be used at construction projects (Construction Grade 1 in
accordance with CSA Standard CAN3-Z11 Portable Ladders).

4. Workers must be adequately trained on the selection, setup, use, and maintenance of a ladder.

5. An employer’s site- specific health and safety program must address the hazards and risks
associated with the use of ladders to ensure that a worker’s health and safety are protected.

6.The work to be performed from a ladder must also not adversely affect the stability of the ladder
(e.g., using equipment such as hammer drills, pulling cable through conduit, and overreaching to
where the worker’s “belt buckle” is beyond the side rails of the ladder would not be allowed).

7. A worker must not carry any materials, tools or equipment in his/her hands while climbing the
ladder. Nor should the worker support heavy or bulky objects (i.e., large air handling ducts, heavy
wall plumbing pipe, etc.) while standing on a ladder.

8. When a ladder is used as a means of access, the ladder must be erected in accordance with the
manufacturer’s instructions, and a worker must maintain three-limbed contact so that both hands
are used when climbing up or down.

9. When ladders are used as a means of work positioning, the Ministry of Labour expects that a
worker will be protected from falling, while in the work position and exposed to fall hazards
described under section 26 of Ontario regulation 213/91. The worker’s fall protection must be
secured to an adequate anchor point independent of the ladder.

10. Any equipment including ladders which are damaged must be immediately taken out of service
and repaired in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions or be replaced.

11. Ladders that are used as access between levels of a structure must be secured at the top and
bottom to prevent movement.

12. Where possible, it is recommended that ladder stabilizers be used with portable, manufactured
ladders.

13. A ladder is not designed or intended to be used as a “work platform”. Work platforms must
meet the requirements of sections 134 and 135 of the Regulation respecting loading, dimensions,
configuration, etc. It should be noted by employers considering ladder use that the narrower width
of ladders does provide additional ergonomic stresses to workers using ladders, and results in less
stability necessitating strict work practices to avoid overreaching while on a ladder.

14. The use of ladders with built-in work platforms that are designed and manufactured in
accordance with CSA Standard CAN3-Z11 Portable Ladders are a preferable choice over standard
extension ladders.

15. Inspectors will review situations where a ladder is being used for work based on a ladder risk
assessment for the tasks being performed and may issue orders or requirements, as appropriate,
where he or she determines that the use of the ladder contravenes the OHSA and the regulation.

• Workers working on ladders

• are trained in ladder safety

• can perform tasks that do not affect the ladder stability (e.g., no forceful exertions or sudden
forces, not using equipment such as hammer drills, not overreaching while pulling something such
as cable through conduit)

• can climb the ladder using both hands

• can climb the ladder while facing it

• can stand on the ladder and receive or place materials/tools without reaching sideways beyond
the side rails of the ladder, or below knee level, or lean backwards

• can achieve three-point contact when standing and working on the ladder (e.g., not holding large,
awkward items that require both hands to hold)

• can always keep both feet on the ladder when standing on it

• can stand below a height of three metres (otherwise fall protection is needed)

• Using Ladders:

The primary use of ladders in construction should normally be for access and egress to work areas
above or below ground level.

Work activities carried out with ladders can be divided into three types.

1. Climbing/descending a ladder

2. Receiving/placing/removing tools/materials while on a ladder

3. Working from a ladder

Safety in uses of

Each of these activities and their associated tasks have similar inherent hazards that could affect
the health and safety of the worker depending on the type of ladder being used but there are some
hazards that are unique by type of ladder. The risk assessment done by the employer must consider
the type of ladder that is to be used and the work activities and associated tasks.

1. Climbing Ladders are designed to provide access to work areas at different heights and
allow workers to travel more easily from the ground to other levels of a structure or building,
either above or below ground.

Inspectors may consider the following when observing workers using ladders for climbing:

• Is the worker using both hands while climbing/descending?

• Is the worker maintaining three-point contact?

• Is the worker facing the ladder?

• Has the worker received information, instruction, and supervision on safe climbing and material
handling with respect to ladders?
2. Receiving/Placing/Removing Materials A factor that an inspector may consider when observing
workers handling materials while on ladders is whether the worker receives items to one hand only
as long as precautions and safeguards are in place.

 Precautions and safeguards may include:

• Worker has received information, instruction, and supervision on safe material handling

• One hand must hold the rail (three-point contact must be maintained)

• Worker keeps both feet on the ladder at all times.

• Worker’s centre line of body (belt buckle) stays within the side rails of the ladder

• Worker does not reach down below knee level

• Handling or placing of the object does not interfere with the worker’s balance (e.g., tool/
materials don’t come in contact with the ladder, worker doesn’t have to lean backwards or
sideways beyond the side rails of the ladder for tool/materials to clear the ladder).

3. Performing Work The types of factors which Inspectors may consider when observing workers
performing work while on ladders are

• Is the worker able to achieve three-point contact, if necessary?

• Is the worker’s belt buckle within the side rails of ladder? Precautions and safeguards may
include

• Demands of the task and characteristics of objects enable a worker to grasp side rail for balance •
Worker’s centre line of their body (belt buckle) stays within the side rails of the ladder

• Force is generated consistently and with ease

• Worker keeps both feet on the ladder

• Worker has received information, instruction, and supervision in order to carry out task safely.

• Fragile surfaces

 What you need to do?

The law says that contractors and employers must manage the danger by avoiding work on or near
fragile surfaces and controlling any remaining risk by use of stagings, guard rails, and fall arrest
systems. Those at risk must be told what the necessary safety precautions are and people carrying
out the work have to be trained and instructed in the precautions required. On business premises
contractors should work closely with the client and agree arrangements for managing the work.

Falls through fragile surfaces, particularly fibre-cement roofs and rooflights, account

for 22% of all fall from height fatal injuries in the construction industry. Workers undertaking roof
work and building maintenance can die or be permanently disabled when they fall through fragile
surfaces. Those carrying out small, short-term maintenance and cleaning jobs are over-represented
in the injury statistics.

Everyone involved in this type of work, including clients, designers and contractors,
should treat falls through fragile surfaces as a priority hazard.

Fragile surfaces

Fragile surfaces and materials will not safely support the weight of a person and any materials they
may be carrying. All roofs, once fixed, should be treated as fragile until a competent person has
confirmed that they are non-fragile. In particular, the following are likely to be fragile:

Fibre-cement sheets – non-reinforced sheets irrespective of profile type;

Rooflights – particularly those in the roof plane that can be difficult to see in certain light
conditions or when hidden by paint;

Liner panels – on built-up sheeted roofs;

Metal sheets – where corroded;

Glass – including wired glass;

Chipboard – or similar material where rotted; and

Others – including wood wool slabs, slates and tiles.

• Precautions:

Effective precautions are required for all work on or near fragile surfaces, no matter how short the
duration, whether the work concerns construction, maintenance, repair, cleaning or demolition.
Health and safety in roof work HSG33 [paras 170-202] is FREE to download and provides full
details of the dangers presented by fragile surfaces and the precautions available. This guidance
should be consulted by all involved in such work

The hierarchy of steps to be taken to deal with the danger is:

Avoidance: Plan and organise work to keep people away from fragile surfaces so far as possible,
eg by working from below the surface on a mobile elevating work platform or other suitable
platform.

Control: Work on or near fragile surfaces requires a combination of stagings, guard rails, fall
restraint, fall arrest and safety nets slung beneath and close to the roof.
Communication: Warning notices must be fixed on the approach to any fragile surface. Those
carrying out the work must be trained, competent and instructed in use of the precautions required.

co-operation: On business premises, contractors should work closely with the client and agree
arrangements for managing the work.

 Safety in uses and handling of explosive :

Introduction:

What is DSEAR?
The Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 2002 , known by the
acronym DSEAR, aim to protect people from the risks from fires, explosions and other
similar events that may occur as a result of the presence or use of dangerous substances in
the workplace. DSEAR is principally concerned, therefore, with the safe use of substances
that can create thermal radiation effects (burns) and over-pressure effects (blast injuries).
DSEAR has removed a large amount of old health and safety legislation on flammable
substances, for example the Highly Flammable Liquids and Liquefied Petroleum Gases
Regulations 1972.
Examples of Dangerous substances include
o Most common organic solvents
o Benzoyl peroxide
o Ammonia gas
o Oxygen gas
o Petrol
o Varnishes
o LPG
o Methyl ethyl ketone
o Styrene monomer
o Acrylamide monomer

Examples of activities to which DSEAR applies (the list is not exhaustive, but offered as
examples)

• Storage of petrol and LPG as a fuel for cars, boats, horticultural machinery etc.;
• Use of flammable gases, such as acetylene, for welding;
• Handling and storage of waste dusts in woodworking shops;
• Handling and storage of flammable wastes including fuel oils;
• Hot work on tanks or drums that have contained flammable material;
• Work activities that could release naturally occurring methane
• Use of flammable solvents in laboratories
• Storage of flammable goods, such as paints, solvents, reagents;
• Storage, use and handling of flammable gases, including LPG;
• Transport of flammable liquids in containers around the workplace;
• Chemical or gas manufacture resulting from research or teaching.
Some definitions from the Regulations are given in Appendix 1. In summary, a dangerous
substance is any natural or artificial substance which is explosive, extremely flammable,
highly flammable or flammable, including liquids, vapours, gases, dust; and equipment that
might leak or generate a dangerous substance. Such substances that are bought in
commercially will be recognized by the standard pictograms on the container, e.g.
 Explosive Flammable Oxidising

Relationship with other health and safety legislation

The duties in DSEAR apply alongside the Health and Safety at Work Act and other
Regulations made under the Act, and especially legislation on fire precautions. The
following paragraphs explain the interface between DSEAR and some key pieces of
legislation.
The Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 (‘the Management
Regulations’) support the general duties under the Act. The Management Regulations
require employers, amongst other things, to: assess the general risks to health and safety
arising from their work activity; identify the preventive and protective measures that need
to be taken to control the identified risks; introduce procedures for serious and imminent
danger; and to provide information and training for employees.
Where dangerous substances are present or used at the workplace the more specific
provisions of DSEAR will apply to work with those substances. For example, an
assessment of the risks from dangerous substances carried out under DSEAR will not need
to be repeated for The Management regulations, and in many cases will be incorporated
into the more general MHSW assessment. Similarly, the provisions in DSEAR concerning
arrangements for emergencies involving dangerous substances will generally be sufficient
to fulfill the corresponding general requirements for such procedures in the Management
regulations.
The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 Health risks from
substances are controlled primarily by the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health
Regulations (COSHH).
The definitions of “dangerous substance” and “substance hazardous to health” contained in
DSEAR and COSHH respectively, cover a wide range of substances. As a result, some
substances that may be dangerous to safety could also present a health risk.
For example, certain gases (e.g. hydrogen, methane, propane, etc) are extremely
flammable and come within the scope of DSEAR. However, the gases themselves can also
act as asphyxiants, reducing the quantity of oxygen present in a workplace to the extent that
life can be put at risk. As a result, they will also satisfy the definition of a substance
hazardous to health for the purposes of COSHH. Therefore, where substances that could
result in a risk to both safety and health are present, employers have duties to control the
risks from those substances under both sets of Regulations.

DSEAR are a complex set of regulations. Not only is the text complex, but the regulations
are supported by a set of five Approved Codes of Practice. This document is of necessity a
summary of the major points that are perceived by SEPS are being common to science-
based departments in the University. It is the responsibility of Principal Investigators and
Heads of Department to ensure that all work within their area of responsibility to which
DSEAR applies is compliant with the regulations.

Risk assessment is the key to compliance with DSEAR. A model assessment form is given
at the end of this document. If compliance with DSEAR is the overriding consideration, i.e.
flammability risks predominate, this form should be used. If toxic risks predominate, the
assessment form from the University’s guidance on the COSHH regulations should be
used, with a note to the effect that flammability/explosive risks have been addressed too.

 Risk Assessment and Control of Dangerous Substances:

 Introduction: The purpose of risk assessment is to enable the University to decide what to
do in order to eliminate or reduce so far as is reasonably practicable the safety risks from
dangerous substances and ensure that these safety controls are implemented.

The term ‘dangerous substance’ covers any substance or preparation that could cause harm
to people from fire or explosion as a result of its properties or the way it is used. This
includes, for example, petrol, LPG, paints, varnishes, solvents, and dusts that could cause
an explosive atmosphere with air.

The key requirements of the Regulations are to:

 Assess the risks from dangerous substances;

 Provide measures to eliminate those risks, or reduce them so far as is reasonably
practicable;
 Provide equipment and procedures to deal with accidents and emergencies; and
 Provide information and training to employees.

In addition, if there are places where hazardous explosive atmospheres may be present
then those places must be classified into zones and marked where necessary. Any new
electrical or mechanical equipment used in those zoned places must comply with the
requirements of the Equipment and Protective Systems Intended for Use in Potentially
Explosive Atmospheres Regulations 1996 (EPS).
Risk Assessment under DSEAR :

The risk assessment under DSEAR is intended to build upon that already required by the
Management of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999. It should be an identification
and examination of the dangerous substances that are (or could be) present, the associated
work activities and an analysis of what could go wrong, leading to a fire or explosion.
Please refer to Appendix 5.

Responsibility for ensuring risk assessments are completed lies with the Principal
Investigator of the work in question. For activities based on departmental work, such as the
ownership of a flammable liquid store, responsibility lies with the head of Department.

As preliminary step, if the assessor quickly comes to the conclusion that hazards from
dangerous substance are not present or unlikely to occur no further action is necessary. But
typically in a scientific department, the following steps will be required.

STEP 1 - Check whether the substance has been classified under the Chemicals (Hazard
Information and Packaging for Supply) Regulations2 (CHIP) as: explosive, oxidising,
extremely flammable, highly flammable or flammable. The CHIP Regulations require
dangerous substances to be classified by suppliers using criteria set out in the “Approved
Guide to the Classification and Labelling of Substances and Preparations Dangerous for
Supply”3 into certain categories of danger. If a substance or preparation is classified as
explosive, oxidising, extremely flammable, highly flammable or flammable then it is a
“dangerous substance”.

When dangerous substances are used at work, suppliers must provide safety data sheets (an
MSDS) that indicate whether the chemical has been so classified.

STEP 2 - Assess the physical and chemical properties of the substance or preparation and
the work processes involved to see whether that creates a potential for fire, explosion or
similar energetic (energy releasing) event4 . See Appendix 4 for the full definition as given
in the Regulations, and Appendix 5 for the risk assessment pro forma.

Remember, the Regulations apply because of the way a substance is used or present. For
example, diesel oil is not classified as “flammable” under CHIP. Nevertheless its physical
 properties are such that when heated to a high temperature it can present a fire and
explosive risk. The key point is that it is not only the substance’s fundamental physical or
chemical properties, but also the way the substance is used/processed or present that
determines whether DSEAR applies. Another example would be substances which on their
own or when mixed with others decompose or react to release energy such that there could
be a fire or explosion. Examples include certain chemical reactions with the potential for
thermal runaway and the handling and storage of unstable substances such as certain types
of peroxides.

A risk assessment uses information about the physical and chemical properties of the
substance and the characteristics of the work processes to determine whether there is a
hazard and risk. If the assessment of the work activity involving the substance or
preparation shows that there is a risk of a fire, explosion or similar energetic (energy
releasing) event then the substance or preparation is “dangerous”.

STEP 3 - Check to see if the work activity involves the creation or handling of potentially
combustible or explosive dusts

Control and Mitigation:

The most effective control to avoid the risk from dangerous substances is to remove them
from the workplace, and DSEAR requires that efforts are made to avoid using dangerous
substances where this is possible. Elimination is the best solution and must be considered
first. This involves replacing a dangerous substance with a substance or process that totally
eliminates the risk by avoiding exposure to the hazard. The nature of the work may mean
that this is simply not possible – often the properties that make a substance useful or
needed in a work activity or process also make it dangerous.

Substitution and Risk Reduction

In practice it is more likely that it will be possible to replace the dangerous substance with
one that is less hazardous (e.g. by replacing a low flashpoint solvent with a high flashpoint
one) or to design the process so that it is less dangerous – for example, by reducing
quantities of substances in the process. Care must be taken, however, whilst carrying out
these steps so as to ensure that no other new safety or health risks are created or increased.

DSEAR also requires mitigation measures to be in place in case an incident occurs. These
measures include:

 Preventing fires and explosion from spreading;

 Reducing the number of people exposed to a potential incident; and
 Providing equipment that can safely contain or suppress an explosion or vent it to a safe
place.

By: -

• Reducing the quantity of dangerous substances to a minimum

• Avoiding or minimizing releases
• Controlling releases at source
• Preventing the formation of an explosive atmosphere
• Collecting, containing and removing any releases to a safe place (e.g. by ventilation)
• Avoiding ignition sources
• Avoiding adverse conditions (e.g. exceeding the limits of temperature or control settings)
that could lead to danger
• Keeping incompatible substances apart
Measures that mitigate the risk must be applied and these should likewise be consistent
with the risk assessment and appropriate to the nature of the activity or operation, these
should include:

• Reducing the numbers of employees exposed

• Providing plant which is explosion resistant
• Providing explosion suppression or explosion relief equipment
• Taking measures to control or minimise the spread of fires or explosions
• Providing suitable Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)

DSEAR also specifies that the measures taken to achieve the elimination or the reduction
of risk should include:

• Design, construction and maintenance of the workplace (e.g. fire-resistance, explosion

relief)
• Design, assembly, construction, installation, provision, use and maintenance of suitable
work processes, including all relevant plant, equipment, control and protection systems
• The application of appropriate systems of work including: written instructions, permits to
work and other procedural systems of organising work

Emergency Procedures

DSEAR requires employers to put procedures in place to protect people from explosive
incidents that may occur, building on requirements established in the Management of
Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999. The nature and extent of these procedures
should be based on the findings of the Risk Assessment and where necessary, should
include:

• Warning and communication systems;

• Escape facilities;
• Procedures for people to follow in the event of an incident;
• Appropriate protective equipment; and
• Practice drills.

Employers should make their emergency procedures available to the emergency services.
Clearly the requirements in DSEAR need to be considered alongside those in Management
of Health and Safety at Work Regulations 1999 and in existing fire safety legislation.

Explosive Atmospheres and Classified Zones

Where an explosive atmosphere may occur then such areas must be classified into zones,
based on the likelihood and persistence of any such atmosphere. Once zoned, an area must
be protected from sources of ignition. The points of entry to zoned areas should be marked
with a specified “EX” sign where necessary for safety and employees working in zoned
areas must be provided with appropriate anti-static clothing.

New electrical and mechanical equipment and protective systems used in a zoned area must
comply with the DTI’s EPS Regulations (although equipment already in use prior to July
 2003 can continue to be used so long as it is safe to do so, i.e. explosion protected). Before
areas zoned under DSEAR are brought into operation the effectiveness of the overall
explosion protection measures to each areas must be formally verified.

Safe handling of flammable gases

Gases contained in cylinders are used for many different purposes such as in research work,
for soldering, welding and flame cutting, and for extinguishing fires. They are safe when
adequate risk control is in place but users and others sometimes suffer accidents if careful
risk assessment has not been carried out. The main causes of accidents with gas cylinders
are:

• Inadequate training and supervision of users;

• Poor installation; • Poor examination and maintenance;
• Faulty equipment and/or design (e.g. badly fitted valves and regulators);
• Poor handling;
• Poor storage;
• Inadequately ventilated working conditions.

Users must ensure: -

 Staff who handle cylinders are properly trained

 Minimum numbers of cylinders are used and held in laboratories
 Cylinders are secured to walls or benches with chains or proprietary clamps
 Valves are not opened fully. Half a turn is sufficient to ensure optimum gas flow. (If fully
open it becomes difficult to close in an emergency.)
 Risk assessments are carried out to determine the potential for an explosive atmosphere
when using flammable gases.
 Adequate ventilation where flammable gases are used
 All obvious ignition sources are removed from handling areas
 Electrical items not in use are switched off and unplugged
 Storage areas for flammable gases are well ventilated.
 Cylinder valves are closed immediately when no longer needed
 Cylinders are transported in suitable cylinder trolleys by staff trained in manual handling
techniques
 Acetylene cylinders are moved with the valve upright, or allowed to stand for at least 1
hour after moving and before use
 Acetylene equipment never contains copper. Acetylene reacts with silver, mercury and
copper to form explosive acetylides
 Acetylene cylinders subject to excess pressure, impact or heat must be checked for
temperature rise using the back of the bare hand as acetylene becomes unstable and
potentially explosive. Never move or approach a cylinder subjected to excess heat.
 Staff are trained to fit regulators correctly
 Flashback arrestors are fitted to fuel regulators to give flashback protection
 Dry powder fire extinguishers are present in the workplace
 Skin is protected from liquid propane, which freezes skin on contact.
 Propane gas is only used with special resistant hoses (orange colour)
 Propane is never stored underground. Ensure good ventilation at low levels
 Propane cylinders are not exposed to excess heat
 Propane cylinders are always transported and used upright.
 Staff are aware hydrogen is highly flammable and ignites more easily than any other
common gas. At high pressure it can self-ignite It burns with an almost invisible flame.
 Everyone knows the emergency procedure in the event of a significant leak of flammable
gas. Extinguish all flames and heat sources, do not switch electrical appliances on or off,
get out and stay out. Alert Central Services on 4444

 Golden rules of gas cylinder safety

o Never tamper with, attempt to repair, or disguise damage to, a cylinder or cylinder
valve – report it Never transfer or “decant” gas from one cylinder to another
o Never subject cylinders to abnormally high or low temperatures, or mechanical
shocks that could damage the valve or safety device.
o Never use cylinders as rollers or supports,
o Never rely on the colour of the cylinder to identify the contents – the label (below
valve assembly) is the only sure means of identifying the gas inside the cylinder.
o Never apply PTFE tape, jointing compounds, lubrication or other sealing materials
to valves to try to achieve a gas tight seal - if gas tight seal cannot be achieved,
replace regulator or change cylinder.
o Oils or grease are never be allowed to contaminate oxygen regulators, cylinders,
pipelines, valves or associated fittings, nor should they be handled by oily or greasy
hands, gloves or rags

• Check “O” ring seals are in good condition, if not replace with approved part.
• An “empty” cylinder is never empty - it contains gas at atmospheric pressure!
• Before fitting regulator to cylinder - check valve for particles of dirt or water -
use a clean dry cloth to remove any large deposits.
• Fuel gases are given a smell to aid leak detection. They also need oxygen and an
ignition source for combustion to occur, but once started, are self-propagating.
Explosive mixtures vary according to the gas, e.g. Acetylene =2% - 82% and
Propane=2% -10%.
• Handle regulators with care. Rough treatment can damage springs, diaphragms,
valve seats and valves
• Regulators should only be used with the gas for which they were designed and
labelled.
• Using incorrect or damaged regulators on high-pressure gases is potentially
hazardous. • Leave the pressure adjustment knob/screw fully out when the regulator
is not in use
• Regulators must be service replaced every 5 years and inspected annually by a
competent person and the inspection recorded.
• Air or nitrogen regulators must not be used with oxygen. Serious accidents have
occurred when contaminated equipment has been used on oxygen systems.

 Safe handling of flammable liquids

Users must ensure: -

• Minimum quantities only to be used, handled and stored

• Risk assessments are carried out to identify and minimise the potential for an
explosive atmosphere when handling and using flammable liquids (required by
DSEAR) as well as their health effects (required by COSHH)
• Adequate ventilation is provided where flammables are dispensed, used or stored
• All obvious ignition sources are removed from storage and handling areas
• Electrical items must be safe for use in the zone indicated, or they must be
intrinsically safe for use in such areas.
• Nylon lab coats are not used due to potential static problems
• All flammable liquids are in suitable lidded containers and stored in clearly
marked bins or cupboards away from other processes and storage areas
• Storage areas with significant solvent vapour present are marked “EX” and all
electrical equipment within the storage area is “EX” rated
• Containers are closed, or lid put back on, immediately when not needed and
returned to the proper storage bin or cupboard
• Glass containers of flammables are carried so that they cannot be dropped or break
by striking against each other or other items on trolleys – use a suitable carrier
and/or plastic sleeves around individual bottles
 • Dispensing from large drums to small containers is done by trained staff
• In laboratories, that liquids are dispensed in a fume cupboard over spillage trays
and that you have a stock of inert absorbent material to mop up spills. Dispense
larger quantities in a dispensary or outside
• Solvent contaminated clothing is removed and placed in fume cupboard
immediately
• Rags and cloths used for mopping up spills are disposed of in metal containers
with Well Fitting lids, or placed in fume cupboard, and removed from the
workplace at the end of the day
• Dry powder fire extinguishers are present in the lab
• Everyone knows the emergency procedure in the event of a significant spillage of
flammable liquid – extinguish all flames and heat sources, do not switch electrical
appliances on or off, get out and stay out and alert Central Services on 4444

 Operation of a Flammable Solvent Store

Most University flammable solvent stores are solely used to store unopened bottles
of solvent as a buffer stock. These are issued as units when required. However, in a
few solvent stores, dispensing is carried out. Although solvent stores may have
mechanical ventilation, they are not provided with local extract ventilation to
control emissions from processes such as dispensing. Mechanical ventilation, if
installed, is there to prevent a build up of flammable vapour over a period from
minor leaks from containers. In order to comply with the DSEAR Approved Code
of Practice, alternative areas must be found for dispensing solvents safely, away
from stored stocks.
“Areas in and around storage facilities where explosive atmospheres could be
formed should be designated as hazardous zones according to the principles of
Hazardous Area Classification. The employer should implement measures to
prevent the ignition of hazardous substances and the flammable atmospheres in the
hazardous zones arising from their storage”
The Hazardous Area Classification is based on how often an explosive atmosphere
is likely to occur and how long it would be likely to persist. The safety standard
necessary for any electrical equipment used in the area will be determined from this
Classification. This indicates that the interior of flammable stores, flammable
storage cupboards or bins must normally be regarded as a Zone 2 area. Only
electrical equipment suitable for use in such a zone may be used. Other areas that
may need to be zoned in this way include oil tank housings, LPG storage facilities,
and areas used for the storage of other flammable gases. If you are responsible for
such areas, please consult SEPS for advice. flammable solvent stores can only be
used to store flammable solvents. No other materials can be allowed within the
store. Means should be available to deal with any spillage occurring in the store.
Adequate Fire Fighting equipment must be provided.

DO

 Restrict access to authorised staff

 Keep stock to a minimum
 Rotate stock (first in, first out)
 Dispose of stock which has been stored for too long
 Check condition of labels and bottles on a regular basis
 Use carriers or trolleys when issuing stock
 Have the electrical fittings checked for safety annually
 Keep the floor clear of solvent bottles and empty boxes
 Keep the area outside clear of any flammable materials
 Keep supplies of absorbent materials, such as dry sand, to control spills in
the store
 Keep adequate appropriate fire-fighting equipment in the store
  Prohibit smoking

DO NOT

o Dispense solvents in the store

o Put bottles of solvent on shelves above shoulder level
o Allow any hot work to be done
o Allow any power tools to be used
o Allow any smoking next to the store
o Allow vehicles with running motors next to the store

The store must be kept maintained. Faulty lighting or mechanical ventilation should be
reported and repaired. Water ingress or structural damage to the store should also be
reported and made good. Some solvents, when exposed to the air and then left in stock, will
form peroxides that can later explode in use. Common solvents that are prone to do this are
ethers, tetrahydrofuran and methyl ethyl ketone. Thus bottles that have been opened and
left for any length of time should be handled with caution and disposed of or treated to
make them safe.

Definitions from the DSEAR Regulations, Reg. 2 - Interpretation

"Dangerous substance" means –

(a) a substance or preparation which meets the criteria in the approved classification and
labelling guide for classification as a substance or preparation which is explosive,
oxidising, extremely flammable, highly flammable or flammable, whether or not that
substance or preparation is classified under the CHIP 6 Regulations;

(b) a substance or preparation which because of its physico-chemical or chemical

properties and the way it is used or is present at the workplace creates a risk, not being a
substance or preparation falling within subparagraph (a) above;
or (c) any dust, whether in the form of solid particles or fibrous materials or otherwise,
which can form an explosive mixture with air or an explosive atmosphere, not being a
substance or preparation falling within subparagraphs (a) or (b) above.

"Explosive atmosphere" means a mixture, under atmospheric conditions, of air and one or
more dangerous substances in the form of gases, vapours, mists or dusts in which, after
ignition has occurred, combustion spreads to the entire unburned mixture;

"Hazard" means the physico-chemical or chemical property of a dangerous substance

which has the potential to give rise to fire, explosion, or other events which can result in
harmful physical effects of a kind similar to those which can be caused by fire or explosion,
affecting the safety of a person.

"Risk" means the likelihood of a person's safety being affected by harmful physical effects
being caused to him from fire, explosion or other events arising from the hazardous
properties of a dangerous substance in connection with work and also the extent of that
harm.

 Risk Assessment under DSEAR

Risk assessment under DSEAR has to take a specific form: this is specified in the
Regulations themselves. The requirements are repeated here for reference.
Regulations 5. –
(1) Where a dangerous substance is or is liable to be present at the workplace, the employer
shall make a suitable and sufficient assessment of the risks to his employees that arise from
that substance.
 (2) The risk assessment shall include consideration of –
(a) The hazardous properties of the substance;
(b) Information on safety provided by the supplier, including information contained in any
relevant safety data sheet;
(c) The circumstances of the work including –
(i) The work processes and substances used and their possible interactions;
(ii) The amount of the substance involved;
(iii) Where the work will involve more than one dangerous substance, the risk presented
by such substances in combination; and
(iv) The arrangements for the safe handling, storage and transport of dangerous substances
and of waste containing dangerous substances;
(d) Activities, such as maintenance, where there is the potential for a high level of risk; (e)
The effect of measures which have been or will be taken pursuant to these Regulations;
(f) The likelihood that an explosive atmosphere will occur and its persistence;
(g) The likelihood that ignition sources, including electrostatic discharges, will be present
and become active and effective;
(h) The scale of the anticipated effects of a fire or an explosion;
(i) Any places which are or can be connected via openings to places in which explosive
atmospheres may occur; and
(j) Such additional safety information as the employer may need in order to complete the
risk assessment.

 Risk Assessments Under DSEAR

The purpose of risk assessment is essentially to take cognizance of the hazards inherent in a
work process, not the precautions already in place, and guide the decision-making process
as to whether more needs to be done to assure continued safety. DSEAR makes no
distinction as to the scale of the hazard, but in the University, many users of flammable
liquids may use quite small quantities – a few millilitres in a sample, say. Equally a large
flammable liquid store may contain hundreds of litres.

The formal risk assessment process is complicated by the fact that most users will already
be familiar with the risk assessment requirements of the COSHH Regulations. As will have
been noted, DSEAR expand on the scope of the risk assessment requirements with
chemicals.

It is not intended that users of chemicals necessarily complete both a COSHH and a
DSEAR risk assessment form. It will often be the case that the toxic hazard or the
flammability predominates. That being so, the relevant risk assessment form, COSHH or
DSEAR, should be completed, and a note made that other hazards have been considered. If
this is not a true reflection of the situation then both forms ought to be completed; it is for
the Principal Investigator to decide which form(s) are appropriate in the circumstances of
each case.

OPEN CAST MACHINERY:

Open-pit, open-cast or open cut mining is a surface mining technique of extracting rock or
minerals from the earth by their removal from an open pit or borrow.

This form of mining differs from extractive methods that require tunneling into the earth, such as
long wall mining. Open-pit mines are used when deposits of commercially useful minerals or rocks
are found near the surface; that is, where the overburden (surface material covering the valuable
deposit) is relatively thin or the material of interest is structurally unsuitable for tunnelling (as
would be the case for sand, cinder, and gravel). For minerals that occur deep below the surface—
where the overburden is thick or the mineral occurs as veins in hard rock—underground mining
methods are used to extract the valued material.

An open-pit Copper mine

An open-pit copper mine in Chuquicamata.
Open-pit mines that produce building materials and dimension stone are commonly referred to as
"quarries."

Open-pit mines are typically enlarged until either the mineral resource is exhausted, or an
increasing ratio of overburden to ore makes further mining uneconomic. When this occurs, the
exhausted mines are sometimes converted to landfills for disposal of solid wastes. However, some
form of water control is usually required to keep the mine pit from becoming a lake, if the mine is
situated in a climate of considerable precipitation or if any layers of the pit forming the mine
border productive aquifers.

 Extraction
Heavy machinery extracting lignite from Garzweiler surface mine in Germany during 2008.
Open-cast mines are dug on benches, which describe vertical levels of the hole. These benches are
usually on four to sixty meter intervals, depending on the size of the machinery that is being used.
Many quarries do not use benches, as they are usually shallow.
Most walls of the pit are generally mined on an angle less than vertical, to prevent and minimize
damage and danger from rock falls. This depends on how weathered the rocks are (eroded rocks),
and the type of rock, and also how many structural weaknesses occur within the rocks, such as
a faults, shears, joints or foliations.
The walls are stepped. The inclined section of the wall is known as the batter, and the flat part of
the step is known as the bench or berm. The steps in the walls help prevent rock falls continuing
down the entire face of the wall. In some instances additional ground support is required and rock
bolts, cable bolts and shotcrete are used. De-watering bores may be used to relieve water pressure
by drilling horizontally into the wall, which is often enough to cause failures in the wall by itself.
A haul road is usually situated at the side of the pit, forming a ramp up which trucks can drive,
carrying ore and waste rock.
Waste rock is hauled to a waste dump. Waste dumps can be piled at the surface of the active pit, or
in previously mined pits.
Leftover waste from proccessing the ore is called tailings, and is generally in the form of a slurrey.
This is pumped to a tailings dam or settling pond, where the water is reused or evaporated. Tailings
dams can be toxic due to the presence of un extracted sulfide minerals, some forms of toxic
minerals in the gangue, and often cyanide which is used to treat gold ore via the cyanide leach
process. If proper environmental protections are not in place, this toxicity can harm the
surrounding environment. [4]

 Rehabilitation:
After mining finishes, the mine area may undergo land rehabilitation. Waste dumps are contoured
to flatten them out, to further stabilize them. If the ore contains sulfides it is usually covered with a
layer of clay to prevent access of rain and oxygen from the air, which can oxidize the sulfides to
produce sulfuric acid, a phenomenon known as acid mine drainage. This is then generally covered
with soil, and vegetation is planted to help consolidate the material. Eventually this layer will
erode, but it is generally hoped that the rate of leaching or acid will be slowed by the cover such
that the environment can handle the load of acid and associated heavy metals. [6] There are no long
term studies on the success of these covers due to the relatively short time in which large scale
open pit mining has existed. It may take hundreds to thousands of years for some waste dumps to
become "acid neutral" and stop leaching to the environment. The dumps are usually fenced off to
prevent livestock denuding them of vegetation. The open pit is then surrounded with a fence, to
prevent access, and it generally eventually fills up with ground water. In arid areas it may not fill
due to deep groundwater levels.[7]Instead of returning the land to its former natural state, it may
also be reused, converting it into recreational parks or even residential/mixed communities.
  Quarrying:

Construction Processes ……Mining Processes

Quarrying is a form of mining similar to open-pit mining, involving the extraction of useful natural stone
from a man-made open pit called a quarry by cutting, digging, or blasting. Rock is either quarried as solid
blocks or slabs, or crushed and broken. Minerals produced from quarries include coal, clay, gypsum,
marble, gritstone, limestone, sand, and sandstone.[1] The industry is distinguished by dimension-stone and
crushed-stone quarrying. The dimension-stone process involves the quarrying of solid blocks or slabs of
stone used for decorative and ornamentation purposes. In the crushed-stone process, materials such as
granite, limestone, sandstone, and basaltic rock are crushed for use in concrete aggregate or road stone
for road construction.

Quarrying is an activity closely connected to the construction industry. Many quarries feature on-site
processing plants that include ready-mix concrete plants and coating plants to
make asphalt, bituminous road materials, cement- and lime-burning kilns, concrete block and pipe works,
brick works, pottery works, and plaster and plaster board factories.

Canada’s Quarrying Industry

The production of natural stone is an important industry in most Canadian provinces and is directly
linked to construction. When a downturn occurs in construction, the demand for building materials
produced from quarries will decrease.

The main types of stone quarried in Canada include limestone, granite, sandstone and marble.
Limestone accounts for the majority of all stone produced—about 79 percent in terms of total
volume in tonnage and 71 percent in value.[4] Ontario generates the most limestone in Canada
followed in by Quebec, B.C., and Manitoba. Granite, marble, and sandstone are also produced but
in smaller amounts.[5]

Most of the quarried limestone in Canada is crushed and used in the construction industry
for concrete and aggregates. It is also used as a stabilizing base material in road construction, in fill
and embankment reinforcement, railway ballast, in roofing granules, and in chips for stucco and
terrazzo. Limestone can be pulverized and used as a filler or extender for cement. It is also a key
component of agricultural fertilizer and an ingredient in chemical and pharmaceutical products.

PROCESS :

Quarrying involves removing large amounts overburden such as soil or clay at the surface, or
sinking a shaft or slope and then using the proper tools to extract stone from its bed by cutting,
digging, or blasting. The method used to quarry stone depends on the stone’s composition,
hardness, structure, cleavage, and other physical properties. The characteristics and placement of
rock mass deposits is also an important consideration. For stone that is deposited in relatively
accessible beds, hand tools such as drills, hammers, and wedges are employed. The demand for
crushed rock such as limestone has actually led to the development of new kinds of quarrying
techniques and quarrying is a less selective process than it used to be.

 Explosives

The use of explosives capable of blasting away larger portions of hillside is a common method of
quarrying today. The stone then gets split with the use of wedges or by the plug-and-
feather method, or crushed by a heavy steel ball weighing several tons. Holes are drilled deep
enough into the rock that it will break. The drilled holes are partially filled with explosives, which
are then detonated.

Sometimes the holes are drilled along the outside of the rock block to be removed. Wedges, used
in combination with explosives, are driven into a block of rock to split it into more manageable-
sized pieces. Most quarries separate larger masses of rock first and then later divide the rock mass
into smaller blocks of desired sizes. Sometimes the rock is stratified and then holes must be drilled
at a right angle to the plane of separation. If a rock mass has no rift or stratification or the natural
plane of separation is too far apart, then holes are drilled into the quarry face and wedges are
driven into the rock to separate it. To prevent the stone from shattering, lighter gunpowder is
preferred to fracture dimension-stone. In the production of crushed-stone, more powerful dynamite
and explosives are used.

 Compressed Air and Explosives

A new technique to emerge in granite quarries is the use of compressed air to separate layers of
rock in conjunction with a small charge of dynamite. For example, granite has no natural rift so a
hole is drilled down to the depth where the layer is to be split, creating a cavity in which a small
amount of powder is exploded to produce a crack that runs parallel to the rock surface. A
compressed air pipe is sealed into the opening to introduce increased pressure. Water under
pressure may also be used with small amounts of gunpowder to achieve the same results.

 Channeling

Another method of quarrying called channeling or broaching involves cutting long, narrow
channels into the rock to free up the sides of large stone blocks. In this process special machines
called channelers are used. Formerly steam-driven, these self-propelling machines today are
powered by diesel or gasoline engines. They cut the stone with a cutting edge that traverses back
and forth along the seam of the rock bed until a deep cut is made. The cut is deep enough to allow
wedges to be inserted down into the rock until it is split. The cut in the stone is used to guide the
fracture in the rock. The use of channeling is extensive in soft rock quarries such as those
containing limestone, marble, and sandstone.

 Mining

Sometimes the stone bed to be quarried is too thin and removing the overburden on top is too
expensive. In such situations the quarry is treated like a mine and the methods used to extract
desired blocks of stone are similar to methods used in mining. For example, horizontal rock beds
are cut near the top or the bottom of the bed. The face of the quarry is divided into blocks by saw
cuts, channels, or rows of drilled holes. The blocks are then separated through wedging or blasting.
As stopping moves forward, some of the rock is left behind as pillars to provide roof support. This
approach is particularly common in European slate quarries where rock beds tend to dip down
from a horizontal position. Similar to mining, the rock is worked by stops that follow along the
inclination of the rock bed.

 Equipment uses :

 Conveyor
 Crusher
 Forklift
 Front end loader
 Hammer drill
 Saw
 Truck
 Wheel loader
 Race for height Living and working at height are unavoidable in modern urban
environment. Countries around the world are reaching higher and higher towards the
heavens. Many large countries, USA among them, are not joining the height race … or
battle. Most residences in USA, UK, and Australia are still single and low-rise, because
land for horizontal expansion is available. Author believes that India, with its unique
strengths and constraints must certainly go to high rise buildings in the urban environment,
but must (and will) use prudence and care in this pursuit, and not compete for global
recognition in superficial factors.

CHAPTER 5

SAFETY PRECAUTION FOR WORKS OF ENGINEERING CONSTRUCTION:

Safety of distillation column

1. Personal Protective Equipment for this activity: Hardhat Long pants Close-toed shoes Safety
glasses or goggles

2. If there is a chemical spill, air mixtures may result in an explosion or cause a flash fire, which is
rare and has not occurred so far. If you suspect too much chemical vapor evacuate the area and
contact the lab supervisor.

3. Steam is used and therefore pipes become very hot- 300o F is common. Use caution.

4. The chemicals used, denatured ethyl alcohol and isopropanol alcohol have harmful fumes, can
burn, and may damage skin and eyes. Sample ports may spray when opened. Therefore, open
slowly with caution.

5. Use of electronic devices including cell phones or personal computer is not allowed. You may
use them in the control room as it is isolated from the main lab.

6. Do not eat or drink anywhere in Unit OPS including the control room. To drink or eat a snack,
please go out to the hallway with the permission of your TA. Beware of contaminated hands.
7. All accidents and spills must be reported to the supervisor immediately.

8. If anything out of the ordinary happens, like fire, severe spills, or fire alarms evacuate the Unit
OPS labs and meet in the loading dock area south of the building. Send someone to notify the lab
supervisor and the main office. If there is any severe injury call 911. Do not move the injured
person. Try to stop excessive bleeding by applying pressure to the wound and keep the airway
clear.

9. The most probable hazards are heat and falls. During the summer labs the temperature can
exceed 110o F inside the lab. Keep hydrated and set up fans as needed. Do NOT climb on anything
except approved ladders used correctly. The hydraulic ladder to get up to the ports for sampling is
very dangerous. Climb with care and always lock the safety chain before taking the sample. The
ladder must be locked by screwing down the lift screws at the base of the steps. If the ladder is not
locked down and it shifts, you could be thrown off the platform. Unit OPS floors become wet
during labs and slips and falls are possible; so please use caution.

10. Any injury must be reported to the TA and lab supervisor. Aside from stopping bleeding and
assisting breathing do not treat any injury. If injury is severe call 911 first.

11. After the experiment, remember to wash your hands.

The materials are listed below

Chemical(s) Used Hazard Class Health hazard

Ethanol Flammable , Reactive Inhalation (cough, drowsiness,

headache, fatigue), Eyes (redness,
pain, burning), Skin (dryness),
Ingestion (burning sensation,
confusion, dizziness, headache,
unconsciousness) Long-term or
repeated exposure: affects upper
respiratory and central nervous
systems, may defat skin,
ingestion may cause liver cirrhosis
Isopropyl Alcohol Flammable , Reactive Inhalation (nausea, headache,
dizziness, drowsiness,
unconsciousness), Eyes (irritation,
burning, redness, tearing,
inflammation, possible corneal
injury), Skin (irritation with pain and
stinging, especially if the skin is
abraded), Ingestion (nausea,
vomiting, diarrhea, possible kidney
damage) Long-term or exposure to
high concentrations: affects
respiratory and central nervous
systems, may defat skin or cause
dermatitis
Methanol Flammable , Reactive Inhalation (cough, dizziness,
headache, nausea), Eyes (redness,
pain), Skin (may be absorbed,
redness, dryness), Ingestion
(abdominal pain, shortness of
breath, unconsciousness, vomiting,
blindness, death) Long-term
or
repeated exposure: affects
the
respiratory tract and central nervous
system (recurring headaches,
impaired
vision), may cause dermatitis
Fractionating column

A fractionating column is an essential item used in distillation of liquid mixtures so as to separate the mixture
into its component parts, or fractions, based on the differences in volatilities. Fractionating columns are used in
small scale laboratory distillations as well as for large-scale industrial distillations.

Laboratory fractionating columns

Figure 1: Fractional distillation apparatus using a Liebig condenser.

A laboratory fractionating column is a piece of glassware used to separate vaporized mixtures of liquid
compounds with close volatility. It can also be called a fractional column. Most commonly used is
either a Vigreux column or a straight column packed with glass beads or metal pieces such as Raschig
rings. fractions columns help to separate the mixture by helping the mixed vapors to cool, condense,
and vaporize again in accordance with Raoult's law. With each condensation-vaporization cycle, the
vapors are enriched in a certain component. A larger surface area allows more cycles, improving
separation. This is the rationale for a Vigreux column or a packed fractionating column. Spinning band
distillation achieves the same outcome by using a rotating band within the column to force the rising
vapors and descending condensate into close contact, achieving equilibrium more quickly.
In a typical fractional distillation, a liquid mixture is heated in the distilling flask, and the resulting vapor
rises up the fractionating column (see Figure 1). The vapor condenses on glass spurs (known as trays
or plates) inside the column, and returns to the distilling flask, refluxing the rising distillate vapor. The
hottest tray is at the bottom of the column and the coolest tray is at the top. At steady-state conditions,
the vapor and liquid on each tray reach an equilibrium. Only the most volatile of the vapors stays in
gas form all the way to the top, where it may then proceed through a condenser, which cools the vapor
until it condenses into a liquid distillate. The separation may be enhanced by the addition of more trays
(to a practical limitation of heat, flow, etc.)

Industrial fractionating column:

Fractional distillation is one of the unit operations of chemical engineering. Fractionating columns are
widely used in the chemical process industries where large quantities of liquids have to be distilled
Such industries are the petroleum processing, petrochemical production, natural gas processing, coal
tar processing, brewing, liquified air separation, and hydrocarbon solvents production and similar
industries but it finds its widest application in petroleum refineries. In such refineries, the crude oil
feedstock is a complex, multicomponent mixture that must be separated, and yields of pure chemical
compounds are not expected, only groups of compounds within a relatively small range of boiling
points, also called fractions. That is the origin of the name fractional distillation or fractionation.
It is often not worthwhile separating the components in these fractions any further based on
product requirements and economics.
Distillation is one of the most common and energy-intensive separation processes. Effectiveness of
separation is dependent upon the height and diameter of the column, the ratio of the column's
height to diameter, and the material that comprises the distillation column itself.[6] In a typical
chemical plant, it accounts for about 40% of the total energy consumption.[7] Industrial distillation
is typically performed in large, vertical cylindrical columns (as shown in Figure 2) known as
"distillation towers" or "distillation columns" with diameters ranging from about 65 centimeters to
6 meters and heights ranging from about 6 meters to 60 meters or more.

Figure 3: Chemical engineering schematic of a continuous fractionating column

Figure 4: Chemical engineering schematic of typical bubble-cap trays in a fractionating column
Industrial distillation towers are usually operated at a continuous steady state. Unless disturbed by
changes in feed, heat, ambient temperature, or condensing, the amount of feed being added
normally equals the amount of product being removed.
The amount of heat entering the column from the reboiler and with the feed must equal the amount
heat removed by the overhead condenser and with the products. The heat entering a distillation
column is a crucial operating parameter, addition of excess or insufficient heat to the column can
lead to foaming, weeping, entrainment, or flooding.
Figure 3 depicts an industrial fractionating column separating a feed stream into one distillate
fraction and one bottoms fraction. However, many industrial fractionating columns have outlets at
intervals up the column so that multiple products having different boiling ranges may be
withdrawn from a column distilling a multi-component feed stream. The "lightest" products with
the lowest boiling points exit from the top of the columns and the "heaviest" products with the
highest boiling points exit from the bottom.
Industrial fractionating columns use external reflux to achieve better separation of
products.[3][5] Reflux refers to the portion of the condensed overhead liquid product that returns to
the upper part of the fractionating column as shown in Figure 3.
Inside the column, the down flowing reflux liquid provides cooling and condensation of up
flowing vapors thereby increasing the efficacy of the distillation tower. The more reflux and/or
more trays provided, the better is the tower's separation of lower boiling materials from higher
boiling materials.
The design and operation of a fractionating column depends on the composition of the feed and as
well as the composition of the desired products. Given a simple, binary component feed, analytical
methods such as the McCabe–Thiele method or the Fenske equation can be used. For a multi-
component feed, simulation models are used both for design, operation, and construction.
Bubble-cap "trays" or "plates" are one of the types of physical devices, which are used to provide
good contact between the up flowing vapor and the down flowing liquid inside an industrial
fractionating column. Such trays are shown in Figures 4 and 5.
The efficiency of a tray or plate is typically lower than that of a theoretical 100%
efficient equilibrium stage. Hence, a fractionating column almost always needs more actual,
physical plates than the required number of theoretical vapor–liquid equilibrium stages.
Figure 5: Section of fractionating tower of Figure 4 showing detail of a pair of trays with bubble caps

Figure 6: Entire view of a Distillation Column

In industrial uses, sometimes a packing material is used in the column instead of trays, especially
when low pressure drops across the column are required, as when operating under vacuum. This
packing material can either be random dumped packing (1–3 in or –7.6 cm wide) such
as Raschig rings or structured sheet metal. Liquids tend to wet the surfac e of the packing, and the
vapors pass across this wetted surface, where mass transfer takes place. Differently shaped
packings have different surfa ce areas and void space between packings. Both of these factors affect
packing performance.
Distillation Column Selection and Sizing (ENGINEERING DESIGN GUIDELINES)

INTRODUCTION

Scope This design guideline covers the basic elements in designing a typical distillation column
system, which includes column internals selection and sizing. In designing a distillation column,
the thermodynamics of the vapor and liquid phases must be understood. The vapor-liquid
equilibrium (VLE) determines the minimum number of stages required to achieve the degree of
separation needed. The minimum reflux ratio also depends on the VLE data of the mixture. A few
equations that are commonly used in the industry are illustrated in this guideline to estimate the
minimum number of stages and the minimum reflux ratio of a column based on the VLE data, such
as the Fenske-Underwood equation. Some design heuristics are also highlighted. These rules are
based on design experiences and take into account both the safety and economical factors. The
selection of column internals is very critical in distillation column design. There is a wide variety
of trays and packings in the market. Each design has its strengths and weaknesses. However, the
quotations from vendors are sometimes contradictory and confusing. This could lead to a wrong
choice of column internal. Therefore, some general considerations are depicted to aid engineers in
making the right choice of column internals. In general select trays for high pressure and packings
for low pressure. A distillation column is sized by determining the diameter of the tower. An initial
estimation of the tower diameter can be done based on the vapor and liquid loadings in the column.
Included in this guideline is an example of the data sheet used in the industry and a calculation
spreadsheet for the engineering design.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS :

Distillation is not child's play it is a science and could prove dangerous if you do not know what
you are doing and do not pay careful and constant attention to the process.

Please read these safety precautions through carefully before starting off.

a) Allow sufficient space to work in. Your distillation area should be well lit, clean and well
ventilated to prevent the accumulation of alcoholic vapours.

b) When working with flammable liquids such as ethanol care should be taken to eliminate
any fire hazards. Keep a fire extinguisher handy and collect the distillate securely so the
risk of spilling it is reduced. Don't smoke!

c) Before any distillation, please ensure that there is no obstruction in the piping that could
cause excessive pressure build up in the still and cause it to burst. You may risk burning
yourself if the vapours do not have an easy exit point. For this reason we frequently
emphasize that the alembic head should be placed loosely on the pot, for appropriate
models, so it may easily pop off in such a case (see Sealing technique).

d) Perform a cleaning distillation first (see Cleaning and maintenance for more info).

e) Read Basic distillation rules for some guidelines before performing a distillation.

f) Apply rye putty to seal off any leaks as they occur (see Sealing technique)

g) Don't overfill your alembic, allow enough headroom for the vapours to collect in. The
liquid volume in the alembic may expand or foam if the heat source is not carefully
monitored and boil over or cause an obstruction in the piping. For this same reason, when
distilling a thick mash dilute it sufficiently to give it a liquid consistency. As a general rule
do not fill your pot more than ¾ of its capacity.

h) Monitor the temperature constantly. Do not allow the liquid in the alembic to boil
uncontrollably. The heat source should be at high strength at the beginning of the
 distillation to start off and reduced when approaching boiling point. Try to maintain the
wash at a slow boil or simmer.

i) If using electrical heating, try to install an RCD on the line (residual current device - or
circuit breaker) if at all possible.

j) Control the temperature of the condensation water so no vapour is exiting the condenser
and calculate the ratio wash to distillate so as not to boil your still dry.

k) We encourage a temperate attitude towards drinking. Do not drink during the distillation
process at all! This is no time to be making drunken mistakes!

l) We attempt to make a basic presentation on the distillation process on this site and may
have inadvertently included some inaccuracies. We do not claim to be the ultimate
authoritative guide to distillation and encourage you to read up on the distillation process
as much as possible. There are many good books available on the distillation process

 COOLING TOWER:

Make your Cooling Tower safe:

Safety Instructions

It is very essential for the cooling tower personnel to follow the safety instructions for their own
safety as well as the longevity of the cooling tower.

For this they must follow the operation and maintenance procedures along with some safety
procedures:

• Rotating Equipment Maintenance:

Rotating equipments like fan, motor, gear box, pump, motor, turbine need to be stopped and their
power source to be disconnected appropriately. Sufficient protection or locking should be there
against accidental start up.

• Vibration and Noise:

Condition of a rotating equipment is expressed by vibration and noise. Unusual vibration and noise
must not be ignored. Any such event with unusual vibration or noise must be investigated till the
root cause is found and remedied. Provision of vibration switches should be there and must be
tested for its action for a proper set point.

• Guards:

There should be sufficient guard or covering over drive shaft and coupling. They should be in
proper place as in the condition of accident they protect other equipments and fan stack from
damage. • Precautions during maintenance of distribution system: Provision of access door,
walkway and suitable lifting device like monorail should be there for maintenance work in the fan
stack area. High performing fills like PVC V bar, Opti-Grid (Poly propylene) etc. are made of
flammable materials. Hence cooling tower area must be no smoking area.
• Fills and water treatment:

The condition of the fill must be assessed before taking up any maintenance work. This is available
for assessment from air intake area. Extra care should be taken while dismantling the fills as the
weight of the fouled fills can even treble up. Water chemistry of recirculating water changes as a
portion of that water is always evaporating. These changes should be monitored and circulating
water treatment should be done as per the schedule. This helps in reduction of fouling of heat
exchangers, pipes and fill media.

OPERATING INSTRUCTION:

During operating condition be sure to make the following inspection every day

1. Check motor amperage to ensure that it is below design value. If it exceeds design value, then
reduce the pitch angle of the blades.

2. Check the oil level in the gear box through sight glass provided near motor, if it goes below the
required level then fill more oil in the gear box.

3. Check the normal water level in the cold water basin. Ensure that it is maintained to design level
by adjusting make up water.

4. Make blow down in the circulating water of the cooling tower at regular intervals to maintain
the TDS in the circulating water. (normally make a blow down in such a way that the cycles of
concentration should maintain in between 2 to 3, if it exceeds the limit then consult to cooling
tower supplier)

MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTION

Various components of cooling tower and their specific maintenance requirements are listed
below:

• Hot Water Distribution System

1. Nozzles can be cleaned without shutting down the tower. Remove all the dirt, algae etc. Clean
nozzles help in uniform distribution of hot water.

2. Check the water level in the distribution RCC duct. It is important to maintain constant water
level in the RCC duct.

3. If excessive algae is present or cooling tower is in dusty environment, it is desirable to provide

cover to RCC duct. These covers eliminate dust falling into duct from above. These covers also
prevent direct incidence of sun light on hot water there by eliminating formation of algae.

4. Check the flow control valve, and carry out proper maintenance as per manufacturer’s
guidelines.

5. Also for every month apply proper greasing to the valve spindle and housing to ensure its
smooth operation.

• Cold Water Basin

1. Clean cold water basin periodically (at least once in year). Check water level on daily basis.

2. Incorrect water level can reduce tower performance by allowing some air to bypass the fill.

• Fills

1. Clean the fills as frequently as required.

2. During shut down of the cooling tower remove all the fills and re-fix it after cleaning and
replacement of any damaged pieces.

• Drift eliminators

1. Clean the drift eliminators as frequently as required.

2. Visually inspect the drift eliminators every month and clean it, also ensure that there should not
be any clogging or any damage to the drift eliminator, which will cause for additional static
pressure drop to the fan resulting in poor performance of the cooling tower.

3. During shut down of the cooling tower remove all the drift eliminator and re-fix it after
cleaning and replacement of any damaged pieces.

• Motor

1. Lubricate motor as per manufacturer’s recommendations.

2. Axial, Horizontal and Vertical Vibrations in motor should be- Velocity <= 7 mm/sec.;
Displacement <= 120 microns.

• Gear box.

1. Fill the correct oil in the gear-box as per manufacturer’s recommendations.

2. Do not overfill the gear box. Overfill will cause excessive heating up and under fill will cause
gear damage.

3. Ensure that air vent is clear of dirt and is open.

• Fan

1. Being relatively slow running equipment little maintenance is required. In case of adjustable
pitch fans a regular check of holding down bolts is necessary.

2. It is normal practice to dismantle fans when any maintenance is done on the gear box. While re -
fixing the blades, blade angle must be set correctly, all the blades should be set to same pitch angle
and should be at proper location. It is also necessary to balance the fan at site after repair or
replacement of fan blades.

3. Check and tighten (to prescribed torque) blade clamping hardware after about a week of
commissioning and at least at 6 months intervals thereafter.
 4. Visually inspect fan every month and clean the blades if any dirt has accumulated. Dirt
accumulation on blades could affect balance and result in excessive vibration.

5. Blade Tip clearance (from fan stack inside wall) should be between 25mm to 50mm.

6. Fan blade angle should be as per manufacturer’s recommendation. Min. Pitch Angle= 11 deg.;
Max. Pitch Angle= 17 deg.

• Drive shaft

1. Drive shafts normally operate at motor speed and hence dynamically balanced. Check the
balancing if abnormal vibrations are noticed.

2. Whenever drive shaft assembly is attended for the maintenance, dynamic balancing should be
checked and ensured.

3. Drive shafts in cooling tower are of floating type with flexible couplings. Neoprene rubber disk,
rubber bushes, SS pins used in the shafts requires periodic replacement. Inspect bushes at least
once in 6 months and replace complete set of bushes as necessary.

4. Bolt torque on all coupling bolts shall be checked monthly to prevent looseness.

5. Check drive shaft alignment at least once in 6 months. Proper alignment is a critical
requirement for satisfactory operation of mechanical equipment.

• Tower structure

1. During shut down of the cooling tower clean all the structure of the cooling tower to remove any
dirt, algae, mud etc… (This can be done by injecting a jet of water on the structure.)

2. Once in six year it is advisable to inspect cooling tower RCC structure and carry out repair,
maintenance if required.

AIRFIELD SAFETY - Air Traffic Controllers

1. Encourage use of correct terminology and proper voice cadence.

2. Recommend controller usage of the electronic RID (Runway Incursion Device) and the IDS
(Information Display System) as an aid to prevent runway incursions. Use the electronic RID with
red lamps for runways and amber lights for adjacent areas (mowing, equipment, etc.).
3. Encourage air traffic controllers to tour the airfield, including the runway, taxiway and ramps,
during the day, at night and under IMC (instrument meteorological conditions).
4. Encourage locally based organizations to provide familiarization flights for air traffic controllers.
5. Encourage tower cab tours as part of a pilot's training, driver's training and tenant familiarity.
6. Eliminate distractions in the operational area.
7. Air traffic and airport operations should meet following each snow removal day and/or any other
unusual event to discuss lessons learned.
8. Develop and publish airport diagrams for ALL towered, commercial and busy general aviation
airports.
9. Routinely check airport diagrams for accuracy and update as necessary.
10. Know who has access to the airfield.
11. Update the airport remarks section in the Airport Facility Directory with all applicable data
including runway safety information.
12. Determine and publish "line-of-sight" restrictions — can aircraft at opposite ends of the runway
see each other?
13. Increase awareness and advertise of local wildlife issues.
14. Determine and publish weather phenomena related visibility issues.
15. Inform AFSS if there is a change in runway status.
16. Encourage pilots to turn lights ON during Landing and Departure.
17. Encourage pilots to have their "eyes out" when taxiing.
18. Encourage pilots to have a "heads up" policy when taxiing.
19. Encourage local flight schools to emphasize runway safety during initial and recurrent training &
BFRs.
20. Attend safety seminars and programs on RUNWAY SAFETY.
21. Customize RUNWAY SAFETY presentations for targeted audiences such as pilot organizations,
safety seminars, airport authorities, etc.
22. Improve safety by teaching, advocating, stressing and understanding situational awareness.
23. Cite specific airport RUNWAY SAFETY web pages.
24. Use Hot Spot brochures.
25. Distribute RUNWAY SAFETY materials to every aviation entity.
26. Package and distribute runway safety materials to: Flight Schools, Flight Safety International,
Maintenance Centers, Aircraft Manufacturers, etc.
27. Realize that every airport is unique and presents its own set of RUNWAY SAFETY challenges.
28. Stay alert; stay alive.
29. Declare war on errors; make it everyone's responsibility.

Known 'Best Practices' for AIRFIELD SAFETY - Pilots

1. Encourage use of correct terminology and proper voice cadence.

2. Eliminate distractions in the operational area.
3. Obtain and use airport diagrams. Use the FAA runway safety website to find airport diagrams for
all airports.
4. Conduct "Clearing Turns" prior to entering ANY runway.
5. Maintain a sterile cockpit when taxiing.
6. Maintain appropriate Taxi speed.
7. Encourage pilots to have their "eyes out" when taxiing.
8. Encourage pilots to have a "heads up" policy when taxiing.
9. Attend safety seminars and programs on RUNWAY SAFETY.
10. Improve safety by teaching, advocating, stressing and understanding situational awareness.
11. Customize RUNWAY SAFETY presentations for targeted audiences such as pilot organizations,
safety seminars, airport authorities, etc.
12. Cite specific airport RUNWAY SAFETY web pages.
13. Distribute RUNWAY SAFETY materials to every aviation entity.
14. Package and distribute runway safety materials to: Flight Schools, Flight Safety International,
Maintenance Centers, Aircraft Manufacturers, etc.
15. Realize that every airport is unique and presents its own set of RUNWAY SAFETY challenges.
16. Stay alert; stay alive.
17. Declare war on errors; make it everyone's responsibility.

Known 'Best Practices' for AIRFIELD SAFETY - Airport Personnel

1. Eliminate distractions in the operational area.

2. Air traffic and airport operations should meet following each snow removal day and/or any other
unusual event to discuss lessons learned.
3. Eliminate confusing call signs for vehicles operating in the airport operations area.
4. Maintain a well defined mowing plan and procedures, including specific area "Designations".
5. Use a patch, or spot system, for mowing and/or farming operations.
6. Use two vehicles for runway inspections to reduce "Time-on-Runway".
7. Use high visibility vehicles to increase conspicuity for pilots, controllers and other drivers
operating on the AOA (airport operations area).
8. All vehicle lights (high beams, flashers, beacons, and strobes) should be turned on when crossing
or operating on runways, taxiways or the AOA.
9. Vehicle flashers and beacons help ATC, aircrews and other vehicle operators see vehicles in the
AOA — especially during periods of reduced visibility and at night.
10. Airport authority should distribute current airport diagrams to all airport users — especially FBO's
for transient and student pilots and to other users within 50-100 miles of busy GA airports.
11. Airport authority should coordinate with local fire department, ARFF, and associated training for
access to the airfield. Create a "Letter of Agreement" on staging points, alert drills, etc.
12. Re-designate confusing taxiways.
13. Eliminate problem runways.
14. Use current diagrams in all AOA access vehicles.
15. Carry a current airport diagram with all AOA personnel badges.
16. Obtain and use airport diagrams. Use the FAA runway safety website to find airport diagrams for
all airports.
17. The airport authority is encouraged to share its driver's training program. (Even FAA employees
are required to take training if they are on the airfield.)
18. Utilize CD-based pilot and driver's education training materials and electronic programs.
19. All AOA access authorized personnel, including taxi-qualified mechanics, should complete a
driver's training program — to include recurrent training.
20. Require and schedule FAA employee driver's training and recurrent training/testing.
21. Ensure on-airport farming operators are trained and aware of airport operations and its inherent
dangers. Ensure farmers know and adhere to agricultural leased boundaries.
22. Encourage inclusion of surface safety training in maintenance school curriculum for taxi and/or
tow-qualified mechanics.
23. Offer training and awareness education to local contractors working on the airport, and monitor
them.
24. Ensure drivers know where to look for traffic when a pilot isn't talking to the tower or broadcasting
on CTAF.
25. AOA access authorized personnel should have an awareness and understanding of the "uniqueness
of helicopter operations".
26. Conduct "Clearing Turns" prior to entering ANY runway.
27. Place signs and marking placards in all AOA access vehicles.
28. Know who has access to the airfield.
29. Maximize controlled access to the airfield, including wildlife.
30. Enforce a "No Tailgating" policy to ensure vehicles remain within proximity until gate is closed
and secure to prevent unauthorized "Tailgating".
31. Inform the public. Get signs up, "NO TRESPASSING". Enforce "No Trespassing" through
ordinance.
32. Keep the runway a runway, no racing.
33. Conduct opposite flow runway inspections. Runway inspections should be conducted toward the
flow of aircraft landing and departing as much as possible.
34. Enforce maximum use of existing service roads; stay off of the runway as much as possible.
35. Build and maintain access roads to Navaids from service roads or taxiways, not from runways.
36. Use tunable radios.
37. Enforce a policy of "No Cell Phone" use for personnel while operating on the airfield.
38. Install and/or remove additional signs (including surface painted) and markings to eliminate
confusion.
39. Create an airport sign plan and adhere to it.
40. Use lighted runway closure markers to warn pilots of a closed runway.
41. Install signs at the entry point to the AOA and runway safety areas.
42. Prevent potential obstructions.
43. Use standardized "12 inch" and highlighted hold position markings.
44. Maintain runway and taxiway markings.
45. Install elevated runway guard lights (ERGL's) at known Hot Spots and/or high risk intersections.
46. For new construction, use in-pavement runway guard lights (RGL) at known Hot Spots and/or high
risk intersections.
47. Update the airport remarks section in the Airport Facility Directory with all applicable data
including runway safety information.
48. Determine and publish "line-of-sight" restrictions — can aircraft at opposite ends of the runway
see each other?
49. Increase awareness and advertise of local wildlife issues.
50. Advertise seasonal crops, which might affect line-of-sight for pilots.
51. Issue NOTAMS for snow removal operations and mowing operations.
52. Designate and publish a "Calm Wind" runway at part-time and non-towered airports.
53. Advertise crop dusting operations in the area.
54. Encourage CTAF usage when the airport is "Non-Towered" in the AFD, Hot Spot Brochure,
Airport Website, and Posters at ALL on-site facilities.
55. Encourage local flight schools to emphasize runway safety during initial and recurrent training &
BFR's.
56. Encourage pilots to have a "heads up" policy when taxiing.
57. Use follow-me vehicles when the ramp is unusually close to a runway and/or for a confusing
taxiway route.
58. Attend and conduct safety seminars and programs on RUNWAY SAFETY.
59. Improve safety by teaching, advocating, stressing and understanding situational awareness.
60. Cite specific airport RUNWAY SAFETY web pages.
61. Use Hot Spot brochures.
62. Distribute RUNWAY SAFETY materials to every aviation entity.
63. Package and distribute runway safety materials to: Flight Schools, Flight Safety International,
Maintenance Centers, Aircraft Manufacturers, etc.
64. Realize that every airport is unique and presents its own set of RUNWAY SAFETY challenges.
65. Stay alert; stay alive.
66. Declare war on errors; make it everyone's responsibility.
67. Look for runway incursion potential when reviewing airport construction safety plans, especially
for haul routes.
68. Always think SAFETY FIRST.

AIRFIELD SAFETY PRECAUTIONS (DEC 1991)

(a) Definitions. As used in this clause -

(1) Landing areas means -
(i) The primary surfaces, comprising the surface of the runway, runway shoulders, and
lateral safety zones. The length of each primary surface is the same as the runway length.
The width of each primary surface is 2,000 feet (1,000 feet on each side of the runway
centerline);
(ii) The clear zone beyond the ends of each runway, i.e., the extension of the primary
surface for a distance of 1,000 feet beyond each end of each runway;
(iii) All taxiways, plus the lateral clearance zones along each side for the length of the
taxiways (the outer edge of each lateral clearance zone is laterally 250 feet from the far or
opposite edge of the taxiway, e.g., a 75-foot-wide taxiway would have a combined width of
taxiway and lateral clearance zones of 425 feet); and
(iv) All aircraft parking aprons, plus the area 125 feet in width extending beyond each edge
all around the aprons.
(2) Safety precaution areas means those portions of approach-departure clearance zones
and transitional zones where placement of objects incident to contract performance might
result in vertical projections at or above the approach-departure clearance, or the
transitional surface.
(i) The approach-departure clearance surface is an extension of the primary surface and
the clear zone at each end of each runway, for a distance of 50,000 feet, first along an
inclined (glide angle) and then along a horizontal plane, both flaring symmetrically about
the runway centerline extended.
(A) The inclined plane (glide angle) begins in the clear zone 200 feet past the end of the
runway (and primary surface) at the same elevation as the end of the runway. It continues
upward at a slope of 50:1 (1 foot vertically for each 50 feet horizontally) to an elevation of
500 feet above the established airfield elevation. At that point the plane becomes
horizontal, continuing at that same uniform elevation to a point 50,000 feet longitudinally
from the beginning of the inclined plane (glide angle) and ending there.
(B) The width of the surface at the beginning of the inclined plane (glide angle) is the same
as the width of the clear zone. It then flares uniformly, reaching the maximum width of
16,000 feet at the end.
(ii) The approach-departure clearance zone is the ground area under the approach-
departure clearance surface.
(iii) The transitional surface is a sideways extension of all primary surfaces, clear zones,
and approach-departure clearance surfaces along inclined planes.
(A) The inclined plane in each case begins at the edge of the surface.
(B) The slope of the incline plane is 7:1 (1 foot vertically for each 7 feet horizontally). It
continues to the point of intersection with the -
(1) Inner horizontal surface (which is the horizontal plane 150 feet above the established
airfield elevation); or
(2) Outer horizontal surface (which is the horizontal plane 500 feet above the established
airfield elevation), whichever is applicable.
(iv) The “transitional zone” is the ground area under the transitional surface. (It adjoins the
primary surface, clear zone, and approach-departure clearance zone.)
(b) General.
(1) The Contractor shall comply with the requirements of this clause while -
(i) Operating all ground equipment (mobile or stationary);
(ii) Placing all materials; and
(iii) Performing all work, upon and around all airfields.
(2) The requirements of this clause are in addition to any other safety requirements of this
contract.
(c) The Contractor shall -
(1) Report to the Contracting Officer before initiating any work;
(2) Notify the Contracting Officer of proposed changes to locations and operations;
(3) Not permit either its equipment or personnel to use any runway for purposes other than
aircraftoperation without permission of the Contracting Officer, unless the runway is -
(i) Closed by order of the Contracting Officer; and
(ii) Marked as provided in paragraph (d)(2) of this clause;
(4) Keep all paved surfaces, such as runways, taxiways, and hardstands, clean at all times
and, specifically, free from small stones which might damage aircraft propellers or jet
aircraft;
 (5) Operate mobile equipment according to the safety provisions of this clause, while
actually performing work on the airfield. At all other times, the Contractor shall remove all
mobile equipment to locations -
(i) Approved by the Contracting Officer;
(ii) At a distance of at least 750 feet from the runway centerline, plus any additional
distance; and
(iii) Necessary to ensure compliance with the other provisions of this clause; and
(6) Not open a trench unless material is on hand and ready for placing in the trench. As
soon as practicable after material has been placed and work approved, the Contractor shall
backfill and compact trenches as required by the contract. Meanwhile, all hazardous
conditions shall be marked and lighted in accordance with the other provisions of this
clause.
(d) Landing areas. The Contractor shall -
(1) Place nothing upon the landing areas without the authorization of the Contracting
Officer;
(2) Outline those landing areas hazardous to aircraft, using (unless otherwise authorized by
the Contracting Officer) red flags by day, and electric, battery-operated low-intensity red
flasher lights by night;
(3) Obtain, at an airfield where flying is controlled, additional permission from the control
tower operator every time before entering any landing area, unless the landing area is
marked as hazardous in accordance with paragraph (d)(2) of this clause;
(4) Identify all vehicles it operates in landing areas by means of a flag on a staff attached
to, and flying above, the vehicle. The flag shall be three feet square, and consist of a
checkered pattern of international orange and white squares of 1 foot on each side (except
that the flag may vary up to ten percent from each of these dimensions);
(5) Mark all other equipment and materials in the landing areas, using the same marking
devices as in paragraph (d)(2) of this clause; and
(6) Perform work so as to leave that portion of the landing area which is available to
aircraft free from hazards, holes, piles of material, and projecting shoulders that might
damage an airplane tire.
(e) Safety precaution areas. The Contractor shall -
(1) Place nothing upon the safety precaution areas without authorization of the Contracting
Officer;
(2) Mark all equipment and materials in safety precaution areas, using (unless otherwise
authorized by the Contracting Officer) red flags by day, and electric, battery-operated, low-
intensity red flasher lights by night; and
(3) Provide all objects placed in safety precaution areas with a red light or red lantern at
night, if the objects project above the approach-departure clearance surface or above the
transitional surface.

Chimney :
A chimney is a structure that provides ventilation for hot flue gases or smoke from
a boiler, stove, furnace or fireplace to the outside atmosphere. Chimneys are typically vertical, or
as near as possible to vertical, to ensure that the gases flow smoothly, drawing air into
the combustion in what is known as the stack, or chimney effect. The space inside a chimney is
called a flue. Chimneys may be found in buildings, steam locomotives and ships. In the United
States, the term smokestack (colloquially, stack) is also used when referring to locomotive
chimneys or ship chimneys, and the term funnel can also be used.
The height of a chimney influences its ability to transfer flue gases to the external environment via
stack effect. Additionally, the dispersion of pollutants at higher altitudes can reduce their impact
on the immediate surroundings. In the case of chemically aggressive output, a sufficiently tall
chimney can allow for partial or complete self-neutralization of airborne chemicals before they
reach ground level. The dispersion of pollutants over a greater area can reduce their concentrations
and facilitate compliance with regulatory limits.

History
Romans used tubes inside the walls to draw smoke out of bakeries but chimneys only appeared in
large dwellings in northern Europe in the 12th century. The earliest extant example of an English
chimney is at the keep of Conisbrough Castle in Yorkshire, which dates from 1185 AD. However,
they did not become common in houses until the 16th and 17th centuries. Smoke hoods were an
early method of collecting the smoke into a chimney (see image). Another step in the development
of chimneys was the use of built in ovens which allowed the household to bake at home. Industrial
chimneys became common in the late 18th century.
Chimneys in ordinary dwellings were first built of wood and plaster or mud. Since then chimneys
have traditionally been built of brick or stone, both in small and large buildings. Early chimneys
were of a simple brick construction. Later chimneys were constructed by placing the bricks around
tile liners. To control downdrafts, venting caps (often called chimney pots) with a variety of
designs are sometimes placed on the top of chimneys.
In the 18th and 19th centuries, the methods used to extract lead from its ore produced large
amounts of toxic fumes. In the north of England, long near-horizontal chimneys were built, often
more than 3 km (2 mi) long, which typically terminated in a short vertical chimney in a remote
location where the fumes would cause less harm. Lead and silver deposits formed on the inside of
these long chimneys, and periodically workers would be sent along the chimneys to scrape off
these valuable deposits.

 Construction
As a result of the limited ability to handle transverse loads with brick, chimneys in houses were
often built in a "stack", with a fireplace on each floor of the house sharing a single chimney, often
with such a stack at the front and back of the house. Today's central heating systems have made
chimney placement less critical, and the use of non-structural gas vent pipe allows a flue gas
conduit to be installed around obstructions and through walls.
In fact, most modern high-efficiency heating appliances do not require a chimney. Such appliances
are generally installed near an external wall, and a noncombustible wall thimble allows a vent
pipe to run directly through the external wall.
On a pitched roof where a chimney penetrates a roof, flashing is used to seal up the joints. The
down-slope piece is called an apron, the sides receive step flashing and a cricket is used to divert
water around the upper side of the chimney underneath the flashing.
Industrial chimneys are commonly referred to as flue gas stacks and are generally external
structures, as opposed to those built into the wall of a building. They are generally located adjacent
to a steam-generating boiler or industrial furnace and the gases are carried to them with ductwork.
Today the use of reinforced concrete has almost entirely replaced brick as a structural component
in the construction of industrial chimneys. Refractory bricks are often used as a lining, particularly
if the type of fuel being burned generates flue gases containing acids. Modern industrial chimneys
sometimes consist of a concrete windshield with a number of flues on the inside.
The 300 m (980 ft) chimney at Sasol Three consists of a 26 m (85 ft) diameter windshield with
four 4.6 metre diameter concrete flues which are lined with refractory bricks built on rings
of corbels spaced at 10 metre intervals. The reinforced concrete can be cast by conventional
formwork or sliding formwork. The height is to ensure the pollutants are dispersed over a wider
area to meet legal or other safety requirements.

 Residential flue liners:

A flue liner is a secondary barrier in a chimney that protects the masonry from the acidic products
of combustion, helps prevent flue gas from entering the house, and reduces the size of an oversized
flue. Newly built chimneys have been required by building codes to have a flue liner in many
locations since the 1950s. Chimneys built without a liner can usually have a liner added, but the
type of liner needs to match the type of appliance it is servicing. Flue liners may be clay tile, metal,
concrete tiles, or poured in place concrete.
Clay tile flue liners are very common in the United States. However, this is the only liner which
does not meet Underwriters Laboratories 1777 approval and frequently have problems such as
cracked tiles and improper installation. Clay tiles are usually about 2 feet (0.61 m) long, various
sizes and shapes, and are installed in new construction as the chimney is built. A refractory
cement is used between each tile.
Metal liners may be stainless steel, aluminum, or galvanized iron and may be flexible or rigid
pipes. Stainless steel is made in several types and thicknesses. Type 304 is used with firewood,
wood pellet fuel, and non-condensing oil appliances, types 316 and 321 with coal, and type AL 29-
4C is used with non-condensing gas appliances. Stainless steel liners must have a cap and be
insulated if they service solid fuel appliances, but following the manufacturer's instructions
carefully. Aluminum and galvanized steel chimneys are known as class A and class B chimneys.
Class A are either an insulated, double wall stainless steel pipe or triple wall, air-insulated pipe
often known by its genericized trade name Metalbestos. Class B are un insulated double wall pipes
often called B-vent, and are only used to vent non-condensing gas appliances. These may have an
aluminum inside layer and galvanized steel outside layer. Condensing boilers do not need a
chimney.
Concrete flue liners are like clay liners but are made of a refractory cement and are more durable
than the clay liners.
Poured in place concrete liners are made by pouring special concrete into the existing chimney
with a form. These liners are highly durable, work with any heating appliance, and can reinforce a
weak chimney, but they are irreversible.

 Chimney pots, caps and tops :

A chimney pot is placed on top of the chimney to expand the length of the chimney inexpensively,
and to improve the chimney's draft. A chimney with more than one pot on it indicates that there is
more than one fireplace on different floors sharing the chimney.
A chimney cowl is placed on top of the chimney to prevent birds and other animals from nesting in
the chimney. They often feature a rain guard to prevent rain or snow from going down the
chimney. A metal wire mesh is often used as a spark arrestorto minimize burning debris from
rising out of the chimney and making it onto the roof. Although the masonry inside the chimney
can absorb a large amount of moisture which later evaporates, rainwater can collect at the base of
the chimney. Sometimes weep holes are placed at the bottom of the chimney to drain out collected
water.
Spanish Conquistador style wind directional cowl found on many homes along the
windy Oregon coast.

A chimney cowl or wind directional cap is a helmet-shaped chimney cap that rotates to align with
the wind and prevent a backdraft of smoke and wind back down the chimney.
An H-style cap (cowl) is a chimney top constructed from chimney pipes shaped like the letter H.
(Its image is included in cowl (chimney).) It is an age-old method of regulating draft in situations
where prevailing winds or turbulences cause downdraft and backpuffing. Although the H cap has a
distinct advantage over most other downdraft caps, it fell out of favor because of its bulky design.
It is found mostly in marine use but has been regaining popularity due to its energy-saving
functionality. The H-cap stabilizes the draft rather than increasing it. Other downdraft caps are
based on the Venturi effect, solving downdraft problems by increasing the updraft constantly
resulting in much higher fuel consumption.
A chimney damper is a metal plate that can be positioned to close off the chimney when not in use
and prevent outside air from entering the interior space, and can be opened to permit hot gases to
exhaust when a fire is burning. A top damper or cap damper is a metal spring door placed at the
top of the chimney with a long metal chain that allows one to open and close the damper from the
fireplace. A throat damper is a metal plate at the base of the chimney, just above the firebox, that
can be opened and closed by a lever, gear, or chain to seal off the fireplace from the chimney. The
advantage of a top damper is the tight weatherproof seal that it provides when closed, which
prevents cold outside air from flowing down the chimney and into the living space—a feature that
can rarely be matched by the metal-on-metal seal afforded by a throat damper. Additionally,
because the throat damper is subjected to intense heat from the fire directly below, it is common
for the metal to become warped over time, thus further degrading the ability of the throat damper
to seal. However, the advantage of a throat damper is that it seals off the living space from the air
mass in the chimney, which, especially for chimneys positioned on an outside of wall of the home,
is generally very cold. It is possible in practice to use both a top damper and a throat damper to
obtain the benefits of both. The two top damper designs currently on the market are the Lyemance
(pivoting door) and the Lock Top (translating door).
In the late Middle Ages in Western Europe the design of crow-stepped gables arose to allow
maintenance access to the chimney top, especially for tall structures such as castles and
great manor houses.

 Chimney draught or draft : 

When coal, oil, natural gas, wood, or any other fuel is combusted in a stove, oven, fireplace, hot
water boiler, or industrial furnace, the hot combustion product gases that are formed are called flue
gases. Those gases are generally exhausted to the ambient outside air through chimneys or
industrial flue gas stacks (sometimes referred to as smokestacks).
The combustion flue gases inside the chimneys or stacks are much hotter than the ambient outside
air and therefore less dense than the ambient air. That causes the bottom of the vertical column of
hot flue gas to have a lower pressure than the pressure at the bottom of a corresponding column of
outside air. That higher pressure outside the chimney is the driving force that moves the required
combustion air into the combustion zone and also moves the flue gas up and out of the chimney.
That movement or flow of combustion air and flue gas is called "natural draught/draft", "natural
ventilation", "chimney effect", or "stack effect". The taller the stack, the more draught or draft is
created. There can be cases of diminishing returns: if a stack is overly tall in relation to the heat
being sent out of the stack, the flue gases may cool before reaching the top of the chimney. This
condition can result in poor drafting, and in the case of wood burning appliances, the cooling of the
gases before emission can cause creosote to condense near the top of the chimney. The creosote
can restrict the exit of flue gases and may pose a fire hazard.
Designing chimneys and stacks to provide the correct amount of natural draft involves a number of
design factors, many of which require iterative trial-and-error methods.
As a "first guess" approximation, the following equation can be used to estimate the natural
draught/draft flow rate by assuming that the molecular mass (i.e., molecular weight) of the flue gas

and the external air are equal and that the frictional pressure and heat losses are negligible:
where:

Q = chimney draught/draft flow rate, m³/s

A = cross-sectional area of chimney, m² (assuming it has a constant cross-section)

C = discharge coefficient (usually taken to be from 0.65 to 0.70)

g = gravitational acceleration, 9.807 m/s²

H = height of chimney, m

Ti = average temperature inside the chimney, K

Te = external air temperature, K.

Combining two flows into chimney: At+Af<A, where At=7.1 inch2 is the minimum required flow area
from water heater tank and Af=19.6 inch2 is the minimum flow area from a furnace of a central heating
system.

 Draft hood:
Gas fired appliances must have a draft hood to cool combustion products entering the chimney
and prevent updrafts or downdrafts.

 Maintenance and problems

A characteristic problem of chimneys is they develop deposits of creosote on the walls of the
structure when used with wood as a fuel. Deposits of this substance can interfere with the
airflow and more importantly, they are combustible and can cause dangerous chimney fires if
the deposits ignite in the chimney.
Heaters that burn natural gas drastically reduce the amount of creosote buildup due to natural
gas burning much cleaner and more efficiently than traditional solid fuels. While in most cases
there is no need to clean a gas chimney on an annual basis that does not mean that other parts
of the chimney cannot fall into disrepair. Disconnected or loose chimney fittings caused by
corrosion over time can pose serious dangers for residents due to leakage of carbon monoxide
into the home.[11] Thus, it is recommended—and in some countries even mandatory—that
chimneys be inspected annually and cleaned on a regular basis to prevent these problems. The
workers who perform this task are called chimney sweeps or steeplejacks. This work used to
be done largely by child labour, and as such features in Victorian literature. In the Middle
Ages in some parts of Europe, a crow-stepped gable design was developed, partly to provide
access to chimneys without use of ladders.
Masonry (brick) chimneys have also proven to be particularly prone to crumbling during
an earthquake. Government housing authorities in cities prone to earthquakes such as San
Francisco, Los Angeles, and San Diego now recommend building new homes with stud-
framed chimneys around a metal flue. Bracing or strapping old masonry chimneys has not
proven to be very effective in preventing damage or injury from earthquakes. It is now
possible to buy "faux-brick" facades to cover these modern chimney structures.
Other potential problems include:

 "spalling" brick, in which moisture seeps into the brick and then freezes, cracking and
flaking the brick and loosening mortar seals.
 shifting foundations, which may degrade integrity of chimney masonry
 nesting or infestation by unwanted animals such as squirrels, racoons, or chimney swifts
 chimney leaks
 drafting issues, which may allow smoke inside building[12]
 issues with fireplace or heating appliance may cause unwanted degradation or hazards to
chimney
  Dual-use chimneys:
In some cases the chimneys of power stations are used also as pylons. However this type of
construction, which is used at several power stations in the former Soviet Union, is not very
common, because of corrosion problems of conductor cables.

 Cooling tower used as an industrial chimney:

At some power stations, which are equipped with plants for the removal of sulfur
dioxide and nitrogen oxides, it is possible to use the cooling tower as a chimney. Such cooling
towers can be seen in Germany at the Power Station Staudinger Grosskrotzenburg and at
the Power Station Rostock. At power stations that are not equipped for removing sulfur
dioxide, such usage of cooling towers could result in serious corrosion problems which are not
easy to prevent.

 Silos oil and gas installation :

Silos & Smokestacks National Heritage Area (SSNHA), also known as America's Agricultural
Heritage Partnership is one of 49 federally designated heritage areas in the nation and is an
Affiliated Area of the National Park Service.[1] Through the development of a network of sites,
programs and events, SSNHA's mission is to interpret farm life, agribusiness and rural
communities-past and present.
Silos & Smokestacks was designated as a national heritage area in 1996. The name is intended to
reflect both the farms and industries that constitute agribusiness. The Silos & Smokestacks region
covers the northeast third of the state of Iowa, including thirty-seven counties.[1] The cities of Des
Moines, Cedar Rapids, Davenport, Waterloo, Dubuque, and Iowa City are all located within the
region. The National Park Service recognizes over 90 community and privately operated sites in
the area that interpret the story of American agriculture. These range from dairy farms and
museums to vineyards and tractor assembly plants.[2] Included in the area are the Amana
Colonies, Living History Farms, and Brucemore, a few of Iowa's best known tourist
attractions.[3] Silos & Smokestacks also includes several state-designated scenic byways and the
nationally designated Great River Road along the west bank of the Mississippi River.

CHAPTER 6
Safety in Demolition operations

Demolition: Construction in Reverse, with Additional Hazards:

 OSHA Compliance Safety and Health Officers often face a somber task as they identify and
document the violation of safety and health standards which lead up to the latest worker
tragedy. Demolition worker impaled on rebar. Worker electrocuted during demolition work. Two
demolition workers die of burns after flash fire at warehouse. Employee in aerial lift killed when
roof collapses. However, the hazards of demolition work can be controlledand eliminated with
the proper planning, the right personal protective equipment, necessary training,
and compliance with OSHA standards. This Safety & Health Topics page is dedicated to the
demolition workers who died on the job.
Demolition is the dismantling, razing, destroying or wrecking of any building or structure or any
part thereof. Demolition work involves many of the hazards associated with construction.
However, demolition involves additional hazards due to unknown factors which makes demolition
work particularly dangerous. These may include:

 Changes from the structure's design introduced during construction;

 Approved or unapproved modifications that altered the original design;
 Materials hidden within structural members, such as lead, asbestos, silica, and other chemicals
or heavy metals requiring special material handling;
 Unknown strengths or weaknesses of construction materials, such as post-tensioned concrete;
 Hazards created by the demolition methods used.

To combat these, everyone at a demolition worksite must be fully aware of the hazards they may
encounter and the safety precautions they must take to protect themselves and their employees.
Demolition hazards are addressed in specific standards for the construction industry.
Hazards
PLAN ahead to get the job done safely
Proper planning is essential to ensure a demolition operation is conducted with no accidents or
injuries. This includes, but is not limited to:

 An engineering survey completed by a competent person before any demolition work takes
place. This should include the condition of the structure and the possibility of an unplanned
collapse.
 Locating, securing, and/or relocating any nearby utilities. For help, call 811 before you dig.
 Fire prevention and evacuation plan.
 First Aid and Emergency Medical Services.
 An assessment of health hazards completed before any demolition work takes place.

PROVIDE the right protection and equipment

The employer must determine what Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) will be required. In
demolition operations, PPE may include:

 Eye, face, head, hand, foot protection

 Respiratory protection
 Hearing protection
 Personal Fall Arrest Systems (PFAS)
 Other protective clothing (for example, cutting or welding operations)

It is not enough to provide PPE. Employees must be trained on the selection, use, fitting,
inspection, maintenance, and storage of PPE.
TRAIN all employees about hazards and how to use the equipment safely
Under the Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSH Act), Public Law 91-596, employers have a
responsibility to provide a safe workplace for employees. Employers must instruct employees how
to recognize and avoid or remove hazards that may cause an injury or illness based on their
assigned duties. Certain OSHA construction standards require that employees receive training in
specific topics. Employers must provide this safety training in a language and vocabulary their
workers can understand.

Methods of demolition:
This section describes common ways of bringing down buildings, and includes safety advice.
In practice, more than one method can be used to demolish a building.

Demolition by hand
Hand demolition is not a quick method, because only hand tools are used. However, cranes and
shear legs may be used to hold or lower beams during cutting. Chutes, or crane-and-skip are
usually used to get debris safely from the upper stories to the ground.

Safe access must be provided. If work cannot be carried out safely on the building, a scaffold or
machine-lifted platform should be used.

Demolish only one storey at a time. It is usually safest to demolish the building in the reverse order
to building it, so the roof should go first. Next, part of each floor is taken out so that the debris can
fall through. On some jobs, the debris can be dropped down the lift shaft, in which case, guardrails
must be provided around openings - refer to section 5.6.3 of this guideline.

Debris must be removed regularly and not allowed to pile up on floors. An overloaded floor could
collapse onto the floor below, which in turn, could collapse on the floor below it. Without
propping from the floors, the walls of the building could collapse. Walls could also collapse if
debris is piled against them.

If people have to work in a place with a fall risk without guardrails or barriers to isolate them from
a fall, other protective measures must be implemented, including wearing a properly anchored
safety harness. Harnesses are only to be implemented if all other controls cannot be used. The
employer shall need to undertake a hazard assessment to effectively determine the appropriate
controls beforehand. All persons using any fall arrest systems must be fully trained in the correct
and safe use of this equipment. Refer to section 5.6.4 for further information.

At the end of each day, make sure the building is safe. Guying or propping may be necessary to
avoid hazards from wind or vibration. If only part of the building is knocked down, make sure that
what is left can stand safely.
 Figure 15: Multi-storey demolition with ball and crane

Demolition with the ball

Most structures can be demolished by balling, but it is a skilled practice that cannot be self-taught.

Balling is a viable and effective method of demolition when demolishing multi-storey structures
that have suffered structural damage, where all other methods have been considered, and a hazard
assessment has determined that this method is the most appropriate.

Hazards associated with this demolition method include, but are not limited to:

 noise;

 dust;

 vibration to adjoining structures/buildings;

 flying debris;

 uncontrolled unintentional collapse; and

 limited waste minimisation.

Trainees must be instructed by trained and experienced people, and work under close supervision
until they are competent.

Balling is hard on the machine: not all cranes can swing and control a demolition ball safely.
Converted drag lines are the best machines for this work as they are robust and stable. Cranes with
hydraulic rams must not be used for balling.
Cranes used for balling should be fitted with a FOPS cab and should be enclosed, strong and
debris-proof. Cranes used solely for lifting on a demolition project need not be fitted with a FOPS
cab; however operations that could cause flying debris should not be carried out close to the crane.

Some guidelines and warnings are provided:

1. The boom angle when balling should not be more than 60˚to the horizontal. The top of the
boom should not be less than three metres above the wall being knocked down.

2. The SWL for the machine must be at least three times the weight of the ball.

3. When not being dropped, the ball should be used with a tag line to keep it under control.
Swinging the ball by slewing is particularly hard on the machine.

4. This work can be done safely only on very robust machines driven by very skilled operators.

5. The ball should be positively fixed in such a manner to prevent it becoming disconnected by
slack in the load line or other causes. These connections should be checked hourly.

6. Beware of a trapped ball: getting it free may overload the crane.

7. Always operate from outside the building.

8. Any other building nearer than a distance equal to half the height of the building being
demolished is in danger.

9. Keep the public well away from balling operations.

10. Keep employees clear of the demolition area and make sure that the area is clear each time
demolition resumes after a break.

11. Remember that the shocks from a building being knocked down can be felt in any attached
building. Avoid damage to attached buildings by detaching them: hand demolition is
necessary for this.

12. When a building is being demolished by ball and crane, the crane should provide for
sufficient drop height and the ball should be of sufficient weight to enable suitable force to
pass through all floor levels of the building.

13. Avoid build-up of debris on floors and against walls.

14. A heavy-duty swivel joint must be provided between the ball and the end of the crane rope.

15. Check the ball, swivel, rope and the rigging hourly.

16. Note the location of all overhead power lines and be aware of these when turning the crane
from the normal work face.

Demolition by pusher arm

Hydraulically-operated excavators and loaders can be fitted with various attachments for
demolition work. Excavator buckets, boom-mounted hydraulic percussion breakers and pusher arm
equipment have been successfully used with these machines.
 The main advantages of such machines are that they are extremely mobile, have a high output, and
are able to work on vertical faces and floors above standing level. Their disadvantages are that the
machines need adequate access, a firm and relatively flat base to work from, and can only work
within the reach of their booms. To operate these machines efficiently, the length of boom when
fully extended should be at least 1.5 metres above the height of the building being demolished.

The pusher arm method is not suitable for large buildings on confined sites, but it is good for
masonry infill structures. The building is pushed over in stages by a horizontal force from the
machine. An arm is fitted to the lower boom instead of a bucket. The arm is extended forward
against the facing wall and the force of the excavator pressing forward provides the push.

When using this method, always take the following precautions:

1. Ensure that the site has been secured safely to prevent unintentional entry by unauthorised
personnel during demolition.

2. Work from outside the building, and never let anyone enter the building while plant is
wrecking the building.

3. Be sure that the operator has been trained in the work, or is being instructed by a trained
person.

4. Use hand demolition to get the building to a level where pushing can start.

5. Separate the building from any attached buildings using hand methods.

6. Make sure that debris does not build up too high against the walls: this may push the wall
onto the machine.

7. If terraces (ramping) of debris are used to enable the machine and its pusher arm to gain
height, ensure that the terraces are well-consolidated and the machine can be maintained
level during operation.

Demolition by deliberate collapse

This method requires engineering expertise to decide which key structural members should be cut
or removed to cause a collapse. Once this method has begun, it is likely the structure will remain
unstable until it is down. This method is best suited for bridges, silos, chimneys and structures on
isolated or heavily controlled and secure sites.

A survey may be required to give the height and radius of the structure so that the fall area can be
properly ascertained and protected to prevent unintentional entry during the collapse.

When using this method, always take the following precautions:

1. Ensure that the site is level enough to allow employees to get clear safely.

2. Consider the safety of the remaining parts of the building at each stage.

3. Use this method only where there is plenty of space for the building to fall safely.
 4. Instruct workers of their roles, tell them where they are to work and to where to withdraw to
before the collapse. Radio-telephone communication is strongly recommended for on-going
communication between all personnel.

5. Know the location of every person on the site.

6. Keep the public a distance from the building of at least one and a half times its height. If
flying debris is expected, the public will need to be kept back further.

Figure 16: Demolition of silos by pusher arm

Demolition by wire rope pulling

This method is a form of deliberate collapse. Cables and wire ropes are fixed to key structural
members, then pulled down by tractors or winches. It is suitable for detached buildings where there
is plenty of surrounding room. The method can be used for timber-framed buildings, bridges,
brick, masonry or steel chimneys, and for spires and masts.

When using this method, always take the following precautions:

1. Use wire ropes of at least 16 mm in diameter, and check them regularly. Wire ropes must
have a factor of safety of 6.

2. Anchor the machine securely, and set it so that the rope is flatter than 1 in

3. Do not let anyone stand between the tractor and the building, or beside the rope.

4. Have a full ROPS and FOPS canopy on the tractor to protect the operator from broken ropes
and falling objects.

5. Never let anyone enter the building while pulling is in progress.

6. Ensure the ropes are properly secured before commencing the pull.

7. Ensure that the pulling ropes are kept clear of overhead power lines, especially when taking
up the rope slack.
 8. Remember that pylons and masts can twist as they are pulled. If the legs are of different
lengths, the pylon could fall at right angles to the pull.

Figure 17: Step-by-step implosion deconstruction (US)

Demolition by explosion or implosion

Implosion or explosion deconstruction is an effective and efficient method of deconstruction, and
can reduce both cost and time to bring dangerous multi-storey structures to ground in comparison
to conventional demolition methods.

This is a method favoured in the United States to safely and quickly demolish structures where
significant hazards are posed to persons through exposure during the demolition process. In most
cases, the building is stripped to structure to allow for clean blasting; however in many cases,
where risk to personnel is high, this is not necessary.

In many cases, implosion can reduce the demolition period by up to 80% with the majority of time
being spent in both the preparation period and the clean-up following implosion.

Demolition by explosion/implosion is a job for the expert. In New Zealand, HSNO restrictions and
requirements for this method must be followed. Any inquiries should be directed to your nearest
Department of Labour office.

Most structures, except timber-framed and brick structures, can be demolished this way. Even
structures that have been previously compromised can be effectively demolished in this manner;
however, the implosion expert will give instructions on any collateral damage that may occur.

The usual method is to cut or disintegrate key structural members by loading drilled holes with
explosives, or fixing plaster charges to the outside of these members.

When using this method, always take the following precautions:

 1. Have an experienced approved handler (explosives) in charge of the work.

2. Consult with a suitably experienced, IPENZ-registered engineer to ensure that the method
planned is feasible.

3. Give a plan of the demolition to a Department of Labour health and safety inspector at least
four working days before starting. NOTE | This work is notifiable under the Regulations.

4. Beware of strong columns that may make the building "sit down" rather than topple.
5. Use mats and small charges to stop flying debris.

6. Advise the local authority and New Zealand Police of the proposals, and notify the New
Zealand Fire Service.

7. Have safe escape routes open.

8. Keep the public at a safe distance - a minimum of 200 meters from the blast site; however,
this is dependent on the type and quantity of the explosives used.

9. Plan and inform all employees of the evacuation plan.

10. Prepare procedures for dealing with misfires, remembering that the building may be grossly
unsafe due to being partly demolished.

11. Use electric shot firing.

12. Beware of shock damage from large amounts of detonating fuse.

Environmental effects to be considered if planning demolition by explosives include:

1. shock vibration effect to adjacent properties and to the structural stability of underground
and overhead services;

2. adjacent property damage from flying debris during collapse;

3. dust and airborne particles;

4. degree of rubble spread to the vicinity; and

5. traffic and pedestrian management and control.

Note problems with either undercharging or overcharging. Undercharging can leave the
structure standing, but in a much weakened condition. Overcharging leads to excessive and
possibly dangerous flying debris.

Demolition using grapples and shears

Figure 18: Demolition of reinforced block building by shears

Power shears may be used to crop and cut through concrete and metal such as reinforcing steel or
beams, particularly where there might be a risk of fire, or where the more precise cutting of a torch
is not required. An additional feature is the reduction in noise onsite. Care should be taken to
ensure that any member to be severed is either effectively supported or, if to be allowed to fall,
will not endanger remaining structures or personnel.

Power grapples may be used to handle waste material, either to move it about the site or to load
other vehicles when disposing of the waste. As some debris resulting from demolition has a high
density, care should be taken to avoid overloading the equipment. Damage to the equipment itself
should be avoided. Avoid the risk of the machine overturning as a result of instability induced by a
heavy load.

At all times, the machines should only be operated in strict accordance with manufacturer's
recommendations.

High-reach (or Long-reach) demolition excavators

Figure 19: High-reach excavator demolition of multi-storey structure

A high-reach excavator is defined as one that has a particularly long boom, allowing controlled
deconstruction of multi-storey or high structures to a safe height where conventional excavators
can continue. Boom lengths can vary in size from 19 to over 50 meters and come with a variety of
specialist attachments to allow the operator precision and accuracy during the demolition process.

The following is recommended for the use of high-reach excavators:

1. Machines are to be operated in strict accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations.

2. Machines to be operated only by trained and competent operators.

NOTE | An experienced Digger Operator is not a fully trained and skilled High-Reach
Operator.

3. High-reach diggers should be operated facing the front of the tracks, NOT SIDE-ON. Side-
on will result in rollover or overloading. Some long-reach excavators are fitted with a boom
angle warning system to alert the operator of this possibility. If this warning system is
installed within the excavator, the operator(s) must not disconnect the system.

4. Machines are to be fitted with ROPS/FOPS.

5. Full written maintenance inspection checks must be performed daily by a competent person
before use.

6. High-reach machines are not designed as cranes, nor should they be used to carry out any
form of lifting duties except where they are required to grab elements of the structure being
demolished.

 Attachments should be matched to the weight and type of work carried out.
  Machines have safe operating limits and distances which must be adhered to in order to
carry out demolition.

7. Working platforms must be checked for stability before any work can be performed to
prevent roll-overs. Any ramps or working platforms constructed from recycled material,
such as concrete and rubble, should be inspected by the operator regularly to identify any
protruding steel or reinforcing that may obstruct or lock up in the excavator's tracks.

8. The operator must ensure that the machine remains within the prescribed safe working
radius at all times. Radius charts should be available for the operator to refer to at all times
within the cabin of the excavator.

9. The operator must watch the fall zone, as falling debris/steel can spear or bounce towards his
or her operating position.

 It is important to work within the safe distances of the machine and also maintain a fall
zone for the debris to travel to the ground.

 A tier system and periodic clearing of debris from the fall zone by another machine may
be required.

10. operator must avoid overloading his or her working tool as this can cause roll-over.

Underwater demolition
Divers must also hold a construction diving Certificate of Competence, which is issued by the
Department of Labour. Underwater demolition is also notifiable under the Regulations.

The primary danger to divers who are cutting or welding is from electric shocks and explosions of
trapped gas in the structure being worked on. Divers must be familiar with the precautions
necessary to keep safe when doing this type of work.

Underwater electrical circuits should have a positive on/off switch located where the tender has
immediate access. Unless the diver is actually welding, the switch must be in the open or "off"
position.

All welding machine frames must be earthed before starting operations. An earth wire should be
used to connect the machine directly to the work.

Power supply cables must be kept clear of welding cables. Insulated gloves should be used by the
diver during underwater electrical welding or welding operations.

Any underwater compartments containing unidentified or explosive gases, or residues that could
release gases, must be purged or flooded prior to cutting or welding operations.

Compartments of structures, which could accumulate welding gas, should be vented prior to the
start of operations.

Other methods
Other methods, including thermic lances, drilling and sawing can be used in conjunction with the
methods outlined in this section. These are specialised uses, and must be carried out only by fully
trained and competent personnel.

Demolition safety
General
Accidents have been caused during demolition by:

1. people falling from unprotected workplaces and through openings;

2. people being struck by falling objects;

3. people being struck by flying objects;

4. sudden collapse of buildings or structures;

5. unprotected electrical cables, wiring or equipment;

6. collision with mobile plant and equipment;

7. fires caused through hot works or burst gas mains;

8. insecure materials in or on the structure;

9. plant being used on elevated slabs without proper precautions being taken;

10. people harmed by cutting equipment; and

11. road accidents caused from overloading or insecure loads during transport.

Safety precautions must be taken to safeguard persons working on the site and members of the public who

are in the vicinity, as well as to protect property likely to be affected by the demolition.

Buildings
To prevent injury from broken glass, all glass should be removed from windows before demolition begins.
Window openings on street frontages or adjacent to access ways must be blocked off to prevent

unauthorised entry.

Openings in walls, floors, roofs and stairwells, through which people could fall, should be boarded up or be
provided with a guardrail and toe-board, or other suitable barrier. Access to areas where flooring has been
removed must be barricaded off, and notices erected to warn of the danger at each point of entry.

All stairs or installed ladders must be checked before use. Never assume that they are sound: it may have

been years since they were last used. If in good condition, leave them as a means of access for as long as

possible.

When dismantling pitched roof trusses, the last frame should be guyed before the second-to-last truss is
removed, as its stability depends on the support from adjacent members. As supports and buttresses are
removed, bracing should be provided to stabilise the remaining structure.
When demolishing a reinforced concrete floor, it may be necessary to remove a small section first in order to
determine the direction of the main steel. Provide support for beams before cutting them free of columns
and walls, if necessary. Columns must be guyed before cutting or weakening the base, so that their fall can
be controlled. Clear openings should be made in floors to allow debris to pass through.

Pre-stressed concrete structures

The demolition of pre-stressed concrete structures is hazardous. Professional advice must be obtained from
a suitably qualified IPENZ-registered engineer. A demolition plan or method statement is also required.

In general, the only safe way to demolish a structure containing pre-stressed concrete is to dismantle the
structure in the reverse order in which it was originally erected. Some buildings will be straightforward, but

special care will be needed in the following circumstances:

1. continuous structures over more than one support or cantilevered structures;

2. suspended structures;

3. structures that had been progressively stressed during construction;

4. structures made of pre-cast members stressed together once erected; and

5. shells, ring beams, tension ties and stressed tanks.

Care must be taken in handling pre-stressed components. For example, long "slender" beams may become
unstable if allowed to tip onto their sides. In general, pre-stressed beams should only be supported near
their ends.

Demolition using "conventional" methods such as balling or concrete breakers may be unsatisfactory due to

the possibility of an uncontrolled collapse, or the sudden release of the stressing steel.

Ducts for post-tensioned pre-stressing tendons have been known to "float" up during concreting, causing
additional hazards for demolition contractors. It may be necessary to confirm the location of stressing

cables or ducts prior to commencement.

 SAFETY IN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

CHEMICAL AND PROCESS SAFETY MANAGEMENT

Subject Code: 23111

CHAPTER 1: PROCESS SAFETY MANAGEMENT (PSM)

Purpose of PSM: Employers must complete a compilation of written process

safety information before conducting any process hazard analysis required by the standard. The
compilation of written process safety information, completed under the same schedule required for
process hazard analyses, will help the employer and the employees involved in operating the process to
identify and understand the hazards posed by those processes involving highly hazardous chemicals.
Process safety information must include information on the hazards of the highly hazardous chemicals
used or produced by the process, information on the technology of the process, and information on the
equipment in the process. Information on the hazards of the highly hazardous chemicals in the process
shall consist of at least the following:

• Toxicity,
• Permissible exposure limits,
• Physical data,
• Reactivity data,
• Corrosively data, and
• Thermal and chemical stability data, and hazardous effects of inadvertent mixing of different
materials..

Information on the technology of the process must include at least the following:
• A block flow diagram or simplified process flow diagram,
• Process chemistry,
• Maximum intended inventory,
• Safe upper and lower limits for such items as temperatures, pressures, flows or compositions, and
• An evaluation of the consequences of deviations, including those affecting the safety and health of
employees.
Where the original technical information no longer exists, such information may be developed in
conjunction with the process hazard analysis in sufficient detail to support the analysis.

1
Element of PSM:

 The process safety management program is divided into 14 elements.

 The U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) 1910.119 define all 14
elements of process safety management plan.

1. Employee Involvement
2. Process Safety Information
3. Process Hazard Analysis
4. Operation Procedure
5. Training
6. Contractors
7. Pre-Start-up Safety Review Technique
8. Mechanical Integrity
9. Hot Work Permit
10. Management of Change
11. Incident Investigation
12. Emergency Planning and Preparation
13. Compliance audit
14. Trade Secret

Process safety is a blend of engineering and management skills focused on preventing catastrophic
accidents and near misses, particularly structural collapse, explosions, fires and toxic releases
associated with loss of containment of energy or dangerous substances such as chemicals and
petroleum products.

 Process safety management is an analytical tool focused on preventing releases of any

substance defined as a "highly hazardous chemical" by OSHA. Process Safety Management
(PSM) refers to a set of interrelated approaches to managing hazards associated with the

2
 process industries and is intended to reduce the frequency and severity of incidents resulting
from releases of chemicals and other energy sources (US OSHA 1993).

 These standards are composed of organizational and operational procedures, design guidance,
audit programs, and a host of other methods.

Process Safety Management Systems from around the world

 American Occupational Health and Safety Administration Process Safety Management

Rule enacted in 1994

 14 Elements - CSChE – The Canadian Society for Chemical Engineering [1]

 20 Elements - AIChE CCPS – The American Institute for Chemical Engineers Center for
Chemical Process Safety [4]

 12 Elements – OSHA – US Occupational Health and Safety Administration PSM Rule

1910.119 [3]

 20 Elements – EU Energy Institute [2]

 Some large corporations may also sell their custom systems or services for
implementing PSM

1. EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION
Perhaps one of the most important mandates, the employee participation clause requires that
employees—including production and maintenance staff—be involved in every aspect of the PSM
programs at their respective worksites. They must also be represented at the meetings where PSM-related
issues are discussed. OSHA requires employee participation to be followed as written, so employers
should create formal plans.

3
2. PROCESS SAFETY INFORMATION
According to OSHA’s PSM mandates, “The employer shall complete a compilation of written process
safety information before conducting any process safety hazard analysis required by the standard.” In
other words, all workers should be able to access and understand the technical data regarding the HHC-
related risks they face on the job.

3. PROCESS HAZARD ANALYSIS

One of the most technical elements of PSM, Process Hazard Analysis requires that engineers and
maintenance leaders analyze the consequences of safety failures. These analyses must be conducted in
teams, and OSHA requires that each team must include one person who is “knowledgeable in the specific
process hazard methodology being used.”

4. OPERATING PROCEDURES
There are plenty of potential chemical hazards following turnarounds and emergency shutdowns. OSHA
inspectors want to see that companies have plans for keeping everyone safe as they start back up.

5. TRAINING
Workers who carry out processes involving highly hazardous chemicals need to be well-trained, and their
training should have been accomplished through a competent source, first-party or otherwise. OSHA
requires that their training be well-documented. Training management software makes it much easier to
track this.

6. CONTRACTORS
Regular employees and contractors alike must be well-informed of the hazards they face. Under the PSM
National Emphasis Program, “The employer shall inform contract employers of the known potential fire,
explosion or toxic release hazards related to the contractor’s work and the process.”

7. PRE-STARTUP SAFETY REVIEW

Are you reviewing your safety procedures every time a worksite starts back up? You should be. OSHA
expects employers to perform pre-startup safety reviews for both new and modified facilities. This rule
applies even if the procedural changes only affect a single component or process.

8. MECHANICAL INTEGRITY
Periodic, documented inspections are required for several systems, including:

 Pressure vessels
 Storage tanks
 Piping systems
 Ventilation systems

The employers or contractors conducting these inspections must not only be officially trained, their
testing procedures must follow “recognized and generally accepted good engineering practices,”
according to OSHA. In other words, your company must be able to explain WHY your inspectors made
their decisions.

9. HOT WORK PERMIT

Every employer needs to issue permits to employees and contractors who weld or perform other high-
temperature work near covered processes. They also need to train their personnel to post and file these
permits when necessary.

10. MANAGEMENT OF CHANGE

Companies need standard procedures for managing changes to process chemicals, technology, equipment
and procedures. Each change also requires the following considerations:

4
  The technical basis for the change.
 The impact of the change on worker safety and health.
 Necessary modifications to operating procedures.
 The necessary time period for the change.
 Authorization requirements for the proposed change.

11. INCIDENT INVESTIGATION

OSHA’s state standard calls for investigations for all incidents that result in—or could have resulted in—
a catastrophic highly hazardous chemical release. Because of that ambiguous wording, cautious
companies must keep every potential HHC-related scenario in mind.

12. EMERGENCY PLANNING AND RESPONSE

Even minor chemical releases can lead to major incidents. This element mandates employers to create
emergency plans for handling smaller HHC releases.

13. COMPLIANCE AUDITS

According to the PSM-NEP, “Employers shall certify that they have evaluated compliance with the
provisions of this section at least every three years to verify that the procedures and practices developed
under the standard are adequate and are being followed.” This element also requires employers to retain
at least their two most recent audit reports.

14. TRADE SECRETS

Until recently, some companies attempted to protect proprietary information by keeping process details
from their employees. To prevent this scenario and enhance worker safety, the “trade secrets” element
gives employees the right to know processes that may affect their health and safety.
Now that you're armed with the top elements in a PSM program, find out how to manage them! Schedule
a demo with BasicSafe today to get more insight into the tools that can make managing PSM easy.

MAJOR INDUSTRIAL DISASTER (CASE STUDIES)

Flixborough Disaster: (1974)

Accident summary

At about 16:53 hours on Saturday 1 June 1974 the Nypro (UK) site at Flixborough was severely
damaged by a large explosion. Twenty-eight workers were killed and a further 36 suffered injuries. It is
recognized that the number of casualties would have been more if the incident had occurred on a
weekday, as the main office block was not occupied. Offsite consequences resulted in fifty-three reported
injuries. Property in the surrounding area was damaged to a varying degree.

Prior to the explosion, on 27 March 1974, it was discovered that a vertical crack in reactor No.5 was
leaking cyclohexane. The plant was subsequently shutdown for an investigation. The investigation that
followed identified a serious problem with the reactor and the decision was taken to remove it and install
a bypass assembly to connect reactors No.4 and No.6 so that the plant could continue production.

During the late afternoon on 1 June 1974 a 20 inch bypass system ruptured, which may have been caused
by a fire on a nearby 8 inch pipe. This resulted in the escape of a large quantity of cyclohexane. The

5
 cyclohexane formed a flammable mixture and subsequently found a source of ignition. At about 16:53
hours there was a massive vapor cloud explosion which caused extensive damage and started numerous
fires on the site.

Eighteen fatalities occurred in the control room as a result of the windows shattering and the collapse of
the roof. No one escaped from the control room. The fires burned for several days and after ten days
those that still raged were hampering the rescue work.

Failings in technical measures

 A plant modification occurred without a full assessment of the potential consequences. Only limited
calculations were undertaken on the integrity of the bypass line. No calculations were undertaken for
the dog-legged shaped line or for the bellows. No drawing of the proposed modification was
produced.
 Plant Modification / Change Procedures: HAZOP
 Design Codes - Pipe work: use of flexible pipes
 No pressure testing was carried out on the installed pipe work modification.
 Maintenance Procedures: recommissioning
 Those concerned with the design, construction and layout of the plant did not consider the potential
for a major disaster happening instantaneously.
 Plant Layout: positioning of occupied buildings
 Control Room Design: structural design to withstand major hazards events
 The incident happened during start up when critical decisions were made under operational stress. In
particular the shortage of nitrogen for inerting would tend to inhibit the venting of off-gas as a method
of pressure control/reduction.
 Operating Procedures: number of critical decisions to be made
 Inerting: reliability/back-up/proof testing

SEVESO DIOXIN DISASTER (1976):

Accident summary

At approximately 12:37 on Saturday 10th July 1976 a bursting disc on a chemical reactor ruptured.
Maintenance staff heard a whistling sound and a cloud of vapour was seen to issue from a vent on the
roof. A dense white cloud, of considerable altitude drifted offsite.

Among the substances in the white cloud was a small deposit of 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
(‘TCDD’ or ‘dioxin’), a highly toxic material.

The release lasted for some twenty minutes. Over the next few days following the release there was
much confusion due to the lack of communication between the company and the authorities in dealing
with this type of situation.

The nearby town of Saveso, located 15 miles from Milan, had some 17,000 inhabitants. No human
deaths were attributed to TCDD but many individuals fell ill. 26 pregnant women who had been exposed
to the release had abortions. Thousands of animals in the contaminated area died and many thousands
more were slaughtered to prevent TCDD entering the food chain.

Failings in technical measures

Operating Procedures: safe operating procedures

6
 The production cycle was interrupted, without any agitation or cooling, prolonging holding of the
reaction mass. Also, the conduct of the final batch involved a series of failures to adhere to the
operating procedures. The original method of distillation patent specified that the charge was acidified
before distillation. However, in the plant procedures the order of these steps was reversed.
Relief Systems / Vent Systems: venting of excessive pressures, sizing of vents for exothermic reactions
 The bursting disc was set at 3.5 bar to guard against excessive pressure in the compressed air used to
transfer the materials to the reactor. Had a bursting disc with a lower set pressure been installed,
venting would have occurred at a lower and less hazardous temperature.
Control Systems: Sensors Alarms / Trips / Interlocks: loss of cooling, agitator failure
 The reactor control systems were inadequate, both in terms of the measuring equipment for a number
of fundamental parameters and in the absence of any automatic control system.
Reaction / Product Testing: calorimeter methods, thermal stability
 The company was aware of the hazardous characteristics of the principal exothermic. However,
studies showed that weaker exothermic existed that could lead to a runaway reaction.
Design Codes - Plant: nature of hazardous releases
 There was no device to collect or destroy the toxic materials as they vented.
Secondary Containment: catch pots
 The bursting disc manufacturer recommended using a second receiver to recover toxic materials. No
such vessel was fitted.
Emergency Response / Spill Control: safety management system, site emergency plan
 Information on the chemicals released and their associated hazards was not available from the
company. Communication was poor and failed both between the company and the local authorities
and within the regulatory authorities

Mexico LPG Tank Farm Fire and Explosion (1984)

Accident summary

At approximately 05:35 hours on 19 November 1984 a major fire and a series of catastrophic explosions
occurred at the government owned and operated PEMEX LPG Terminal at San Juan Ixhuatepec, Mexico
City. As a consequence of these events some 500 individuals were killed and the terminal destroyed.

Three refineries supplied the facility with LPG on a daily basis. The plant was being filled from a
refinery 400 km away, as on the previous day it had become almost empty. Two large spheres and 48
cylindrical vessels were filled to 90% and 4 smaller spheres to 50% full.

A drop in pressure was noticed in the control room and also at a pipeline pumping station. An 8-inch
pipe between a sphere and a series of cylinders had ruptured. Unfortunately the operators could not
identify the cause of the pressure drop. The release of LPG continued for about 5-10 minutes when the
gas cloud, estimated at 200 m x 150 m x 2 m high, drifted to a flare stack. It ignited, causing violent
ground shock. A number of ground fires occurred. Workers on the plant now tried to deal with the escape
taking various action. At a late stage somebody pressed the emergency shut down button.

About fifteen minutes after the initial release the first BLEVE occurred. For the next hour and a half
there followed a series of BLEVEs as the LPG vessels violently exploded. LPG was said to rain down
and surfaces covered in the liquid were set alight. The explosions were recorded on a seismograph at the
University of Mexico.

7
 Failings in technical measures

 The total destruction of the terminal occurred because there was a failure of the overall basis of safety
which included the layout of the plant and emergency isolation features
 Plant Layout: positioning of the vessels
 Isolation: emergency isolation means
 The terminal’s fire water system was disabled in the initial blast. Also the water spray systems were
inadequate.
 Active / Passive Fire Protection: survivability of critical systems, insulation thickness, water deluge
 The installation of a more effective gas detection and emergency isolation system could have averted
the incident. The plant had no gas detection system and therefore when the emergency isolation was
initiated it was probably too late.
 Leak / Gas Detection: gas detection
 Hindering the arrival of the emergency services was the traffic chaos, which built up as local residents
sought to escape the area.
 Emergency Response / Spill Control: site emergency plan, access of emergency vehicles

Bhopal Disaster (1984)

Bhopal is known for its historical records, artificial lakes and greenery but most of all, the city is
remembered across the globe for the worst industrial mishap of the world.
Post-midnight on December 3, 1984, poisonous gas that leaked from the factory of Union Carbide in
Madhya Pradesh capital Bhopal killed thousands of people directly. The incident is now known as the
Bhopal disaster or Bhopal gas tragedy.
As per official records, the Bhopal gas tragedy killed 3,787 people. The figures were updated by the
Madhya Pradesh government later as the immediate official estimate had put the death toll due to gas
leak from Union Carbide factory at 2,259.
However, activists fighting for justice for Bhopal gas tragedy victims put the figures of death between
8,000 and 10,000. In an affidavit, submitted in 2006, the government said that the Bhopal gas leak
caused 5,58,125 injuries that included approximately 3,900 severely and permanently disabling injuries.

HOW DID IT HAPPEN?

The gas leak in the Union Carbide (now known as Dow Chemicals) was reported after midnight on the
intervening night of December 2 and 3. The incident had taken place at the Plant Number C of the Union
Carbide factory in Bhopal.
As the cool morning breeze picked up pace, it carried the poisonous gas leaking from the Union Carbide
factory to rest of the city and killing people - both awake and asleep. As per government's affidavit,
about 3,000 people died of poisonous gas within a few hours of the incident.
It is estimated that about 40 tonnes of methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas and other chemicals leaked from the
Union Carbide factory. Methyl isocyanate is extremely toxic and if its concentration in air touches
21ppm (parts per million), it can cause death within minutes of inhaling the gas. In Bhopal, the level was
multiple times higher.

WHAT CAUSED MIC LEAKAGE?

8
The leakage of gas was reported from Plant Number C. As per official record, methyl isocyanate got
mixed with water used for cooling the plant. The mixture led to generation of volumes of gases, which
put tremendous pressure on Tank Number 610.
The tank cover gave way to building gaseous pressure releasing tonnes of the poisonous gas, which
diffused over large area. Approximately 5 lakh people were exposed to the leakage of methyl isocyanate
gas.

POST-LEAKAGE SCENE
Bhopal had a population of about 8.5 lakh back in 1984 and more than half of its population was
coughing, complaining of itching in eyes, skin and facing breathing problems. The gas caused internal
hemorrhage, pneumonia and death. The villages and slums in the neighbouring areas of the factory were
the worst affected.
The alarm system of the Union Carbide did not work for hours. No alarm was raised by the factory
managers. Suddenly thousands of people started running to hospitals on the morning of December 3 with
their complaints.
Unlike today, Bhopal of 1984 did not have too many hospitals. Two government hospitals could not have
accommodated half of the population of the city. People were suffering, finding it difficult to breathe and
confused. So were doctors, who did not immediately know the reasons for the sudden illness that
afflicted every new rushing patient.
Patients complained of dizziness, breathlessness, skin irritation and rashes, some others reported sudden
blindness. Doctors of Bhopal had never faced a situation like this. They had no experience in dealing
with industrial disaster.
Symptoms of methyl isocyanate exposure were not immediately known to them. And, the two hospitals
reportedly treated around 50,000 patients in first two days of the Bhopal gas leak. Officially, the
government declared that the gas leakage was contained in eight hours, but the city has is still finding it
difficult to come out of its grip even 33 years later.

Sandoz Basel Disaster (1986):

The Sandoz chemical spill was a major environmental disaster caused by a fire and its subsequent
extinguishing at Sandoz agrochemical storehouse in the Schweizerhalle industrial complex, Basel-
Landschaft, Switzerland, on 1 November 1986, which released toxic agrochemicals into the air and
resulted in tons of pollutants entering the Rhine river, turning it red.[1]
The chemicals caused a massive mortality of wildlife downstream, killing among other things a large
proportion of the European eel population in the Rhine,[2] although the situation subsequently recovered
within a couple of years
The stored chemicals included, urea, fluorescent dye, organophosphate insecticides, mercury compounds
and organochlorines.[4] Among the major resulting water pollutants were dinitro-ortho-cresol, the
organophosphate chemicals propetamphos, parathion, disulfoton, thiometon, etrimphos and fenitrothion,
as well as the organochlorine metoxuron.[5]
The cause of the blaze was never established.[6] In 2000, Vincent Cannistraro, a former senior U.S.
intelligence official, stated that the Soviet KGB had ordered the East German Stasi to sabotage the
chemical factory. According to him, the operation's objective was to distract attention from
the Chernobyl disaster six months earlier in the Soviet Union.[7][8][9] The Swiss authorities were
considering opening investigations again.[8][6]
As a consequence of the incident Sandoz extended its health, safety and environment activities and
introduced new procedures for risk and emergency management, including auditing.

9
ENHANCING SAFETY IN CHEMICAL INDUSTRY:

Siting and layout of chemical plant:

The information presented in this section is a general composite of best practices and current
information about the design layout of your phosgene equipment for new construction,
expansions and existing operations. It describes Plant Siting and Layout Guidelines with
information relevant to the design and layout of new or revised facilities. Once the preliminary
design and layout work have been completed, consider conducting a siting and plant layout
review. The information provided in this section should not be considered as a directive or as an
industry standard that readers must adopt or follow. Instead, the information is intended to
provide helpful ideas and guidance that users may wish to consider in a general sense.
The purpose of this section is to provide considerations for safety aspects that could be affected
by the location and layout of phosgene containing equipment with respect to workers,
environmental receptors and the surrounding community. The design layout of phosgene
equipment is an important factor to consider for both new construction and expansions. For
existing operations, this is also important, but the review approach might be different because
the equipment is already fixed in location. Aspects relevant to design layout include being
located near populated buildings, other operations and surrounding community. Consider any
occupied temporary facilities such as trailers used during construction, maintenance activities
and office space.

The guidance discussed in this section is not meant to replace these reference books or similar
reference books, but to provide additional considerations for the siting of phosgene containing
equipment.
“Siting” means conducting a review of the location of equipment and piping with regard to:
1) possible impact on human or environmental receptors, or
2) where other plant operations could have impact on the phosgene equipment. In case one, for
example, design layout might consider such items as predominant wind direction and populated
areas down wind. In case two, the considerations might include items such as any flammable or
potential explosive processes, which - if an event occurred - could have impact on the phosgene
equipment.

10
The following section on Plant Siting and Layout Guidelines provides information relevant to
the design and layout of new or revised facilities. It is important to note that the following
criteria represent considerations often used by facilities handling hazardous materials. However,
given the highly toxic nature of phosgene, during the construction of new phosgene handling
facilities, or significant modifications to existing facilities, facilities should also consider what
secondary mitigation measures may also be necessary or appropriate to address the potential risk
to local populations resulting from significant loss of containment.

Items to consider may include:

A) Plant Siting
• Locating phosgene containing units with consideration of prevailing wind
direction as far as possible from the general community outside the site
boundaries.
• Protecting on-site buildings occupied by a large number of people through a
combination of engineering controls, administrative procedures and/or distance,
together within a site to minimize the spread of phosgenecontaining areas.
• Conducting a facility siting risk assessment regarding location of phosgene
facilities within a site
• Locating phosgene containing units away from other processes which have
potential for explosion or fire, or events which may impact or damage equipment
containing phosgene.
• Incorporating additional safety and loss prevention precautions if phosgene
must be transported across plant boundaries either by pipeline or in pressurized
containers.

B) Plant Layout
• Providing that all sections of the plant are easily accessible for maintenance and
emergency response purposes.
• Locating phosgene generating or processing sections in plant areas with low
traffic density whenever possible and minimizing phosgene containing pipelines.
• Having additional engineering controls for prevention and mitigation of leaks
from the equipment where plant sections have special process conditions, or
where because of the surrounding situation, other controls may be needed. There
are several other parts of Section 6 that provide guidance for such controls
including materials of construction, secondary containment, and spill mitigation.
Refer to those parts for additional information. Designs that incorporate “layers
of protection” rather than relying on a single method of control are relevant in
this capacity
• Selecting the location of the control building in relation to the phosgene
containing sections and with consideration of the prevailing wind direction.
Wherever the selected location, having an elevated fresh air intake in the control

11
building and maintaining the building under positive pressure have been used to
minimize infiltration of phosgene in the event of a release.
• Ensuring that temporary facilities (such as trailers) used during construction,
maintenance contractors or office space for plant support personnel are located
with consideration to the hazards of phosgene. Emergency procedures should
include the occupants of these temporary facilities. C) Design Final Review Once
the preliminary design and layout work have been completed, consideration
should be given to conducting a siting and plant process or a simple review using
a series of questions or checklist
Other considerations such as pressurized control buildings, “safe havens,”
phosgene leak detectors and alarms, explosion resistant windows and walls can
also be relevant. In addition to the plant siting and layout options noted above,
the following are some possible questions that can be used in facility siting
reviews.
The questions can be applied to both existing plants and new plants.
1. For facilities in the United States, has a phosgene release been addressed as
part of the US EPA’s RMP Plan Worst Case and Alternate Case Scenarios?
2. Do you have local plot plans?
3. Do you have local maps showing potential offsite exposure / receptor sites?
4. Do you have historical meteorological data, wind rose and stability classes?
5. Has the maximum release quantity of phosgene been identified?
6. Are there occupied buildings or occupied temporary trailers in or near (e.g.,
within 100 meters) the possible phosgene release or storage points?
7. Are there roadways (public or private), bridges or tunnels near the possible
phosgene release or storage points?
8. Is there some other public transportation (e.g., railways, marine, aviation) near
possible phosgene release or storage points?
9. Has access for maintenance equipment (e.g., cranes, forklifts, and cherry-
picker devices) been addressed in the design of the phosgene storage and
handling areas?
10. Has the design addressed multiple and reliable emergency escape routes for
egress? Have these routes considered any temporary occupied trailer facilities?
11.Is the phosgene storage vessel potentially exposed to a credible external fire
scenario?
12.Is there a need for, or consideration of, a formal API RP 752 1. Facility Siting
Study or Screening Study? Were appropriate standards used to determine layout
and spacing of the phosgene facilities?
13.Is there a need to examine the discharge orientation of phosgene safety relief
devices (e.g., pressure safety valves; vent scrubber discharges)?
14.Are there any building air intakes positioned such that they could induce
phosgene vapors?
15.Are any buildings intended to be designated as temporary safe-havens, and if
so, what criteria are used (pressurized, double airlocks, etc.)?

12
 16.Can phosgene migrate through underground sewers/ or closed drain systems?
17.Have you identified and evaluated every “low” point (e.g., sump, manhole, or
other place) where phosgene vapor could collect?
18.Has the electrical area classification been considered?
19.Has the drainage and run-off from deluge systems and unusual intensive rain
been considered? Has pooling in curbed or diked areas also been considered?
20.Has the location of the control room and operator shelter, and degree of
building airtight integrity been considered?
21.Are there overhead power lines?
22.Have you considered a controlled access area in or near the phosgene facilities
and the distance (degree of separation) from uncontrolled access areas that are
used by other nonphosgene unit personnel?
23.Have you considered suitable distance between the phosgene facilities and the
plant boundary property line (fence line)?
24.Is the property adequately fenced to prohibit access by the general public?
25.Is the phosgene facility enclosed or open-structure construction? Will a small
leak be able to dissipate or will it be contained in a building?
26.Is there emergency lighting for egress in the event of a power failure?
27.Is there an emergency alarm system for phosgene releases?

Hazardous Area Classification for Flammable Gases and Vapors

Area classification may be carried out by direct analogy with typical installations described in
established codes, or by more quantitative methods that require a more detailed knowledge of the plant.
The starting point is to identify sources of release of flammable gas or vapour. These may arise from
constant activities; from time to time in normal operation; or as the result of some unplanned event. In
addition, inside process equipment may be a hazardous area, if both gas/vapour and air are present,
though there is no actual release.

Catastrophic failures, such as vessel or line rupture are not considered by an area classification study. A
hazard identification process such as a Preliminary Hazard Analysis (PHA) or a Hazard and Operability
Study (HAZOP) should consider these abnormal events.

The most commonly used standard in the UK for determining area extent and classification is BS EN
60079 part 101, which has broad applicability. The current version makes clear the direct link between
the amounts of flammable vapour that may be released, the ventilation at that location, and the zone
number. It contains a simplistic calculation relating the size of zone to a rate of release of gas or vapour,
but it is not helpful for liquid releases, where the rate of vaporisation controls the size of the hazardous
area.
Other sources of advice, which describe more sophisticated approaches, are the Institute of Petroleum
Model Code of Practice (Area Classification Code for Petroleum Installations, 2002), and the Institution
of Gas Engineers Safety Recommendations SR25, (2001). The IP code is for use by refinery and
petrochemical type operations. The IGE code addresses specifically transmission, distribution and
storage facilities for natural gas, rather than gas utilisation plant, but some of the information will be
relevant to larger scale users.

13
 Zoning

Hazardous areas are defined in DSEAR as "any place in which an explosive atmosphere may occur in
quantities such as to require special precautions to protect the safety of workers". In this context, 'special
precautions' is best taken as relating to the construction, installation and use of apparatus, as given in BS
EN 60079 -101.
Area classification is a method of analysing and classifying the environment where explosive gas
atmospheres may occur. The main purpose is to facilitate the proper selection and installation of
apparatus to be used safely in that environment, taking into account the properties of the flammable
materials that will be present. DSEAR specifically extends the original scope of this analysis, to take into
account non-electrical sources of ignition, and mobile equipment that creates an ignition risk.

Hazardous areas are classified into zones based on an assessment of the frequency of the occurrence and
duration of an explosive gas atmosphere, as follows:

 Zone 0: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is present continuously or for long periods;
 Zone 1: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is likely to occur in normal operation;
 Zone 2: An area in which an explosive gas atmosphere is not likely to occur in normal operation and,
if it occurs, will only exist for a short time.
Various sources have tried to place time limits on to these zones, but none have been officially adopted.
The most common values used are:

 Zone 0: Explosive atmosphere for more than 1000h/yr

 Zone 1: Explosive atmosphere for more than 10, but less than 1000 h/yr
 Zone 2: Explosive atmosphere for less than 10h/yr, but still sufficiently likely as to require controls
over ignition sources.
Where people wish to quantify the zone definitions, these values are the most appropriate, but for the
majority of situations a purely qualitative approach is adequate.

When the hazardous areas of a plant have been classified, the remainder will be defined as non-
hazardous, sometimes referred to as 'safe areas'.

The zone definitions take no account of the consequences of a release. If this aspect is important, it may
be addressed by upgrading the specification of equipment or controls over activities allowed within the
zone. The alternative of specifying the extent of zones more conservatively is not generally
recommended, as it leads to more difficulties with equipment selection, and illogicalities in respect of
control over health effects from vapours assumed to be present. Where occupiers choose to define
extensive areas as Zone 1, the practical consequences could usefully be discussed during site inspection.

As an example:

A proposal was made to zone an aircraft hanger as Zone 1, although the use of fuels handled above their
flash point would be a rare event. It proved difficult to obtain a floor-cleaning machine certified for Zone
1 areas, though the floor needed sweeping regularly. The option of writing out an exception to normal
instructions to allow a non Ex-protected machine to be used regularly is not recommended. Instead, a
more realistic assessment of the zones is needed, and special instructions issued for the rare event of
using more volatile fuels.

A hazardous area extent and classification study involves due consideration and documentation of the
following:

 The flammable materials that may be present;

 The physical properties and characteristics of each of the flammable materials;
 The source of potential releases and how they can form explosive atmospheres;
 Prevailing operating temperatures and pressures;
 Presence, degree and availability of ventilation (forced and natural);

14
 Dispersion of released vapours to below flammable limits;
 The probability of each release scenario.
These factors enable appropriate selection of zone type and zone extent, and also of equipment. The IP
code gives a methodology for estimating release rates from small diameter holes with pressurised
sources, and shows how both the buoyancy and momentum of the release influence the extent of a zone.
It tabulates values for an LPG mixture, gasoline, natural gas, and refinery hydrogen for pressures up to
100barg. Similarly the IGE code gives a methodology for natural gas, relating the leak rate to the hole-
size and the operating pressure. The tables of dispersion distances to the zone boundary address in the
main quite large diameter deliberate vents. There is in practice little overlap between the codes.

The results of this work should be documented in Hazardous Area Classification data sheets, supported
by appropriate reference drawings showing the extent of the zones around (including above and below
where appropriate) the plant item.

Layer of Protection Analysis

LOPA is the newest methodology for hazard evaluation and risk assessment. On a sliding scale
of sophistication and rigor, LOPA lies between the qualitative end of the scale (characterized by
methods such as hazard and operability, or HAZOP, analysis and what-if analysis) and the
quantitative end (characterized by methods using fault trees and event trees). LOPA helps the
analyst make consistent decisions on the adequacy of existing or proposed layers of protection
against an accident scenario. The technique is ideally suited for companies striving to meet
specific risk targets or to lower risk as low as reasonably practicable (ALARP).

15
LOPA is a risk assessment methodology which uses simplified, conservative rules to define risk as a
function of both frequency and potential consequence severity. LOPA is defined as a simplified risk
assessment of a one cause - one consequence pair [8]. Companies have developed their own protocols
for application of LOPA principles within their risk management systems. A variety of approaches are
employed which could use order-of-magnitude, half order-of-magnitude, and decimal math. For
simplicity, this paper will use the order-of-magnitude math originally shown in [4]. Conceptually, LOPA
is used to understand how a process deviation can lead to a hazardous consequence if not interrupted
by the successful operation of a safeguard called an independent protection layer (IPL). An IPL is a
safeguard that can prevent a scenario from propagating to a consequence of concern without being
adversely affected by either the initiating event or by the action (or inaction) of any other protection
layer in the same scenario.

Layer 1: Process Design (e.g. inherently safer designs); x

Layer 2: Basic controls, process alarms, and operator supervision; x

Layer 3: Critical alarms, operator supervision, and manual intervention; x

Layer 4: Automatic action (e.g. SIS or ESD); x

Layer 5: Physical protection (e.g. relief devices); x

Layer 6: Physical protection (e.g. dikes); x

Layer 7: Plant emergency response; and not shown x

16
Layer 8: Community emergency response

Safety Integrity Level:

Safety integrity level (SIL) is defined as a relative level of risk-reduction provided by a safety
function, or to specify a target level of risk reduction. In simple terms, SIL is a measurement of
performance required for a safety instrumented function (SIF).
The requirements for a given SIL are not consistent among all of the functional safety standards. In
the functional safety standards based on the IEC 61508 standard, four SILs are defined, with SIL 4
the most dependable and SIL 1 the least. The applicable SIL is determined based on a number of
quantitative factors in combination with qualitative factors such as development process and safety
life cycle management.

Assignment:
Assignment of SIL is an exercise in risk analysis where the risk associated with a specific hazard,
that is intended to be protected against by a SIF, is calculated without the beneficial risk reduction
effect of the SIF. That unmitigated risk is then compared against a tolerable risk target. The
difference between the unmitigated risk and the tolerable risk, if the unmitigated risk is higher than
tolerable, must be addressed through risk reduction of the SIF. This amount of required risk
reduction is correlated with the SIL target. In essence, each order of magnitude of risk reduction that
is required correlates with an increase in one of the required SIL numbers.
There are several methods used to assign a SIL. These are normally used in combination, and may
include:

 Risk matrices
 Risk graphs
 Layers of protection analysis (LOPA)

There are several problems inherent in the use of safety integrity levels. These can be summarized
as follows:

 Poor harmonization of definition across the different standards bodies which utilize SIL
 Process-oriented metrics for derivation of SIL
 Estimation of SIL based on reliability estimates
 System complexity, particularly in software systems, making SIL estimation difficult to
impossible

Method for Specifying SIL Requirements:

17
.

Risk Reduction:

18
External Risk Reduction Facility:.

IEC 61508:
Safety related system* based on technology other than electrical/electronic/programmable
electronic(E/E/PE) technology
Measure to reduce or mitigate the risks which are separate and distinct from, and do not use, E/E/PE
safety- related systems or other technology safety-related systems
For Ex. Relief valve, disaster monitor, creditable control system function,
Shielding, emergency management, activatedwater containment system

SIL Ranges:

DEMAND MODE OF OPERATION

Safety Average Risk Reduction

Integrity Probability of

19
 Level (SIL) Failure on Demand

4  10-5 to <10-4 >10,000 to  100,000

3  10-4 to <10-3 >1000 to  10,000

2  10-3 to <10-2 >100 to  1000

1  10-2 to <10-1 >10 to  100

Safety standards

The following standards use SIL as a measure of reliability and/or risk reduction.

 ANSI/ISA S84 (Functional safety of safety instrumented systems for the process industry
sector)
 IEC 61508 (Functional safety of electrical/electronic/programmable electronic safety related
systems)
 IEC 61511 (Safety instrumented systems for the process industry sector)
 IEC 61513 (nuclear industry)
 IEC 62061 (safety of machinery)
 EN 50128 (railway applications – software for railway control and protection)
 EN 50129 (railway applications – safety related electronic systems for signalling)
 EN 50402 (fixed gas-detection systems)
 ISO 26262 (automotive industry)
 MISRA, various (guidelines for safety analysis, modeling, and programming in automotive
applications)
 Defense Standard 00-56 Issue 2 – accident consequence

CHAPTER 2: UNIT OPERATION AND PROCESS HAZARD

Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID):

A piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) is a drawing in the process industry. A P&ID shows all
piping, including the “physical sequence of branches, reducers, valves, equipment, instrumentation and
control interlocks.” A P&ID is used to operate the process system, since it shows the piping of the
process flow along with the installed equipment and instrumentation.

20
• P&ID – Piping and instrumentation diagrams (PID) describe the process flow for chemical
processes. A great deal of information can be represented in a “simple” diagram. Information
about the piping is represented, including pipe size, pipe material of construction, insulation, and
pipe specification. Location of valves, pumps, check valves, filters, strainers, and hoses are
simply displayed for an easy-to-understand and -identify arrangement.

• Instrumentation is displayed using standardized symbols and labeling representing the process-
sensing and -control elements. Instrumentation includes:

• Temperature Elements

• Flow Meters and Flow Transmitters

• Pressure Gages and Pressure Transmitters

• Level Gages and Level Transmitters

• Analyzers (pH, gas, LEL, etc.)

• Weight Instruments (scales, load cells)

• since it shows the piping of the process flow along with the installed equipment and
instrumentation. P & IDs play a key role in maintaining and modifying the process they describe,
because it is important to demonstrate the physical sequence of equipment and systems,
including how these systems connect.

Items to Include In a P&ID

The following list outlines the items that typically are found in a P&ID:

• Instrumentation and designations

• Mechanical equipment with names and numbers

• All valves and their identifications

• Process piping, sizes, and identification

• Vents, drains, special fittings, sampling lines, reducers, increasers, and swaggers

• Permanent start-up and flush lines

• Flow directions

• Interconnections references

• Control inputs and outputs, interlocks

• Interfaces for class changes

• Computer control system

• Identification of components and subsystems delivered by the process

21
 • Typically, process flow diagrams of a single unit process will include the following:

• Major equipment items

• All equipment sizes with relevant information as required.

• All equipment names and numbers Process piping.

• All major process lines.

• All major utility lines involving material flow.

• All stream numbers, temperatures, pressures, flows. Control valves and other major valves.

• Connections with other systems.

• Major bypass and recirculation streams.

• Operational data (temperature, pressure, mass flow rate, density, etc.).

• Process stream names.

UNIT OPERATION

In such operations, there is no chemical reaction to form a new product. It indicates no chemical change
but mechanical or physical change like distillation, cutting, heating, cooling, drying, mixing, grinding,
washing, packing, transferring, filtering, handling, radiation etc.

Some general operations in a sequence are as follows - Steam distillation : Live steam is passed in the
still to recover the solvent. Vapours of solvent and water are passed in a shell-tube type condenser and

22
cooler. Then the cooled distillate are taken in a separator where solvent and water separate out and are
diverted to respective storage. .

Heating : Heating operation can be done either directly or indirectly. In direct heating, steam is passed in
the material directly to heat the material. In indirect heating, heating media (e.g. steam, hot oil, hot flue
gases etc.) are passed in jacket / coil of the vessel.

Cooling : It can be done directly or indirectly. In direct cooling, ice or cooled water is added to the
material directly. In indirect cooling, cooling media (raw water, chilled brine, cold oil etc.) are passed in
jacket / coil of the vessel.

Drowning means transferring reaction mass from the reaction vessel to a tank which is containing water
or other medium (e.g. dilute acid, dilute alkali etc.) Filtration : This operation is for separating solids and
liquids. The conventional items used for this operation are press, nutch, centrifuge. The filtration can be
done either under vacuum or pressure or at atmospheric pressure.

Pulverisation : This operation is done to reduce size of the material. Usually crushers, pulverises, ST mill
are used.

Blending : This operation is done in a blender to mix thoroughly two or more dried products.

Washing : This operation is done in presses, nutches or centrifuge to remove soluble impurities and
acid/alkali from the product.

Packing is filling up of finished product in the containers.

Storing of liquid raw materials : Bulk liquid raw materials which are received in tanker loads are emptied
out in storage provided for this purpose.

Unit operations are classified as under :

1. Mechanical unit operations –

(1) Size reduction .

(2) Size enlargement, mixing, agitation, blending and kneading and

23
(3) Separations e.g. gravity settling, filtration, centrifugal, impingement, screening, jigging, magnetic,
electrostatic, hydro and flotation.

2. Mass transfer operations - evaporation, distillation, absorption, humidification, extraction,

leaching, crystallisation, ion exchange, adsorption, drying.

3. Heat transfer operations - conduction, convection, radiation.

4. Material handling, transportation & conveyance - pumping, compression, fluidisation and

containerisation (solid filling).

Controls : Distillation operation needs trip and alarm device to stop heating as soon as cooling stops. In
addition, the vessel should have a safety valve to discharge any accidental pressure. In centrifuging,
blending, grinding, crushing, pulverising or sieving of any flammable or explosive substance, inert
blanketing, earthing and avoidance of sources of ignition are essential. Where stirring and heating both
are going on, stirrer failure alarm and a device to cut heat source, are necessary.

Fertilizer Industry:

The fertilizer plants, particularly those manufacturing ammonia are amongst the most complex plants in
the chemcialindustry . The processes involved in the production of ammonia, nitric acid, phosphoric
acid, sulphuric acid and their conversion to various types of fertilizers involve handling of various
hazardous substances and cover a wide range of technologies. The operating conditions are also severe
and affect the safety of

equipment and its material of construction, personnel involved and the environment.

As part of a national study on process

safety and work environment in various types of fertilizer plants by the Central

and the three Regional Labour Institutes working under the Directorate General

Factory Advice Service and Labour Institutes, Mumbai, a study on process

safety in fertilizer industry was undertaken during 1994-95. The objectives of the study were to (a) gain
an insight into the hazards inherent in the processes of manufacturing fertilizers, (b) evaluate their safety
and health implications and (c)recommend preventive measures for improving the standard of safety
and health.

METHODOLGY :

The study on "Process Safety" was conducted on 18 fertilizer units comprising nitrogenous, phosphatic
and mixed fertilizer producing units. Information on the technology, process, built-in safety, etc., was
obtained from technical literature and from various publications of the Fertilizer Association of India.

24
Questionnaires on technical aspects were prepared and information obtained from the plants, P&I
diagrams, block diagrams, material balance diagrams, material safety data sheets, reactions, documents
on detailed manufacturing processes, startup and shutdown procedures, safety manuals emergency plans
were studied and discussed with management personnel. The technique of hazard and operability study
was also applied to search possible hazards and operational difficulties. Areas and activities were
inspected. Personal interviews were conducted with management, supervisors and operators to derive the
information regarding existing safety measures. Suggestions to improve the systems were discussed with
the management and recommendations were compiled.

Pesticide Industry:

Pesticide is a chemical used to destroy an organism detrimental to human interest. It includes

insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, rodenticides, bactericides, miticides, nematocides, moUuscicides.
They are generally halogenated (Cyclodienes, Bischlorophenyls, Cycloparaffins, Organo-chlorines
and Chlorinated terpenes) or Organophosphorus (Parathion, malathion, TEPP, OMPA, DDVP, abate,
ciodrin etc. ) type. They are classified as extremely hazardous, highly hazardous, moderately hazardous,
slightly hazardous etc. For these classifications and their details including Lethal Dose values see
Reference No. 1 given at the end of this Chapter. Strict safety rules are necessary during their processing,
handling, packaging etc. Exhaust ventilation and use of PPE are essential.

Statutory Provisions:

Schedule 15, Rule 102, GFR, Sch.l5, Rule 114, MFR and Sch.29,Rule 95, TNFR give statutory
provisions for manufacture and handling of dangerous pesticides listed in Appendix-1 to that Schedule.
Appendix-11 gives cautionary placard.

The measures include prohibition of employment of women and young

persons, air space of 500 m3 or more per person, efficient exhaust draft on charging, discharging,
blending and powder or liquid preparation, sound and sloping floor with gutters and drainage, daily
washing, workbenches of stainless steel, waste container with lid and waste disposal by burning, safe
disposal of empty containers, no manual or direct handling, protective clothing and their daily washing,
medical facilities including doctor and antidotes and medical examination - pre employment, quarterly
examination and record in Form 20, GFR additional rest interval of 10 minutes before each meal and
before the end of the day's work, washing and bathing facilities with at least 50% bathrooms and 1 place
for 5 workers with clean towels, soap and nail brushes, prohibition of food and drink in workrooms,
cloak room for clothing and PPE, mess room with incharge person and prior permission o? the CIF to
start manipulation of a new pesticide i.e. not listed in Appendix 1.

Sch.l5, u/r 102, GFR defines "pesticides" as agents used for the purpose of destroying or arresting the
growth or increase of harmful organism and defines "dangerous pesticides" as those listed in Appendix-1
as under:

Appendix-1, List of Dangerous Pesticides (Under GFR & MFR both) Prathion Mercury compounds
Diazinon Methyl bromide Hexaethyl tetraphosphate Cyanides Tetrathyl pyrophosphate Chlordane
Tetraethyl ditripyrophosphate Endrin Demeton (systex) Aldrin Schradan (OMPR) Dieldrin Para-Oxon
(E. 600) Texaphene Methyl Parathion Dinitro-o-cresol Dimefox Arsenical compounds Sulphotepp
Cryloite EPN Pentachlorophenol Nicotine or its compounds Carbojuran

25
This list gives commonly better to refer the exhaustive Insecticides Act. used pesticides. It is list u/s 3(e)
of the

Sch.l5, u/r 114, MFR, defines "dangerous pesticides" as those defined in Sec. 3(e) of the Insecticides Act
1968 or any other substance declared as such by the CIF in writing. List of Insecticides u/ s 3(e) of the
Act is very long with addition from time to time.

Sch.29, u/r 95, TNFR does not give Appendix1 i.e. a list of dangerous pesticides but defines dangerous
pesticides' as any product proposed or used for controlling, destroying or repelling any pest or for
preventing growth or mitigating effects of such growth including any of its formulations which is
considered toxic under and is covered by the Insecticides Act, 1968 and the rules made there under any
other products as may be notified from time to time by the State Government.

"Manipulation" includes mixing, blending, formulating, filling, emptying, packing or otherwise

handling. Appendix-11, Cautionary Placard is similar in all above three State Rules and is reproduced
below:

Cautionary Placard

1. Pesticides are generally poisonous substances.

2. Therefore in rooms where these are handled

(a) do not chew, eat, drink Or smoke; keep food or drink away from pesticides.
(b) use the protective wear supplied e.g. gloves, aprons, clothes, boots, etc.

3. Before meals or when any part of the body has come in contact with the pesticides, wash with soap
and water.
4. Before leaving the factory, take a bath and change your clothing.
5. Do not use any container that has contained a pesticide as a pot for food or drink.
6. Do not handle any pesticide with bare hands; use a handled scoop.
7. Avoid spilling of any pesticide on body, floor or table.
8. Maintain scrupulous cleanliness of body and clothing and of your surroundings.
9. In case of sickness like nausea, vomiting or giddiness, inform the manager who will make necessary
arrangements for treatment.

Effects and Controls :

Pesticides and agrochemicals enter into the body through inhalation, ingestion or skin absorption. They
are classified as toxic, harmful, corrosive, irritant, flammable, explosive or oxidising. Toxicity is mostly
denoted by LD,, or LC,, values. All agrochemicals should be labelled, transported safely and correctly
stored in a room (locked and cool). Containers should be opened only after wearing correct respirator
(positive air pressure), neoprene or plastic hand gloves, aprons, boots etc. Protective clothing are always
essential while handling pesticides. Inhalation of vapour should be avoided. Contact with skin, eyes and
clothing should also be avoided. Contaminated clothing should be immediately changed, the entire body
.should be thoroughly washed with soap and water. After working with pesticides, shower bath should be
taken and clothing should be changed. Contaminated equipment should be cleaned with soap or soda ash.

26
Local exhaust ventilation on filling line must be effective.

Types of effects may be acute (immediate) or chronic (prolonged or slow delayed). Some common
symptoms are - dizziness, headache, shaking and weakness. More toxic effects may cause convulsions,
irrational behaviour or unconsciousness. First-aid treatment includes - removal of affected person to a
safe, clean and airy place, washing of the part affected and to put the person in recovery position
(slipping on shoulder). On swallowing, vomiting should be induced if person is in consciousness.
Medical charcoal and plenty of water may also be 'given.

Effect of organophosphorous pesticides is to reduce cholinesterase level in body and it can be noticed by
pin-point in pupils (eyes).

Blood cholinesterase activity test should be carried out every 15 days. If the level is found less than
62.5%, the worker must be transferred to another place where no exposure is possible. After medical
treatment and. safe report he can be put back to his plant. But meantime the engineering controls should
be provided or revised to eliminate the exposure. Leakage and spillage must be removed. Defect in PPE
should be checked and removed.

An Office Circular dated 27-7-1995 of Factory Inspection Office, Bharuch, sent to pesticide factories,
seems to be more important and suggests following safety measures :

1. For filling bottles or small containers of liquid, granules or powder, automatic filling machines
with closed chamber and attached local exhaust ventilation must be used. Weighing, plugging and
sealing operations and conveyor movement should also be automatic and under suction chamber so that a
worker has not to touch any thing and no spillage, vapour or dust shall touch his body.

2. To fill barrel or big container a chamber with exhaust hood and ventilation should be used.

3. To contain or collect leaking liquid small bund and pit shall be provided. Spilled pesticide should
be neutralised or washed with dry clean cloth and stored in a dustbin with spring-lid. Then it should be
safely disposed or burnt out.

4. Workers engaged to shift, move, clean or pack the filled (plugged) container or to clean any
spillage, shall be given goggles, long sleeved shirt and pent, good quality rubber hand gloves, waterproof
suit or apron, gumboot and air-line respirator. Safety showers and bathrooms shall be provided.

5. Illiterate, untrained and temporary contract workers are exposed to more risk. Therefore such
training should be given to them so that they can read or understand the necessary precautions.

6. Pedestal or positive air fan removes the vapour or dust from one worker to another. Therefore it is
inadvisable. Exhaust or negative air suction and air-line respirators are the effective remedies. Exhaled
air should be passed through carbon bed filter or effective absorber and final vent discharge should be
within safe limit.

7. Regular air monitoring at work place, ppm record and leakage checking are necessary.

8. A record of full name, address, signature, date of joining and photograph of all the workers at the
time of first employment are useful to detect cases of delayed effects or after-service effects.

9. If pre-employment and subsequent medical examination shows blood cholinesterase level less than
62.5%, that worker should not be employed in pesticide work. If RBC level is also low, the worker
should be kept away for 3 months from such process. Sufficient stock of PAN, Atropine etc. (antidotes)
should be kept in the factory first-aid centre.

27
10. The workers must be aware that in case of symptoms (dizziness, headache, vibration, vomit etc.),
which doctor they have to approach. They will follow the medical advice.

11. In each shift, qualified and trained supervisor shall strictly supervise the working conditions, work
habits, methods, use of PPE, washing, cleaning and no smoking, eating or drinking in work area.

Specified medical treatment is as under :

1. In case of skin contact of-organo-phosphorous, it should be immediately treated with solution of 5-

10% ammonia or 2-5% chloramine.

2. Give injection Atropine sulphate according to age, 2 to 4 mg intravenous or intramuscular. Continue

this injection every 5 to 10 minutes till pupils size and heart beats become normal.

3. Give injection PAM (2-Pyridine Aldoxime Methochloride) in glucose slowly. Toxogonin is a

condensation product of Pyridine aldoxime and dichlorodimethyl ether.

4. Maintain fluid and electrolyte balance.

5. Give antibiotic medicine to prevent secondary infection.

6. Give Frusemide if lungs are swallowed or water filled.

7. If breathing stops, artificial respiration must be tried till doctor comes. The patient should be kept in a
cool and quiet place. Give oxygen if difficulty is in breathing. If breathing trouble is more, the victim
should be shifted to hospital and put on ventilator.

Chlorine- Alkali:

Risk of electrocution, which may be caused by contact with faulty electrical installations or equipment
(electrolysis cells) or when the work is carried out in a humid environment where electricity, chemical
solutions and water are present.

Hazard of explosion due to the formation of hydrogen/chlorine mixture in the presence of ignition
sources, such as UV radiation, electrical equipment and hot surfaces. Such an explosion can occur when
high concentrations of hydrogen are produced inside the liquefaction and absorption installations.

28
Explosion as a result of overpressure in cylinders may cause injuries. Injuries of the eyes and other parts
of the body caused by splashed liquids from electrolysis cells, uncontrolled chemical reactions, during
addition of solutions and/or substances into an electrolysis cell, and during drainage of caustic soda
from an electrolysis cell Exposure to adverse working environments (high temperature and humidity,
vapours of corrosive substances).

Exposure to chlorine can cause the burning of eyes, the nose and the mouth; lacrimation and rhinitis;
coughing, sneezing, choking and substantial pain; nausea and vomiting; headaches and dizziness;
syncope; fatal pulmonary oedema; pneumonia; conjunctivitis; keratitis; pharyngitis; burning chest pain;
dyspnoea; haemoptysis; hypoxaemia; dermatitis; skin blisters.

Exposure to caustic soda can cause severe burns, serious damage to the eyes and the respiratory tract,
and in some cases severe pneumonia.

The symptoms are: sneezing, throat pains and/or a runny nose (caustic soda is formed throughout the
production of chlorine and is highly corrosive).

Discomfort and psychological problems related to the prolonged wearing of protective clothing (such as
heavy boots, aprons and other impermeable pieces), and to the worries (sometimes serious) caused by
the awareness of the inherent dangers of this work

Preventive measures:

 Use safety shoes with non-skid soles and resistant to corrosive chemicals
 Check periodically electrical equipment for safety before use and call a qualified electrician for
testing and repair of faulty or suspect electrical equipment
 Install effective exhaust ventilation to prevent air pollution; if necessary, wear personal
respiratory protective equipement and instruct employees how to use it
 Wear respirators when exposed to harmful aerosols, dusts, gases or vapours
 Wear suitable clothing according to the nature of the work: long-sleeved shirts, long trousers,
headgear, gloves and appropriate boots
 Wear appropriate eye protection; consult a safety supervisor or a supplier
 Wear appropriate ear protection; consult a safety supervisor or a supplier
 Apply chemical safety rules when handling or working with hazardous chemicals; read MSDSs
and consult a safety supervisor regarding specific chemicals
 Use safe lifting and moving techniques for heavy or awkward loads; use mechanical aids for the
lifting of heavy loads

EXPLOSION:-

Mechanical Explosion

Mechanical exposure is rusting of and pressurize container due to over pressurization, over stress,
weakening of the container as a result of heat, corrosion aur mechanical damage or buy an internal
explosion (chemical or physical).

29
Mechanical Damage (Weakening Of Container)

Ductile Failure - forces such as pressure comet temperature and load are working on the material of tank/
container, vessel and line. At relatively low stresses coma the material deforms elastically- the expansion
is proportional the stress. If the stress is removed the material will bring back to its original length
because individual atom of the material want to return to the positive where the magnetic force holding
the atom together are balanced.

However, a stage is reached where the magnetic force are insufficient for bringing the individual atom
back to their original location in the structure, and the metal being to deform plastically. Plastic strain is
not recoverable if the stress is taken off of and material starts narrow down rapidly. Eventual the metal
ruptures.

Creep failure :- Creep failure can occur in service because of prolonged minor over helping. And
increase in temperature of only 50`C can reduce the safe operation live by much as 90%. In fact a stress
that will give 11 year life at 500`C main cause of rupture in our at700`C.

Creep involve Permanent deformation which increase with time, leading to cracking at the boundaries of
the grain of the material and eventual rupture.

Brittle Failure :- when sudden shock ( sudden release of force- temperature) are applied to component
and structure, it become weak and eventual ruptures. A brittle material is much less capable of absorbing
for shock loading.

Metal fatigue- the salt development of cracks in structure until static rupture ensues, is caused by the
incidence of fluctuating stresses ( frequent shutdown and startup) in service.

Corrosion:- electrode as chemical attack on materials leads to material remove (pitting or wastage of
cracking).

[Tensile stress – pulling out

Comprehensive stress – pushing in

Shear stress - sliding & slipping

It’s deformation is called strain].

Physical Explosion-

Sudden formation of large quantities of vapour caused by water or some other liquid coming into contact
with some hotter material.

Examples

Vacuum distillation column- pockets of water lying is low part of the column come in contact with hot
oil circulated above the.

Whenever vapour is form very rapidly, due to physical interaction between two separate liquid which are
present initially at different temperature.

Water droplet Come in contact with hot oil.

Chemical Explosion-

30
Explosion

Sudden and violent release of large amount of gas. Damage main result from the picture and
fragmentation of container, shockwave cover heat or fire, for release of toxic gas.

Add explosion involving a chemical reaction can be either a “Deflagration” or “Detonation”.

Deflagration :- consists of a rapid reaction during which heat is transferred progressively from reaction
material to another neighbour material whose temperature is that rise to a point at which, it to reacts. The
rate at which deflagration takes place in hi, but less than the speed of sound. Large amount of hot gases
produced, but unless they are confirm no shockwave will be generated. If the gases are confirmed, it
causes a sudden rupture of the container.

Detonation- If the velocity of the reaction through the reacting material richest Sonic or Supersonic
speed, the explosion is a detonation. A Shockwave will occur your where there is no confinement
(Container).

Some detonation velocity are:-

Hydrogen – Oxygen 9200 feet per second

Tri – Nitrotoluene (TNT) 22800 feet per second

Nitroglycerin 26200 feet per second

Explosive

Saturn that is specifically used to produce an explosion because of the high energy reaction is undergoes.
The reaction an explosive undergoes maybe other combustion aur dissociation, but in either case in the
exothermic process in which the large amount of gas and heat is produced.

Lower explosive - one that normally will deflagrate, and whose reaction rate can be control.

High explosive - will denote, with shattering effect produced by the shockwave it generates.

Explosive Reaction

A Deflagration is generally a combination reaction in which a fuel combines with oxidizer. In some
instance there is also a dissociation reaction first. Most high explosive reaction involve highly energetic
exothermic dissociation in which a complex molecules breakdown into similar molecule, mostly gases
that expand rapidly because of the large amount of heat generated.

The shop, impact, friction, heat source if come in contact with explosives, then it result in an explosion.

TNT Equivalent- weight of TNT which will produce the same effect and that generate by the explosion
of another material. The common measure used for the compression in peak – process.

Nitroglycerin TNT equivalent of 1.42

Ammonium Nitrate TNT equivalent of 0.57

Decomposition/ Dissociation

When chemical (molecule) reaches to is decomposition temperature, break into gases and this gases
expand due to heat generated in decomposition reaction and explosion results.

31
CH2

O  CH4 + CO2 + H2O

CH2

Ethylene Oxide (EO)

2NH3 N2 + 3H2

Polymerization

In a polymerization reaction comma simple molecule react to form a polymer full stop does a polymer is
made up of repeated basic unit produced from. Polymer can be synthesized from various type and
combination of monomers to yield unusual physical and chemical properties. Polymerization is generally
exothermic reaction, which unless careful control can Runaway and create a thermal explosion example.
Styrene, with heat of polymerization of 17 kcal/ molten, can vaporize at high polymerization rates,
rupture the actor and producer vapour dash air mixture within explosive limit. Against at high
temperature, as in a fire, styrene and its polymer undergoes exothermic degradation.

Uncontrol Exothermic Reaction-

in oxidation, Nitration and other such reaction, heat is generated and it is controlled by providing cooling
media to the reaction vessel if cooling media is failed and exothermic reaction become an control and the
heat generated can be explored the vessel ( system).

Runaway reaction-

Certain temperature is said to have a required rate of chemical reaction. The rate of reaction is
proportional to temperature . hence rate of reaction increase exponentially Width increase the
temperature. For every 10 degree Celsius rise in temperature on rate of reaction Doubles full stop when
rate of reaction increase exponentially with increase in Temperature, tremendous Amount of heat is
liberated and that cause explosion.

Incompatible Chemicals-

When incompatible chemical come in contact with each other or get mixed, then violet reaction take
place and that causes explosion.

Example:-

(CH3CO)2O + HNO3 CH3CONO3 + CH3COOH

 Ammonia and nitrogen tetroxide when come in contact with each other and hypergolic reaction
take place and they react so rapidly that combustion start without outside ignition source.
 Acetaldehyde from peroxide with air. Peroxide is explosive.
 Calcium carbide if Gates moisture, Acetylene gas liberates. Acetylene is highly flammable gas.
 Exothermic reaction take place when acid is mixed with water.
 Hydrogen form flammable mixture with chlorine gas and mixture ignits in sunlight( solar
energy)
 Phenol form explosive mixture with acetaldehyde.
 Slow addition of water to a mixture of Acetic acid and acetic anhydride.
Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapour Explosion (BLEVE).

32
The store flammable liquid in the storage tank ok, if gets heat due to fire outside or physical explosion
inside more than its boiling point, the liquid state boiling full stops because of fast evaporation, vapour
pressure build up inside the tank and that cause rupture of tank. The vapours coming out of the tank from
a vapour cloud and travel further as per wind direction, if this vapour cloud Gates and ignition source of
the way, it explode, if blast effect is high, and this explosion is called a vapour cloud explosion. For low
blast effect, flashfire is possible.

Vapour Cloud Explosion ( VCE)

If the flammable/ combustible vapours/ gases are coming out from the tank/ vessel / container due to
heavy leakage comma from a vapour cloud and travel for the as per wind direction full stops if this
vapour cloud gate and ignition source of the way, it explode, if glass effect is hi, and this explosion is
called a vapour cloud explosion for low blast effect flashfire is possible.

Electrical Explosion-

Sudden conversion Electric energy into heat brakes and insulation and large Spark or series of Spark
come out.

Nuclear Explosion - The fusion / fission process of radioactive substance caution nuclear explosion.

Dust Explosion-

Any combustible solid material is finally divide from can create an explosion if in contact with air and
ignited. A dust explosion is a deflagration that result in a certain development of gas, heat and pressure
the explosion in confirm space may cause the rusting of the container, equipment, or plant in which it is
confirm with the dust is an organic substance, the carbon dioxide produce can asphyxiate anyone present,
but highly toxic carbon monoxide also create can cause fatalities.

Factor Affecting Explosiveness :

 Combustible nature of dust

Massive form................... low flammability

Finely divided .................. high flammability

Iron & aluminium .......... Finally divided required little energy of ignite.

Volatile matter from organic solids ignites at a temperature lower than that’s of solid matter.

 Size of dust particle

As does become finer, the contact between the solid surface and air becomes intimate and easily
combustible as gas.

 Concentration of particle cloud.

When concentration of dust is between specific limit it ignite.

 Temperature of combustible mixture

33
Outside energy is required from ignition. When does started dignity the heat generated is sufficient
further ignition.

 Presence or absence of moisture

Moisture act as a coolant. Moisture cost particle to cling together forming longer masses which have
lesser tendencies to ignite.

 Presence of inert solid particle

Presence of in combustible material reduce or inhibits tendencies of a cloud is Ignite or to propogate.

Type More common potentially explosive dusts

Carbon Coal, Coke

Fertilizer Bone meal, blood flour

Food production starches, sugars, flour, grain dust

Metal powders Aluminium, Magnesium, Zinc, Iron

Miscellaneous wood flour, wood dust, hard rubber, sulphur,

Tobacco, plastic

Causes Preventive Measures

Electrical Proper maintenance, proper earthing

Static Electrical charges Bonding and earthing

Smoking Prohibition

Mechanical Friction Preventive maintenance

Hot surface Insulation, cordoning, safe design

Burner flame Safe operating procedure

Sparks (lighting, exhausts, vents) Arresters, well designed equipments

Mechanical spark Non – sparking tools

Hot work Work-permit system

Spontaneous chemical reaction Storage for long time (inventory to be

Reduced) Incompatible chemicals to stored at

different places

PROTECTION AGAINST EXPLOSION-

The method used for protection against explosion are:

 Containment

34
  Suppression
 Venting
 Isolation
 Partial contaminant
Containment -

Building having 30 cm thick wall and roof of similar thickness should be built from containment and to
resist the missile penetration.

Suppression –

Before explosion, Suppressing against in suppressed in the flame of propagation when the pressure Rise
is low and does over pressurization of tank is avoided.

Venting –

It is outward opening which open with small rice in pressure and went out the material and thus
overpressure is avoided.

Isolation –

Passage of an explosion from one section of plant to another can be avoided by high-speed isolation
equipment and explosion hazard is get some what reduced.

Partial containment –

To protect personal ,plant ,equipment of explosion blast, blast wall is used as Shield or barrier between
explosion hazard and personal, plant, equipment. Blast what should be 30 cm thick and there’s should be
clear space of 15 meter from blast wall of explosion hazard. The installation should be declared as
restricted place.

Paint Industry:

A paint and lacquer manufacturing worker operates and controls equipment and installations that
make and mix organic substances, solvents and pigments to produce lacquers and synthetic paints
according to formulas and work order specifications.

Dangerous about Paint:

Exposure to vapours of solvents, paints and lacquers can cause irritation and damage to eyes and
mucous membranes, to the respiratory and digestive tracts, and to the skin.

Exposure to organic substances (toluene, n-hexane, methylalcohol etc.) may cause damage to the
nervous system.

Skin exposure through contact with solvents and various components of paints, esp. with aromatic
hydrocarbons and organic halogen compounds can cause dermatitis.

Hazard of dermatitis or eczema when working with pigments that contain chrome and cobalt, or due to
contact with azo-dyes and aniline dyes.

35
Exposure to pigment dust (PM10) during grinding and mixing, while preparing the paints.

Exposure to organic substances may cause allergic reactions such as irritation of the respiratory tract
and of the eyes and the skin.

Hazard of explosion, due to presence of extremely fine organic dust in the air during grinding or mixing
of organic pigments while preparing paints.

Discomfort and physiological problems related to the use of malodorous organic substances throughout
the manufacturing process of the dyes and the lacquers, and from the finished products

Preventive measures:

 Wear safety shoes with non-skid soles.

 Use appropriate headgear and avoid wearing loose-fitting cloths during work with moving
machinery.
 Wear appropriate eye protection; consult safety supervisor or supplier.
 Call a qualified electrician to examine and repair faulty or suspect electric equipment.
 Learn and use safe lifting and moving techniques for heavy or awkward loads; use mechanical
aids for the lifting of heavy loads.
 Wear appropriate ear protection; consult a safety supervisor or a supplier.
 Install effective exhaust ventilation and air conditioning to prevent air contamination and heat
stress; if necessary, use odor neutralizing chemicals.
 Install effective exhaust ventilation to prevent air contamination; if necessary, use respiratory
protection.
 Protect the skin of the hands (with barrier cream, or chemical-resistant gloves) when in contact
with solvents and cleaning agents; use specific soaps for cleaning the skin of the hands, at the
end of the work shift. Get medical aid if skin rashes develop; consult an allergy specialist on
how to deal with sensitivity to solvents, metals, etc.

Paint manufacturing worker: Controls equipment to make dyes from coal tar derivatives: Measures
coal tar derivatives, using balance scale or graduated container, dumps them and required amounts
of sodium salt of nitrous acid with hydrochloric acid into vat of water, and starts agitator to make
chromogen (dye-forming substance). Adds ice to chromogen to maintain temperature at prescribed
level. Dips litmus paper into chromogen to determine its acidity. Adds required amounts of
auxochromes (salt-forming materials) to chromogen to strike (form) dye. Tests acidity of dye, using
pH meter, and corrects variances from standard by adding specified acid or alkali to dye [DOT].

Petrochemicals Industry:

The petrochemicals sector is a major segment of manufacturing industry as it has several connections
with other sectors of an economy. Petroleum distillates (petrochemicals) are any of a large group of
chemicals derived from petroleum and natural gas either by direct manufacture or indirect
manufacture as by-products which are used commercially. Oil and natural gas are supposed to be the
main sources for most petrochemicals because they are economical and readily accessible[1].
Manufacturing of petrochemical products requires about 5% of the oil and gas each year.
Petrochemicals share nearly 40 per cent of world chemicals market [2]. Petrochemicals play a major
role in today’s society as they are essential for food, clothing, shelter and leisure. The petrochemicals
are used in many industries like polymers, synthetic fibers, synthetic rubber, plastics, soaps and
detergents, solvents, drugs, fertilizers, pesticides, explosives, paints, and flooring and insulating
materials. Petrochemicals are found in distinct products as aspirin, polyester clothes, luggage, boats,
automobiles, air craft and recording discs and tapes. Lubricating oil, kerosene, diesel fuel, gasoline,

36
LPG and jet fuel are not included in petrochemicals as these are not chemical compounds but are
mixtures of hydrocarbons [3,4].

Categories of Petrochemical Products

On the basis of their chemical structure petroleum products are mainly categorized into three
groups i.e. aromatics, olefins, and synthetic gas. Aromatics are mainly used for the production of
plastics and synthetic fibers, synthetic detergents, etc.

Olefins are considered as the major source for the preparation of industrial chemicals and its
important components are Toluene, Xylenes, and Benzene. Synthetic gases are usually meant for
the production of methanol and ammonia and are comprised of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
Hazards Associated with Petrochemical Industries Although the petrochemicals give us innumerable
useful products but they can also be injurious to the health of living beings and the earth’s
ecosystem.

Most of these chemicals when released can exhibit unfavorable effects on our environment such as
air, water and soil pollution. The aromatic compounds present in petrochemicals are important
environmental pollutants which may be introduced into the environment through natural oil seeps,
industry waste products and emissions, oil storage wastes, accidental spills from oil tankers, coal tar
processing wastes, petrochemical industrial effluents and emissions etc. Petrochemical industry is
an important source for the principal greenhouse gases responsible for global warming. Other
environmental impacts include ozone layer depletion, acid rain, air pollution etc. In the
petrochemical industry, potentially harmful substances release dare noxious, foul odor, or
combustible [7, 8].

In areas nearby petrochemical industries, elevated sound levels induce noise pollution associated
with feelings of headache, annoyance, uneasiness, stress, impatience, displeasure, hypersensitivity,
extreme anxiety, anger, endangerment and violence. Contamination of soils may take place from
residuals of refining processes including some hazardous wastes, catalysts or coke dust, tank
bottoms, and sludge from the treatment processes.

The petrochemical industry may also come up with loss of biodiversity and destruction of
ecosystems [9]. Effluents coming out of petrochemical industries contain a large amount of
polycyclic and aromatic hydrocarbons, phenols, metal derivatives, surface-active substances,
sulphides, naphthylenic acids and other chemicals [10].

Due to the inefficient purification systems, toxic products present in effluents accumulate in the
water bodies resulting in water pollution which is fatal to both aquatic and human life [11].

Exposure to petrochemicals may take place in different ways; they may be absorbed through the
skin or might be ingested. They can also affect human life by accumulating in tissues/organs and
cause brain, nerve and liver damage, birth defects, cancer, asthma and hormonal disorders. Skin
irritation, ulcers and allergic dermatitis are chronic effects of exposure [12-15].

37
Petroleum Refineries:

Crude oil is a complex mixture of thousands of different hydrocarbons and varying amounts of
other compounds containing sulphur, nitrogen, and oxygen as well as salts, trace metals, and water.
Crude oils can vary from a clear liquid, similar to gasoline, to a thick tar-like material needing to be
heated to flow through a pipeline. A petroleum refinery's main job is to split crude oil into its many
parts (or fractions) which are then reprocessed into useful products. The type, number, and size of
process units required at a particular refinery depends on a variety of factors including the type of
crude oil and the products required. The interconnected units making up a refinery are a maze of
tanks, furnaces, distillation towers (fractionating columns), reactors, heat exchangers, pumps,
pipes, fittings, and valves.

Products of crude oil refineries include

• fuels such as gasoline, diesel fuel, heating oil, kerosene, jet fuel, bunker fuel oil, and liquified
petroleum gas
• petroleum solvents including benzene, toluene, xylene, hexane, and heptane, which are used in
paint thinners, dry-cleaning solvents, degreasers, and pesticide solvents
• lubricating oils produced for a variety of purposes, and insulating, hydraulic, and medicinal oils
• petroleum wax
• greases, which are primarily a mixture of various fillers
• asphalt.

These products can be hazardous not only in their final state but as they are being processed and
refined. Health and Safety Hazards The plant and equipment of refineries are generally modern,
and the processes are largely automatic and totally enclosed. Routine operations of the refining
processes generally present a low risk of exposure when adequate maintenance is carried out and
proper industry standards for design, construction, and operation have been followed. The
potential for hazardous exposures always exists, however. Because of the wide variety of
hydrocarbon hazards and their complexity, it is impossible to identify all of the hazards here – and
impossible for construction crews to know everything they may need for protection when
performing maintenance, repair, or installation work in an oil refinery. As a worker you must
depend on the knowledge available from the plant operating and maintenance staff, normally
available through your employer.

If there is reasonable doubt about a situation in which you find yourself, exercise your “right to
know” and make use of WHMIS to obtain the information, equipment, and procedures necessary to
protect yourself and your fellow workers.

Hazardous Chemicals
In a refinery, hazardous chemicals can come from many sources and in many forms. In crude oil,
there are not only the components sought for processing, but impurities such as sulphur, vanadium,
and arsenic compounds.
The oil is split into many component streams that are further altered and refined to produce the
final product range. Most, if not all, of these component stream chemicals are inherently hazardous
to humans, as are the other chemicals added during processing.
Hazards include fire, explosion, toxicity, corrosiveness, and asphyxiation. Information on hazardous
materials manufactured or stored in a refinery should be supplied by the client's representative
when a work permit is issued.

Fire and Explosion

38
  The principal hazards at refineries are fire and explosion. Refineries process a multitude of
products with low flash points.
 Although systems and operating practices are designed to prevent such catastrophes, they
can occur. Constant monitoring is therefore required.
 Safeguards include warning systems, emergency procedures, and permit systems for any
kind of hot or other potentially dangerous work.
 These requirements must be understood and followed by all workers.
 The use of matches, lighters, cigarettes, and other smoking material is generally banned in
the plant except in specially designated areas.

Pharmaceutical Industry:

The pharmaceutical industry is making headways in responsible disposal of hazardous waste.

Although studies conducted to date do not suggest that the quantities of pharmaceutical wastes detected
in the environment may be harmful to human health, the pharmaceutical industry is increasingly looking
into ways to ensure the manufacture, distribution, use and disposal of products are conducted in an
environmentally safe manner.

Pharmaceutical companies and researchers are beginning to believe that the solution lies not just in the
safe disposal of pharmaceutical waste, but also in the
production of less waste.

Pharmaceutical manufacturers, through the use of research and technology, are now focusing on the
integration of “green” chemistry and engineering models during the manufacturing process. Other
advances, such as those in the enzymatic catalysis of synthetic reactions, solvent substitution and the
recycling of by-products and waste have the potential to increase efficiency and overall productivity.

At the same time, they can reduce waste streams and energy usage and minimize the need for harmful
reagents. This will augment the progress that has already been made by the pharmaceutical industry in
terms of removing impurities using thermal processing, advanced wastewater treatment and other
technologies.

Waste effects and disposal methods

Hazardous waste has properties that make it dangerous or potentially harmful to human health or the
environment. The universe of hazardous wastes is extensive and varied. Wastes can take the form of
liquids, solids, contained gases or sludge. They can be the by-products of the manufacturing processes or
may consist of discarded commercial products, such as cleaning fluids or pesticides.

39
They are classified as: ecotoxic, whereby they cause damage to the environment; carcinogenic, whereby
they cause or contribute to the causation of cancer; persistent, where they remain dangerous for a long
time; or bio-accumulative – waste that accumulates as it makes its way up the food chain.

As a general measure, about 200kg of waste is generated per metric ton of active ingredient
manufactured by the pharmaceutical industry. This waste contains spent solvents and other toxic
organics in significant concentrations requires treatment before it can be disposed of safely. Of these,
volatile organic compounds and particulate matter are among the principal air pollutants produced by the
pharmaceutical industry.

There are several effective technologies for dealing with and minimizing the release of these particulates.
These include stack gas scrubbing (which reduces air pollution from a cupola stack or other stack that
deliver particulate matter into the atmosphere), carbon absorption and biological filters. Combustion is
used for the destruction of toxic organics.

However, disposal of liquid effluents from solid wastes is a much tougher problem and is very much at
the forefront of the public debate about the impact of the industry on the environment.

Wastes are generally safely treated by reverse osmosis and/or ultra-filtration, which are used to recover
and concentrate active wastes. Treatment can also include flocculation, flotation, coagulation, filtration,
ion exchange, carbon absorption, detoxification of active ingredients by oxidation and biological
treatment.

Exhausted carbon may be sent for regeneration or combustion, organics are steam stripped and toxic
metals are precipitated and filtered out. Solid-waste by-products are then generally incinerated at
temperatures above 1,000°C. The flue gases are then scrubbed and the remaining waste sent to landfill.

Mike Murray, head of Manufacturing and Environment at the Association of the British Pharmaceutical
Industry says that overall the treatment depends on the type of waste: “If the waste involves any finished
products, it will go for incineration,” he explains.

“The industry would not take any chances with rejected or returned products finding their way onto the
market. Anything that looks like a product would definitely involve incineration.”

Chapter 3: Safe Handling of Chemicals

SAFETY PRECAUTION WHIL WORKING WITH CHEMICALS

A sample guideline is as under: The dangers of working with chemical substance can be reduced to a
minimum by observing certain substances can be reduced to a minimum by observing certain simple
basic rules:

1. Gaseous, liquid or solid chemical substances whose properties are not fully known should be
treated as dangerous and handled very carefully.

40
 2. Avoid contact with chemical substances. Chemicals should always be handled mechanically.
Containers and implements which can be contaminating with chemicals should be handled
wearing gloves. In special cases, additional protective measures will be prescribed.
3. Cleanliness is a basic requirement for safe working with chemicals. Emission of dust, vapours
and gases, and the spillage of liquids and solids can be largely eliminated by careful working.
Local ventilation installations must be used. Implements should be cleaned immediately after
use.
4. Chemicals substances should always be used exactly according to the written procedure. Anyone
deviating from the procedure on his own responsibility is a danger to himself and others.
5. Chemicals should only be used when the drums, sacks, containers or pipelines containing them
are clearly labelled.
a. Control that the product name and delivery number on the drums and on the delivery
note coincide. Though appearance alone is no guarantee of correct id entity, a visual
check should be made. In cases of doubt, or when a mix-up has actually occurred, a
report must be made immediately
6. Many highly reactive chemicals may only be used under strictly controlled conditions. For
substances which react violently with water, the water contact should be avoided.
7. Substances which decompose dangerously under the influence of contact with air, elevated
temperature, impact or pressure, or contact with catalysts, appropriate safety measures contained
in the written procedure should be followed. Dry at low temperature, for example release the
vacuum in vacuum driers with an inert gas instead of air. Do not open the drier before room
temperature has been attained. Release the vacuum in vacuum distillations with and inert gas.
Expose distillations residues to the air only when cold. Handle and store catalysts only under the
specially defined conditions.Prevent compounds which are particularly prone to decomposition.
(e.g. certain diazo – compounds) form drying out (leaks, splashes)
8. Substances which ignite spontaneously e.g. white phosphorus, pyrophoric catalysts etc. should
be handled under and inert gas or liquid. Where necessary wear special protective clothing, keep
the prescribed means of extinguishing on hand.
9. Prevent the possibility of dangerous combinations. Follows the written procedure precisely.
When pre paring work, ensure complete separations of compounds which are dangerous when
mixed.
10. Not only actual explosives, but also numerous widely impact. Example; acetylene and
derivatives, acetyl nitrate, acrylic and its esters, ethylene imine,ethylene oxide, azides ,
amomethase ,peroxide, chlorates, perohlorate ,cyanogens chloride, hydrogen cyanid,
hydprazinedervates,Ozonides, propargylalcohol and other propargyl compounds is governed by
special safety measures which are to be found in the written procedures
11. Chemicals which are spill or contaminated should not be simply discarded in the refusebin, but
disposed of according to instruction the supervisor
12. The quantities of chemicals stored in a chemical plant at any time should be kept to the minimum
required for normal working.
HIGHLY EXOTHEMIC REACTIONS :

In exothermic reactions, heat is given out as reaction proceed. This reaction of heat raises the
temperature of reaction mass. Approximately for every 100C. rise in temperature, reaction rates doubles.
Thus with increase in temperature reaction proceeds faster and still more heat is given out.

This chain of operation makes the reaction uncontrollable unless adequate arrangement for removing
heat is provided in the reaction vessel. The reaction rate has to be gradually increased, so that reaction
does not reach runway stage.

41
For highly exothermic reactions since temperature has to be increased very gradually, automatic
programmers are provided which maintain a predetermined rate of rise in temperature and thus prevent
the reaction from reaching runways stage. In addition to safety valve, a rupture disc with surge vessel is
provided to receive the entire reaction mass in case of reaction reaching runways stage.

The pressure gauge, temperature gauge, safety vive, rupture disc, drowing tank, cooling device, agitator,
feed control, drain valve, etc. should be regularly checked and properly maintained.

PRESSURE REACTIONS:

Any vessel maintained at a pressure above 1 atmosphere is a pressure vessel. Suitable means of pressure
release such as safety valve, rupture disc should be provided, gases released from safety valve, if
poisonous, should be scrubbed before venting to atmosphere. Emphasis should be laid proper design,
maintenance and testing of pressure vessels. Their thickness should be periodically checked for
corrosion, pitting etc. pressure guage, temperature guage, temperature regulator safety valve, rupture
safety valve, rupture guage pressure reducing valve, drawing tank, drain valve, feed control, temperature
control (heating, cooling control), agitator control stoppage alarm, gas leakage alarm safe vent safety
valve, flame trap non return valve indicator, earthing, flame arrester safe and sound jacket, water cooling
of gland packing, cooling medial stoppage alarm, automatic cut off and regulating devices, remote
control provided as per requirement.

FLOAMMABLE AND EXPLOSIVE REACTIONS :

Utmost care should be taken during their storage, transport handling and reaction. As far as possible
manual handling of such chemicals should be avoided because they aretoxic and flammable, bulk
storage of these chemicals come under preview of Chief Controller of Explosive. Free fall of flammable
liquids should be avoided. Suitable dip pipes should be provided. All lines carrying flammable material
must be bounded by copper clamps and earthed. Continuity should be less then 1 Ohm. Pumps handling
these chemicals should have brass impeller to avoid sparks due to friction. Flow velocity should not
exceed 6 m/sec in pipeline to avoid static charge accumulation. Reaction of flammable chemicals
including-solvent distillation should be carried out at low pressure or under vacuum or inert blanketing.
Flore or incinerator should be provided if required. Another danger to flammable solvents comes from
smoking and electric sparks. All electric fitting should be flameproof including lightning. During
maintenance, use of ferrous tools should be provided. Fire extinguishers should be kept ready.

TOXIC REACTIONS :

For handling acid, alkali and other toxic chemicals workers must be provided with suitable protective
appliances such as rubber or PVC hand gloves, gum-boots, safety goggles, apron etc. suitable poster
showing dangerous properties of these chemicals should be prominently displayed.

Arrangement for combating spills of these chemicals such as wash water or sand for covering up should
be available nearby. The workers should be suitably trained in the use of these chemicals before giving
responsible job independently. Suitable scrubbers, absorbers, or neutralizers for organic gas, vapour etc.
should be provided and well maintained.

For handling poisonous gases such as chlorine, ammonia, sulphur dioxide, phosgene, phosphine etc.
workers must be trained before assigning them responsible jobs. They should be provided with suitable
respiratory protection. Arrangement should be provided in the plant.

A chemical can enter our body through injection, inhalation, or skin contact. Lead, mercury, aromatic
solvents, and amino aromatic compounds, benzene, tolune, chlorine. Chromium etc. are a few examples

42
which can find entry into human body through various routes. The workers bust be suitably protected
from exposure to such chemicals.

Efficient exhaust system, scrubbers and protective appliances to avoid body contact should be provide.
Skin absorption is the most important route and least understood by the average worker. Worker
education plays and important role in the use of PPE. Workers should be trained to wear proper PPE.
After handling of dangerous chemicals, workers must change their clothing followed by bath with soap
and water. Provision of safety shower within reach is essential.

Periodic medical test of exposed to hazardous chemicals should be carried out. If worker shows any
indication of poisoning due to chemicals suitable preventive measures should be taken.

BULK STORAGE OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS

The largest quantities of chemicals are available in storage facilities, which may be at factory site or in
other isolated storage places. Therefore, it is very important to prevent the loss of containment from
storage of hazardous chemicals. The loss of toxic chemicals could give rise to the worst kind of chemical
industry disaster like Bhopal. Losses through fires in storage result in financial loss rather than loss of
life and make relatively less public impact.

There are numerous standards and codes of practice which are applicable to storage. Here under this
topic an attempt is bei9ng made to highlight some of the principles laid down in the standards & codes.
The Bureau of Indian Standards have brought out a number of safety codes for chemicals and other
hazardous materials.

1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The objective of storage in a factory is to smooth fluctuations in the day-to-day requirements, and
availability. If there are no fluctuations, there is no need for storage.

The are basically two basic principles in the design of a storage facility, which are kept in mind :

(i) Economic consideration; and

(ii) Safety aspects.
The types of storage which are economic in these alternative designs may be different and may have
different and may have different safety implication also. A hazardous chemical stored under pressurized
condition may pose comparatively more hazards than t5he same chemical stored under atmospheric
conditions. The chemical will need more spece when stored under atmospheric storage conditions and
hence will cost more. So a compromise has to be made between the two aspects.

Most of the hazardous chemicals held in storage are flammable liquids or liquefied gases. The code
specifies measures to minimize spillages. The vessels and pipe work should be of high standards. The
number of connections below the liquid level should be kept to a minimum, preferably just one
filling/discharge line if possible. The minimum size connections should be used for draining and

43
sampling. Barriers should be provided to protect the vessel against external damage. Measures to control
spillages and fire are also available in the codes.

2. TYPES OF STORAGE
THE MAIN TYPES OF STORAGE ARE: FLUIDS REFFERED AS:

(1) Liquid at atmospheric pressure and temperature - Volatile liquids

(Atmospheric Storage)
(2) Liquefied gas under pressure and at atmospheric - Flashing liquefied gas
Temperature (pressure storage)
(3) Liquefied gas under pressure and at low temperature - Semi-refrigerate liquefied
(refrigerated pressure storage, semi-refrigerated storage)
(4) Liquefied gas at atmospheric pressure and at low - Refrigerated liquefied gas
Temperature (fully refrigerated storage)
(5) Gas under pressure - Gas under pressure.
A leak of a volatile liquid stored under condition (1) results only in slow evaporation but in case of leak
of a chemical stored under condition (4) initial flash off will take and then evaporation will be slow but
faster than the first case. So in brief the situation will vary depending upon the type of storage involved
in a teak. The economics of storage of liquefied gases are that it is preferred to use pressure storage for
small quantities, pressure or semi-refrigerated storage for medium to large quantities and fully
refrigerated storage for very large quantities.

3. LAYOUT OF STORAGE
The storage, process and terminals should be suitably arranged. The storage should be built on
ground able to support the heavy load and located between the process and the terminals. The
wind characteristics should also be taken into consideration which reduces the hazard of
flammable liquids or vapours.
3.1 SEGREGATION:- the segregation and separation of hazardous chemicals within the storage are
mainly based on :(1) Classification of hazardous chemicals stored:(2) of electrical areas:(3)of
fire protection measures.
The classification of hazardous chemicals are based on based on their physical, chemical and
hazardous properties like the flash point classification, toxicity rating, UN classification etc,
Electrical area classification into zone 0, 1 and 2 is based on fire hazard potential.
3.2 BUNDS:- In general, bunds are provided for atmospheric storage tanks and for fully
refrigerated storage tanks of liquefied gas. Bunds are generally not recommended for pressure
or semi-refrigerated storage of liquefied gas.
The purpose of bund is to retain liquid so that it can be dealt within a controlled manner.
Atmospheric storage tanks are generally provided with full bunds. If there are more than one
tank inside the bund the capacity should be that of the largest tank after allowing for the
displacement due to the other tanks. Low division walls between the tanks within a bund are
recommended. Sometimes it may not be practicable to provide full bund capacity: under that
circumstance use may be made of a separate impounding area into which a liquid spillage may
be run.
The bund wall should be far enough from the side of the tank to prevent a jet of liquid jumping
over. The comers of the bund should be rounded. The bund wall. Walls of the bund should not
be so high to hinder fire fighting. In some literature the maximum height is given as 2 metre.
There should be minimum access allows safe access/escape in all wind direction.

44
 For pressure storage vessels containing LPG a full bund is not recommended, because after
spillage a large amount of liquid will remain after the initial flash off. For example, 67% of
propane will remain in liquid form after an initial flash off from a pressure storage tank of
propane at 16 deg. C.(Theoretical).
Fully refrigerated storage tanks containing liquid ammonia should also be provided with a full-
bund.
3.3 SEPARATION DISTANCES:- Minimum recommended separation distances for storage are
given in various codes and other publications. In India safety distances for pressurized (toxic,
flammable & corrosive chemicals) storage is given in the static and Mobile pressure vessel
(SMPV) Rules 1981 (Table-1)
Two main factors which should determine separation are: (1) Heat from burning liquid: and (2)
ignition of a vapour escape. To get exact separationdistances for storage, engineering
calculations are done based on direct flame impingement and on heat radiation.
The minimum recommended separation distance for storage tanks for class A and B flammable
liquids are given in Table-2. (Institute of petroleum, 1965, Refining Safety Code).

MINIMUM SAFETY DISTANCE FOR FLAMABLE CORROSIVE AND TOXIC GASES

SO. Water capacity of vessel (in litres) Minimum distance Minimum distance
No. from buildings or line between pressure
of adjoining property vessels
(i) Not above 2,000 5 metres 1 metre
(ii) Above 2,000 but not above 10,000 10 metres 1 metre
(iii) Above 10,000 but not above 20,000 15 metres 1.5 metre
(iv) Above 20,000 but not above 40,000 20 metres 2 metre
(v) Above 40,000 30 metres 2 metre

SI. Factor Type of tank roof Minimum distance

No.
1. Distance between tank and a) Fixed roof A minimum of 50 ft. (15m)
building containing
flammable material, e.g. b) Floating roof A minimum of 20 ft. (6m)
filling shed or storage
building
2. Distance between tank and Both types A minimum of 50 ft.
boundry or any source of (15m), any source of
ignition ignition, irrespective of
distance should not be
within the bund.
3. Maximum tankage capacity a) Fixed roof 60,000 ton water capacity
in one bund b) Floating roof 1,20,000 ton
4. Volume of bund Both types Net volume not less than
100% of capacity of the
largest tank

45
 3.4 Other Aspects :- Diversion walls can be used to divert large vapour flows to area where they
can be dealt with more safety. Stream curtains are considered as a means of maintaining
separation from an ignition source. Fire walls are utilized ti give protection against flame or heat
radiated from a fire.
4. STORAGE TANKS AND VESSELS
The main types of storage tanks and vessels for liquids and liquified gases are :
(1) Atmospheric storage tanks;
(2) Low pressure storage tanks;
(3) Pressure or refrigerated pressure storage tanks; and
(4) Refrigerated storage tanks.
4.1 Atmospheric Storage :- Atmospheric storage tanks are of types, namely (1) fixed roof tanks; and
(2) floating roof tanks. Atmospheric tanks are designed to withstand an internal
pressure/cacuum of not more than 1 psig.
4.2 Low pressure storage :- Low pressure tanks are designed to withstand internal pressure in the
range of 0.5-15 psig. Use is also made of low pressure tanks in refrigerated storage, as described
below.
4.3 Pressure and refrigerated pressure storage :- Pressure storage vessels are regular pressure
vessels and can be designed to high pressure as required. The lower end of the scale for pressure
storage are used.
4.4 Refrigerated storage :- This is a domed roof, flat bottomed tank. It is essentially an atmospheric
storage tank, with a design pressure below 1 psig.

5. SAFETY FEATURES – ATMOSPHERIC STORAGE VESSEL

5.1 Atmospheric venting :-
A fixed roof atmospheric storage tank is connected to atmosphere by a vent to prevent the tank
from overpressure or under pressure at the time filling and emptying, respectively. The vent
should always be kept free from the blockage.
5.2 Pressure/Vacuum Calves (PV) :- A fixed roof containing volatile liquid breaths heavily. To
prevent vapour loss a PV calve is effective. The blockage of the valve should be avoided.
5.3 Flame Arrestor :- If the vapour space above the liquid in a fixed roof atmospheric storage tank
contains a flammable mixture, there is a possibility that it will be ignited via the vent. A flame
arrestor may be used to prevent this.
5.4 Fire Relief :- Fixed roof tank should also be provide with certain arrangements to prevent it
from getting damage/pressurized due to heat in case of a fire. In practice it is done by making
the seam between the Snell and the roof weak so that it is the first to rapture. This is known as
rupture seam arrangement.
(1) Minimum temperatures which may be attained
(2) Material of construction
(3) Allowances in pipe work for stresses due to movement, expansion/ contraction and
vibration.
(4) Joints (flanged joints should be kept to a minimum).
(5) Size of pipeline below the liquid the liquid level.
(6) Liquid expansion valves between shut-off valves.
(7) Access to valves.
(8) Protection against mechanical damage.
(9) Number of pipeline below the liquid level.
8. ANCILLARY EQUIPMENT

In storage installations the main types of ancillary equipment are pump, refrigeration
compressors and vaporizers. Pumps are a potential source of leakage of flammable vapours. A pump

46
should be provided with a bypass discharge line back to the storage, to prevent the pump getting hot, if
pumping against a closed valve. Pumps should be located outside the bund.

9. FIRE PREVENTION AND PROTECTION

Fire protection of storage has several objectives. Those are : (1) ti minimize hazard to personnel;
(2) to minimize loss due to the initial fire; and (3) to prevent spread of fire to other vessels and
equipment. Personnel are at risk principally from an expansion or sudden spread of fire.

IMPORTANT PRECAUTIONS FOR SAFE HANDLING LPG

1. Overfilling is most common occurrence, leading to serious fires in LPG storage. Ensure proper
attention. Correctness of level indicators, proper setting of valves and calculation availability of
space prior to receipt.
2. Control leaks, which are the cause of accidents and fires. Take prompt corrective action.
Remember a small liquid leak becomes a large dangerous vapour cloud.
3. Drains may freeze when depressurizing equipments or drawing water. Be sure ice is not slopping
flow. (Open first block valve adjacent to line/ equipment full and then crack open slowly the
second valve shut off second valve first.)
4. Sampling liquid light ends can be hazardous be sure proper equipment and procedures are used.
5. Install bull plugs on all small connections bleeders and drains when not in use.
6. Check for oxygen in vapor spaces of non – vented operating drums and storage vessels.
7. During shut – down remove residual hydrocarbons before admitting any air. During start – ups
remove residual air before admitting LPG keep air out when on stream.
8. Be sure adequate electrical grounds are used at loading and unloading racks.
9. Do not pressurize a container with air to empty it use Nitrogen.
10. Be sure proper storage or transport container is used for the hydrocarbons to be contained. Never
put propane in a butane container.
11. Use caution to perform mechanical work on operating equipment. Follow rigidly work permit
system hot work. Which is unavoidable should be carried out ensuring appropriate safety
precautions and supervision.
12. Never leave a connected tank truck car unattended.
13. If an L P Gas spill or leak occurs, clear the area of any source of ignition (for instance do not
take vehicles, including fire trucks nearby) stop the leakage or flow of L P Gas to the affected
equipment.
14. Vessel containing L. P. Gas that is exposed to fire should sprayed with water to keep the shell
surface cool.

HANDLING OF CORROSIVE SUBSTANCE

Corrosive substance causes severe damage when in contact with the living tissues or in the case of
leakage it damages the surrounding. It may cause fire when comes I contact with org. chemicals. Certain
corrosive substances have other more serious hazardous property such as toxicity. Imp Corrosive
substance is Acid, Alkalis, halogens, organic halides, esters and salts.

Ehen this substance comes in contact with the skin, they may produce chemical burns or deep ulceration,
dermatitis.

47
 1. Prevent its contacts with skin, eyes and mucous membranes.
2. Corrosive substance should not be allowed to react with other materials.
3. All the containers, pipe, equipments should be protected by suitable exiting unaffected by
corrosives.
4. All containers should be clearly labelled to indicate contents.
5. A high std. of housekeeping is essential.
6. Adequate ventilation and exhaust system for corrosive toxic gases should be provided.
7. Personal protective equipments such as corrosion resistant suit, face shield, gas masks, barrier
cream should be used.
8. Eye wash and safety shower should be uninstalled in corrosive handling area.
HANDLING OF GAS CYLINDERS, STORAGE AND HANDLING OF FLAMMABLE GAS

- Do not drop, and strike

- Do not use magnetic crane for loading and unloading
- Unload on surface which padded with mattress to minimize shock
- Store away from heat, store vertically.
- Store away from passage, entrances, stairs etc.
- Spark, excessive heat or flame should not allowed to come in contact with cylinder.
- Leaky cylinder should be kept at isolated place to avoid its exposure.
- Cylinder should be slowly depressurized
- Do not interchange the valve assembly of cylinder of difference gases
- Flammable gases are generally stored in the liquified and compressed state and usually stored in
cylinders
In the handling and storage of cylinders, it must be ensured that the cylinders are protected form damage
due to deterioration and heat.

Storage rooms for cylinders should be dry, cool and well ventilated, Toxic cylinders, oxygen cylinders
should not be stored near cylinder containing flammable gases.

STORAGE AND HANDLING OF FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS

Flammable liquids are easily get ignited and are difficult to extinguish. Their vapours from explosive
mixture with air closed containers has moderate fire risk but become severe when containers start leaking
to avoid leakage container should not be essential in storage areas of flammable liquid. Should be
isolated by distance and protective walls, before handling container should be carefully inspected and
leaky container shall be segregated.

Storage room shall be effectively ventilated cutting welding and smoking is avoided in the storage areas.
Effectively fire hydrant system shall be installed in storage areas and sufficient no of fire extinguishers
should be available in suitable location in storage areas.

HANDLING AND STORAGE OF FLAMMABLE SOLIDS

Flammable solids are of fall behaviors ;

- Pyrophoric in nature
- Reaction with moisture and water
- Spontaneous combustion
- Generation of static electricity
- Dust explosion
Storage of flammable solids could be open or in bags, hoppers

48
 1. If it is stored in open, then the height of stack should not be more than 3m. dust formation and
ignition should be strictly avoided
2. Water sensitive are stored flightly in drums, moisture is avoided
3. If it is stored bags, bags should be stacked to avoid water damage
4. Stored area should be away from that source
5. Automatic fire alarm should be installed in storage area
HANDLING –

Normally flammable solids are carried out in bulk carriers, bucket conveyor etc.

Good housekeeping is maintained to avoid dust collection and hence dust explosion

Near conveyor, earthing metal comb should be installed to discharge electrostatic charge produced near
belt and pulley.

Maintenance of handling of equipment should be such that frictional spark is avoided.

Electrical install must be of dust proof type

The storage area should be equipment with hydrant system and adequate no of fire extinguishers should
install in that area.

TRANSPORTING, RECEIVEING, STORING & HANDLING HAZARDS & CONTROLS;

Storage tanks of dangerous chemicals must be controlled properly. Safe inventory must be maintained.
Content should be minimum possible. Necessary safety fitting on the tanks should provided. LPG tanks
and tanks of other, flammable or toxic chemicals must have proper safety devices, toxic gases should be
kept in liquified state if possible. Cooling media and devices, safety valves, pressure gauge, temperature
gauge, scrubber, level or contents indicators flare tower, water curtain, toxic exposure sensors and
alarms, exhaust by pass, safe discharge and collection, etc. should be provided as per requirement.

Name and quantity must be clearly mentioned to assess the hazard potential, barrels, carboys, glass
vessels must be kept handled and used in safe manners. Use emergency kits, tools etc. where necessary.

All the vents of storage tanks of low boiling chemicals should be connected to an appropriate scrubber to
take care of at least thrice the normal boiling rate.

TRANSPORTATION AND HANDLING OF CHEMICALS:

While considering transportation of chemicals one has to consider the physical and chemical properties
of the product being handled, whether it is a solid, a power, a liquid or a gas under pressure; the type of
packing, hazards, the mode of transport available.

MODES OF PACKAGING:

Glass bottles and carboys are some of the oldest packaging available for corrosive liquids, solvent etc,
some of the bulk industrial materials still being transported in bottles are Bromine Mercury etc. the
laboratory reagents and pure grade chemicals are also transported in glass bottles of various size. Many
corrosive chemical like Nitric acid. Suiphury chloride, Thiony chloride etc. are transported in glass
carboys holding 15 – 50 kg of the material.

49
These glass bottles and carboys have to be properly protected against shock. Wooden crates for
carboys,plastic or paper packing for bottles is usual. Dangerous chemical are further protected by
packing in clays or other absorbent material so that in case the bottle the chemical is absorbed and cause
least damage. Plastic bottles, jars, carboys and drums: These could be constructed out polyhtene either of
low density or high density PVC or other materials. Quality a lot of chemicals ranging from laboratory
chemical to Industrial raw material are being packed and transported in plastic containers.

These containers may be further protected by wooden case. The material must be correctly chosen.
Several tragedies have occurred because, on long storage the plastic containers became brittle and the
chemical leaked out.

Steel drums in various sizes have been used for storage and transportation of solvents and chemicals.

Even corrosive chemical like chiorosutphonic acid are shipped in steel containers.

This is quite a common packing for chemicals of all description and quite economical too. Recently
polythene and PVC liners, as well as polythene lined drums, have been made available and these are used
for packing even highly corrosive material like hydrochloric acid. Proper sealing of the drums in
essential.

Bags of various types: Jute bags and paper bags are use for the innocuous chemicals like soda ash, Salt,
sulphur, etc. polythene lined jute bags have been use for material which need to be protected against
moisture. Woven high density polythene bags are being used for packing corrosive and water sensitive
materials like caustic soda and caustic potash. Obviously this packing cannot stand piercing and must be
well protected and handled such that the bags are not damaged. In transport the bags must be properly
stacked and secured.

Gases under pressure in cylinders: Quite a few gases like chlorine, Sulphur dioxide, Ammoina, ethylene
oxide, Oxygen, etc are sold in cylinders containing quantities ranging from 50-1000kgs.

Steel cylinders are the commonest, but various kinds of linings are also given for special products, The
rule governing the design, testing and filling of cylinders are quite elaborate and must be followed.

Tank cars for bulk transport of chemicals are very common, particularly for petroleum products,
solvents, acids and alkali solutions. Tank can be made of various materials of construction such as steel,
stainless steel, rubber -lined FRP of FRP lined, lead -lined or any other special construction. The tank
cars should be in various sizes, holding 5-10 tons for road transport or 20-50 tones or more for rail
transport.

For safety the tank cars should be properly designed and fabricated to meet the service service condition.
Contamination should be avoided as it could be dangerous for the product as well as discharging should
be provided.

Vent valves, arrangements to prevent static electricity build up when handling solvents, are a must.
Gases under pressure such as liquefied natural gas, chlorine etc. are also transported by tank cars.

MODES OF TRANSPORT:

1. Railroad Transportation accounts for quite a large proportion of the chemical transportation. The
greatest hazard in this mode of transportation is that because of the far flung operations, it is not
possible to train everyone connected with the operation in the proper care to be taken. Proper
labelling of hazards involved is a help. Derailment and accidents are other hazards.
The preventive measures are:

50
 a) Improved design of the tankers and the couplers.
b) Limitation on the size of the tanks.
c) Positioning of the hazardous chemicals away from the Locomotive.
d) Avoiding bunching together of hazardous chemicals.
e) Proper labelling of contents and hazardous nature of the chemicals.

2. ROAD TRANSPORTATION OF CHEMICALS IS VERY COMMON :

Road tank cars are constructed in a wide variety of materials like steel, stainless steel, lined
material and FRP construction.Sometimes these wagons have to be heated or cooled. The
MaharashtraGovernment has made it compulsory to displace above class labels on the tank. But
such rules should be from the central Government so that it is equally applicable throughout
India.

Arrangements for loading and unloading of the liquids have to be well designed. It is preferred to
load toxic and flammable materials from the bottom. It is preferable to provide a discharge pump
on the tank.

Drums, crates cylinders are also transported by truck. The important thing to see is that the
chemical is securely packed so that spillages to do not occur on the road and toxic vapours are
not release. The cylinders or drums should be securely lashed so that they do not drop off the
truck and cause, a danger. The driver and the attendant should be fully conversant with the nature
of the material and the hazards involved; and trained to handle the situation.

3. TRANSPORT THROUGH PIPELINES : Petroleum products, crude oil, and natural gas are
some of the more important products transported by pipelines, the size may vary anywhere up to
50” diameter and the pressure up to 1200 psig. Pipelines have been laid for long distance, often
across national boundaries. Booster stations are largely automatic stations requiring very fail safe
devices. The pipelines are usually buried about 1 meter ground and must be protected against
corrosion. Leakages are likely to occur. The pipelines to be checked constantly. The biggest
danger to pipelines comes from outside sources like unauthorized digging and from corrosion.

TRANSPORTATION OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS STATUTORY REQUIREMENTS

EXPLOSIVES

Explosives are classified into eight classes. Commercial Explosives are mostly solids. Under Explosives
Rules Sc. II, incorporates specifications for packages, maximum quantity allowed in each package.

The word ‘Explosive’, the name of authorized explosive, the name of class & division, the safety
distances, category of explosive, the name of manufacture and net weight should be marked on outer
package of fire works.

51
The vehicle transporting fire works/explosives should have licence.

Vehicles carrying explosives should bear the word ‘E’ written on the sides & rear. The name and address
of the licences and its number should also be written in small letters on the side.

The vehicles carry the load permitted by rules.

The vehicles should not be parked at places where public safety would be endangered. In available
circumstances if the vehicles required to be parked at such place, the nearby police station should be
informed.

The traffic rules, such as distances between vehicles, crossing unmanned railway crossing or main
highway, parking etc. strictly be followed. Vehicles if meets with an accident, nearest police station and
the owner/transporters should be informed.

Owner/transporters after getting such information should inform the Chief Control of Explosive
(C.C.O.E.) if any repair is required to the vehicle, the explosives to be transferred first under the
supervision of a competent person, or it should be stored under proper security at safe distances from the
road and at least 300m away from the inhabited premises and CCOE should be informed about the
situation.

PETROLIUM RULES

Vehicles carrying Petroleum Class A and B have licence granted under this rules.

The vehicles to be built, tested & maintained an accordance with the requirements given in the rules. The
safety fittings, emergency vent, shut off valves to the out-let of each component, spark arrestor to exhaust
should be fitted as per given codes.

Tanker loading petroleum should be conspicuously marked on each side & rear the word “Flammable”.

The loading capacity of a tanker, the net carrying capacity of the tanker should be as per the norms
specified in the rules.

No repairs to a tank-vehicle should be carried out unless it has been examined by a authorised person.

After repair the tank has to be retested by a competent person before taking the vehicle in use. Tank
vehicle should carry: Fire extinguisher, PPE, emergency kit.

The tanker should not be parked on a public road or in any congested areas or at a place within 9m of any
source of ignition.

While transporting barrels, drums etc. they should not be projected beyond the sides or the back of
vehicle. The containers filled with petroleum should be loaded with bung upwards.

STATIC AND MOBILE PRESSURE VESSELS (UNFIRED) RULES &

GAS CYLINDERS RULES.

Transportation of compressed gases in bulk is regulated under SMPV (Unfired) Rules and tonne
container, portable cylinders filled with compressed gases comes under Gas Cylinder Rules.

The vehicle transporting compressed gases in bulk should be of a type approved by CCOE and vessel
design should confirm to IS 2825.

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Under the rules, a through examination and maintenance of the vehicle should be carried out by a
competent person.

In an emergency, nearest police station should be informed.

Vehicles should not be parked in public places or at congested area.

The name of the gas being transported should be prominently marked on the vessel of the vehicle.

Transportation of tonne containers and gas cylinders should be carried in accordance with the guide-lines
given in Gas Cylinders Rules.

The gas cylinder containing flammable gases and toxic gases should not be transported al9ong with the
cylinders containing any other compressed gas, or it should not club with food-stuff.

A warning label, name of gas, instructions for safe use should be attached to cylinder.

Every cylinder, when transported, should have its valves protected by means of stout metal cap or cover
and in case of cylinders containing highly toxic gases the valves should be protected with gas-tight metal
caps or covers.

Any cylinder which develops leak during transportation should be remove immediately to an isolated
open safe place & nearest police station should be informed.

MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET (M.S.D.S.)

STATUTORY PROVISIONS

Sec. 41 B (7) of THE FACTORIES ACT, 1948

The occupier of a factory involving hazardous process shall, with the previous approval of the chief.
Inspector, lay down measures for handling, usage, transportation and storage of hazardous substances
inside the factory premises and the disposal of such substances outside the factory premises and
publicize them in the manner prescribed among the workers and general public living in the vicinity.

Rule 73-M of THE MAHARASHTRA FACTORIES RULES 1963.

The occupier of every Factory carrying on a : hazardous process” shall arrange to obtain or develop
information on the form of Material Safety Data Sheet in respect of every hazardous substance or
material handled in the manufacture, transportation and storage in the factory. It shall be accessible upon
request to a worker for reference.

Every such Material Safety Data Sheet shall include the information in the form in the schedule to this
rule.

53
THE MANUFACTURE, STORAGE & IMPORT OF HAZARDOUS CHEMICALS (AMENDMENT)
RULES 2000

Rule 17 (2) – An Occupier, who has control of an industrial Activity, shall arrange to obtain or develop
information in the form of MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET AS SPECIFIED IN SCHEDULE 9.

Section I : MATERIAL IDENTIFICATION AND USE – Material Name. It’s formula,

Section II : HAZARDOUS INSREDIENTS OF MATERIAL – hazardous ingredients, approximate

concentration, LD50, LC50.

Section III : PHYSICAL DATA - Physical state, odour, specific gravity, vapour pressure, vapour
density, boiling pointing, freezing point, solubility in water, pH.

Section IV : FIRE AND EXPLOSION HAZARDS – Flammability, special procedures, lower & upper
explosive limit, Auto ignition temperature

Section V : REACTIVITY DATA – Chemical stability, incompatibility with other substances, reactivity
and under what condition, hazardous decomposition products.

Section VI : PREVENTIVE MEASURES – PPE, Engg. Control, Leakage/spillage & waste disposal
procedure, handling procedure storage requirement.

Section VII : FIRST AID MEASURES – sources used Additional information.

Section XI : MANUFACTURE’S/SUPPLIER’S DATA – Address and telephone number, contact person

in emergency.

Thus M.S.D.S. in above format provides detail information, hazards involved and preventives actions to
be taken in case of emergencies.

Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)

Format of MSDS :

For proper identification of material hazards a material safety data sheet should be prepared and supplied
with each chemical so that its safety precautions .can be well understood. A specimen form is given
below :

1. Chemical Identity: 1. Name of the Chemical 2. Formula 3. Synonyms 4. Trade name 5. Chemical
Classification 6. Regulated identification 7. Shipping Name, Codes/Label 8. CAS No. 9. UN No. 10.
ADR No. 11. Hazchem (EAC) No. 12. Hazardous Waste ID No. 13. Hazardous Ingredients and CAS
No.

2. Physical & Chemical Data : 1. Appearance, State, Odour etc. 2. Specific gravity (Water = 1) 3.
Vapour density (air = 1) 4. Boiling point 5. Melting/Freezing point 6. Vapour pressure 7.
Solubility in water 8. Scrubbing/Neutralising/Inactivating media 9. pH 10. Others

54
3. Fire & Explosion Hazard Data : 1. Flash point 2. Autoignition Temperature 3. Flammable
limits : LEL/.UEL 4. TDG Flammability 5. Explosion Sensitivity to Impact 6. Explosion
Sensitivity to static electricity

Fundamentals of Industrial Safety and Health 18- 16 Safety in Chemical Industry

7. Explosive material 8. Flammable material 9. Combustible and flammable Liquid 10.

Pyrophoric material 11. Hazardous Combustion products 12. Hazardous Polymerisation 13.
Corrosive material 14. Organic Peroxide 15. Oxidiser 16. Others

4. Reactivity Data: 1. Chemical stability 2. Incompatibility (Materials to avoid) 3. Reactivity 4.

Hazardous reaction products

5. Health Hazard Data : 1. TLV (ACGIH) 2. STEL/SET 3. LC50 or LD50 4. Odour threshold 5.
Carcmogen ? Poison ? Liberates poisonous fume? 6. Routes of entry 7. Body parts that may be affected
8. Effects of exposure and symptoms 9. Emergency and first aid treatment 10. Engineering controls
necessary for safe handling. 11. NFPA Hazard signals 12. Special Health hazards.

6. Preventive Measures: 1. Ventilation required and type 2. Personal protective equipment required
and type 3. Handling and storage precautions

7. Emergency and First-aid Measure : 1. Steps to be taken in case material is released or spilled. 2.
Waste disposal method for solid, liquid and gaseous waste. 3. Fire, extinguishing media, special
procedures and Unusual hazards. 4. Exposure - First-aid measures. Antidotes, Dosages.

8. Additional Information / References 9. Manufacturer / Supplier's Data : 1. Name of Firm 2. Mailing

address 3. Telephone/Telex/Fax Nos. 4. Telegraphic address 5. Contact person in emergency 6. Local
bodies involved 7. Standard packing

8. Tremcard Details / Ref. 9. Other

10. Disclaimer:

Interpretation and use of MSDS

55
For the better understanding and use of the Material Safety Data Sheet, some terms are explained

below:

1. Formula (Chemical) : It is a symbolic representation of a chemical entity or relationship

between elements, molecule and atoms, e.g. H, one molecule of hydrogen, 2HSO two molecules of
sulphuric acid, HO one molecule of water wherein there are two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of
oxygen. CH benzene contains six atoms of carbons and six atoms of hydrogen in one molecule, group or
ion. Thus by formula we can know the hazardous ingredient of a chemical.

2. Synonym : Indicates alternate name of a material. e.g. Dimethyl ketone or 2-Propanone for
Acetone.

3. Trade Name : Commercial name of the product.

4. Chemical Classification : General classification is organic or inorganic. Hazardwise classification

can be flammable, explosive, toxic or poisonous, corrosive, reactive, infectious, oxidising, radioactive
etc.

5. CAS No. : It is Chemical Abstracts Service number to provide a single unique identifier with
naming the chemical, e.g. CAS No. for acetic acid is 64-19-7. It does not indicate the hazards of a
material.

6. UN No. : It is United Nations four digit number assigned to potentially hazardous material (e.g.
Ammonia UN No. 1005) or Class of material (e.g. corrosive liquids UN No. 1760). These numbers are
internationally recognised and used by emergency response personnel (including ire fighters) to identify
material during transport emergencies. UN, Hazchem, NA and PIN numbers have the same uses. See
also Part 14.2 (4).

7. Hazchem (EAC) - No. : Hazchem (hazardous chemical) Code or EAC (Emergency Action Code) is
an emergency code confirmed by the Health & Safety Executive, UK. It consists of a number (I to 4)
followed by one or two letters and signifies type of a fire extinguisher required, type of personal
protective equipment required, whether the spillage should be contained or diluted with water, whether
the material is reactive and whether evacuation of the surrounding area necessary. Hazchem No. of
Sodium cyanide is 4X and that of Vinyl chloride is 2WE.

ADR No. : It is an Agreement concerning carriage of Dangerous goods by Road. This European
agreement was arrived at Geneva by 19 European countries for the safety of international transport by
road. It deals with the classification of hazardous substances, their packaging, loading and unloading,
transportation and its equipment. It gives hazard identification numbers like UN hazard class number.
Their comparison is given below

Classification of Dangerous Goods by UN Number ADR Number

1. Explosives 2. Gases-Compressed, liquefied, dissolved under pressure or deeply refrigerated. 3.

Flammable liquids. 4. Flammable solids. 5. Oxidising substances or Organic Peroxides. 6. Poisonous

56
(Toxic) or Infectious substances. 7. Radioactive substances. 8. Corrosive substances. 9. Miscellaneous
dangerous substances.

2. Emissions of gas due to pressure or due to chemical reaction. 3. Flammability of liquids (vapours) and
gases. 4. Flammability of gases. 5. Oxidising (fire intensifying) effect. 6. Toxicity. 8. Corrosivity. 9. Risk
of spontaneous violent reaction.

Doubling (repeating) of an ADR digit indicates increase of that particular hazard. Prefix 'X' indicates
that the substance can dangerously react with water. As an example ADR HIN (Hazard Identification
No.) of Benzene is 33 (UN No. is 1114 and Hazchem No. is 3WE).

9. Appearance, State, Odour: Appearance includes colour. State means physical state - solid, liquid or
gas. Odour indicates smell. Odour threshold is that minimum level (ppm) where the odour will start. If
odour threshold is lower than the permissible safe limit (e.g. TLV, STEL, IDLH or LC), the odour
indicates the presence of gas and some safety margin is available to run away or to take precautionary
step. But if it is higher, the gas becomes toxic or hazardous before its odour starts and this condition is
risky. In that event a reliable gas detector is useful. Sometimes odor is added to detect the gas leakage
e.g. addition of mercaptan in domestic LPG. Ability to detect odour may vary from person to person and
may mislead if the other odorous materials are simultaneously present.

10. Specific Gravity (water = 1) : It is the ratio of the density of a material to the density of water
(which is I g/cc). Lighter material (Sp. gr. <l, e.g. benzene 0.88) will float and heavier material (Sp. gr.
>l, e.g. sulphuric acid 1.84) will sink. This information is useful for spill or fire control.

11. Vapour Density (air = 1) : It is the vapour weight per unit volume. In MSDS it is given as the ratio
of the density of a gas or vapour to the density of air. The air density is 1.293 gm/l, but here it is
considered as 1 for easy comparison of gases. Lighter gases (Vd<l, e.g. ammonia 0.59) will go up (rise)
in the air and heavier gases (Vd>l, e.g. chlorine 2.49) will come down on the bottom. This information is
useful for ventilation design and evacuation (emergency) activity.

12. Boiling Point: It is that temperature at which the material changes from a liquid to a gas. Below this
point the liquid can evaporate to form vapour but at the BP the change from liquid to vapour is faster.
This increases the vapour concentration and its pressure. This condition poses higher risk of fire,
explosion or toxicity.

13. Thermal Decomposition Products : If the material decomposes (breaks down) without boiling, the
temperature at which it decomposes is given with the word "dec'. Some of the decomposition products
are hazardous. The thermal decomposition products may be quite different from the chemicals formed by
burning the same material (hazardous combustion products). Information regarding thermal
decomposition is useful to design ventilation system where a material may be heated.

57
14. Hazardous Decomposition Products : They are formed when a material decomposes (without
heating) because it is unstable or reacts with common material like water or air (oxygen). This
information is useful to design storage and handling procedures. For example, phosgene decomposes into
corrosive and toxic fumes of HCI and CO because of heating or coming into contact of water or steam.
Here HCI and CO are hazardous decomposition products.

15. Hazardous Combustion Products : These are the chemicals which are formed when a material
burns. They may be toxic, flammable, smoke, carbon particles or other hazards. Their amount varies
according to temperature and oxygen (air) available. They may be different from the thermal
decomposition products. This information is useful to decide the fire fighting material and procedure.

16. Melting Point : It is that temperature at which a solid material melts and becomes a liquid. This
information is useful for storage and handling purpose. A melted material may distort a container.

17. Freezing Point : It is that temperature at which a liquid material freezes and becomes solid. This
information is useful for storage and handling purpose. A frozen material may burst a container.

18. Vapour Pressure : It is .the pressure (mm of Hg) upon atmosphere of the vapour of a material at a
fixed temperature (e.g. 20 °C). Higher vapour pressure indicates higher concentration and therefore
higher hazard due to fire or inhalation.

19. Solubility : It is the ability of a material to dissolve in water or another liquid (solvent). It may be
expressed as a ratio or described by words like insoluble, very soluble, sparingly soluble or miscible.
This information is useful to decide a scrubbing media, spill control or fire fighting material and
procedure. Such solvent should not be hazardous.

20. Scrubbing neutralising or inactivating media : These are those materials (liquids) which dissolve or
react with the hazardous material (gas, liquid or solid) to diminish its hazardous exposure e.g. caustic,
lime, water etc. If this is not possible, proper absorbent may be used e.g. sand, sponge rubber etc.

21. pH : It is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity (basicity) of a material when dissolved in water. It is
expressed in a scale from 0 to 14 as under :

0-2 Strong acidic 0-5 Weak acidic 0-8 Neutral 9-11 Weak basic 12-14 Strong
basic

This information is useful to select a neutralising material for scrubbing or effluent treatment or spill
control.

22. Flash Point : It is the lowest temperature at which a material gives off enough vapour near its
surface to form a flammable air vapour (gas) mixture so that it can be ignited if a spark is available. The
lower flesh point indicates higher hazard as it can cause fire at a lower temperature. It is expressed as
Closed Cup (CC) or Open Cup (OC). CC value is slightly less than the OC value.

23. Auto-ignition Temperature : It is the lowest temperature at which a material begins to burn in air
without any contact of spark or flame. During heating if the material decomposes, the decomposed
chemical may auto-ignite at some other temperature. Different test methods give different auto-ignition
temperatures for the same material. Therefore this value is an estimate. The material should be stored,
processed or handled well below its auto-ignition temperature to avoid the risk of self fire or explosion.
Substances liable to spontaneous combustion are those liable to spontaneous heating under normal
conditions or to heating up on contact with air and being then liable to catch fire'.

58
 24. Flammable or Explosive Limits (LEI/UEL) : The lowest concentration (percentage in air) of gas or
vapour which will burn or explode if ignited, is called the Lower Explosive (or Flammable) Limit i.e.
LEL or LFL. The upper concentration (percentage in air) of gas or vapour which will burn or explode if
ignited, is called the Upper Explosive (or Flammable) Limit i.e. UEL or UFL. The range between LEL
and UEL is called the Explosive (or Flammable) Range. The fire or explosion risk lies within this range
but not out of it. Below LEL the gas-air mixture is too lean to ignite and above UEL it is too rich to
ignite.

However the concentration above UEL should be considered dangerous as due to entrainment of fresh
air, it may be diluted and enter the explosive range. Similarly after LEL if gas discharge is continued in
the same air, it can also enter the explosive range. Thus explosive range can be reached depending on
flow of gas and air affecting their concentration. Air and gas temperature may also affect Therefore the
range should be considered as approximate values. For gas/vapour it is expressed in % of air (1% =
10,000 ppm) and for powder in gm/m3 of air.

This information is useful to avoid the conditions leading to the explosive range and to ascertain it
before allowing any person to enter any vessel or confined space where such air-gas mixture is
suspected. Explosimeters are available to detect this range. Detection should be of percentage of LEL
and all safety devices (alarms, controls, trips etc.) should operate well below the LEL. Fire hazard should
be prevented at predetermined percentage of LEL.

25. TDG Flammability : Transport of Dangerous Goods (TDG) classifies the materials according to
their flammability as under 2.1 Flammable gas. 3 Flammable liquid (Subclasses 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3
based on flash point). 4.1 Flammable solid. 4.2 Spontaneously combustible material. 4.3 Material
which gives off a flammable gas on contact with water.

26. Explosion Data (Sensitivity) : It gives explosive properties of a material e.g. low, moderate or high.
It gives two types of sensitivity :

Explosion Sensitivity to Impact - It indicates whether or not the material will burn or explode on shock
or friction, and

Explosion Sensitivity to Static Electricity - It indicates how readily the material can be ignited by an
electric spark or static discharge.

27. Explosive Material : An explosive material is that material which can explode on impact or by
electric spark. Schedule-1 of Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules, 1989
defines 'Explosives' as those chemicals which explode under the effect of flame, heat or photo-chemical
conditions or which are more sensitive to shocks or friction than dinitrobenzene (old definition) or
pyrotechnic substance (firework) or which is capable of producing gas at such temperature, pressure and
speed to cause damage to surroundings or exothermic reaction by heat, light, sound, gas, smoke or their
combination (new definition).

28. Combustible and Flammable Material : Flammable solid, liquid or gas which can catch fire and
burn rapidly or explosively are flammable materials.

The terms combustible and flammable both indicates the ability of a material to burn. Any material that
will burn at any temperature is combustible by definition. Flammable are a special group of combustible
materials that ignite easily and burn rapidly. For example, NaCI, CC4 and CO2 are noncombustible
while sugar, cellulose and ammonia are combustible but non-flammable. The more readily ignition

59
occurs, the more flammable the material, less easily ignited materials are said to be combustible, but the
line of demarcation is difficult to decide. Normally combustible liquids are classified as those whose
flash point is greater than 37.7°C (100 °F).

Flammable or Inflammable liquids are classified under MSIHC Rules as (1) Flammable gases (LEL upto
13% or explosive range 12%). (2) Extremely flammable liquids (FP<23 °C, BP<35 °C). (3) Very highly
flammable liquids (FP<23 °C, BP>35 °C). (4) Highly flammable liquids (FP between 23 °C to 60 °C)
and (5) Flammable liquids (FP between 60 °C to 90 °C).

Flammable liquids are extremely hazardous, as they give off vapours at low temperature and these
vapours by travelling to a source of ignition can cause flash back to the flammable liquid. It is difficult to
extinguish a burning flammable liquid with water because water may not be able to cool the liquid below
its flash point.

Flammable gases (normally boiling point < 20 °C) are equally hazardous as flammable vapours as
explained above. Confined flammable gases are most dangerous. Flammable gases are also defined as
those which at 20°C and at standard pressure of 101.3 KPa, have LEL 13% or less or a flammable range
of 12% or more regardless of the LEL.

Flammable solids can be ignited due to external heat, flame, process heating by interaction with water or
other substances. Flammable solids are of various types (1) Dusts or fine powders e.g. cellulose, flour
etc. (2) Spontaneously ignitable at low temperature e.g. yellow phosphorous (3) Those in which internal
heat is built-up by microbial or other degradation activity e.g. fish meal, wet cellulosic material (4)
Films, fibres and fabrics of low-ignition point materials.

Flammable solids are readily combustible or may cause or contribute to fire through friction or which
are liable to undergo a strong exothermic reaction.

29. Corrosive Material : It can attack (corrode) metals or human tissues such as skin or eyes. Structure
or metal container may become weak and eventually collapse or leak. Skin, eyes or other body parts can
be badly affected (burning) by corrosive materials. Acids, halogen gases, chlorides, caustic, phenol etc.
are corrosive.

30. Hazardous Polymerisation : A polymer is a natural or man-made material formed by combining

units called monomers, into long chains, e.g. styrene is the monomer for polystyrene.

Polymerisation is the process of forming a polymer by combining monomers into long chains.
Uncontrolled polymerisation can be hazardous, as it can cause heat, pressure or explosion. Some
chemicals can polymerise on their own without warming, others upon contact with water, air or common
chemicals. Vinyl chloride rapidly polymerises in presence of light, air or heat. Therefore polymerising
conditions should be controlled properly, lnhibitors(negative catalysts or compounds that retard or stop
an undesired chemical reaction such as polymerisation, oxidation, corrosion etc.) are normally added to
products to reduce or eliminate the possibility of hazardous polymerisation.

31. Pyrophoric Material : Any liquid or solid that will ignite spontaneously in air at about 54.4 °C (130
°F). Titanium dichloride and phosphorous are examples of pyrophoric solids, tributylaluminium and
related compounds are pyrophoric liquids. Sodium, butyllithium and lithium hydride are spontaneously

flammable in moist air as they react exothermically with water. Such materials must be stored in inert
gas or under kerosene. Some alloys (barium, misch metal) are called pyrophoric because they spark when
slight friction is applied. Pyrotechnic materials mean fireworks. Catalysts of pyrophoric material which
an burn in normal air, are replaced in the atmosphere of nitrogen blanketing. The workers have to wear

60
self-breathing apparatus while doing such job, because in the atmosphere of about 90% nitrogen, oxygen
is insufficient for breathing.

32. Oxidiser and Peroxide : It is a compound that spontaneously evolves oxygen either at room
temperature or under slight heating. Oxidisers include peroxides, chlorates, perchlorates, nitrates and
permanganates. These can react vigorously at ambient temperatures when stored near or in contact with
reducing materials (that will remove oxygen or add hydrogen) such as cellulosic and other organic
compounds. Storage areas should be well ventilated and kept as cool as possible.

Peroxides release atomic (nascent) oxygen readily. They pose fire hazards in contact with combustible
materials, especially under high temperature conditions. They are used as oxidising agents, bleaching
agents and initiators of polymerisation.

Oxidizing substances are not necessarily combustible in themselves but by giving oxygen they
contribute to combustion of other materials.

Organic Peroxides contain bivalent 0-0 structure, are thermally unstable and may undergo exothermic
self-accelerating decomposition.

33. Chemical Stability : A stable compound does not easily decompose or react readily. Chemical
stability is the ability of a material to remain unchanged in the presence of heat, moisture or air. An
unstable compound may decompose, polymerise, burner explode under normal environmental
conditions. Special precautions are required to store or handle unstable materials. For examples, CS2
decomposes in light and burns due to heat, spark, flame or friction and gives off toxic fumes of SOx.
Caprolectum liberates NOx fumes due to heating. TNT explodes due to heavy shock or by heating. Thus
conditions disturbing stability must be known.

34. Incompatibility : Compatibility means the ability of two or more materials to exist in close and
permanent association indefinitely. Liquids and solids are compatible if the solid is soluble in the liquid.
Water is compatible with alcohol (because it is miscible) but not with gasoline (e.g. petrol).

Incompatibility means disability to co-exist permanently. Therefore incompatible materials should not
be stored or kept together. For example, toluene reacts violently with some acids, plastic or rubber,
therefore, these substances should be kept away.

Incompatible materials can cause a fire, explosion, toxic release, violent reaction, polymerisation or
destroy the structure or function of a product. This information is useful for storage and handling
purposes.

35. Reactivity : Two or more chemicals can react with each other and give reaction products, e.g. 2H2
+ 02 = 2H20. A single chemical can react with air or water (which are also chemicals) and give the
product, e.g. phosphorous burns in air and gives its oxides (P2O2 P2O5), sulphur burns and gives SO2
etc.

Reactions are exothermic when they evolve heat and are endothermic when they need heat to maintain
them. A reversible reaction is one in which the reaction product is unstable and goes back to the original
substance spontaneously.

In MSDS we are concerned with the hazardous reaction or reactive material which can cause fire,
explosion, toxic release or violent reaction with air, water or common chemicals or under environmental

61
conditions. Phosphorous, CS, Sodium metal, acids (reactive with metals) etc. are known for their
reactivity. This information is useful for storage, handling and process safety purposes.

36. Hazardous Reaction Products : These must be known for the safety of process, workers and
environment. Here products are more important than the reaction because of their hazardous nature, e.g.
Chlorine reacts with alcohol and forms explosive alkyl hypochlorite. If toxic fumes are to be generated,
scrubbers are required, if flammable vapours are generated, inert gas blanketing is required and earthing
of the vessel also becomes necessary. If reaction products are highly poisonous like NaCN, HCN etc.,
they are to be handled in a closed system.

37. Health Hazard Data : For TLV, STEL, IDLH, LD/LC etc. see Part 1.5.1, for routes of entry, see
Part 1.5.3, for effects of exposure see Part 1.8.2, for engineering controls and Part 1.5.6 for health
hazards, all of Chapter-24.

For emergency and first aid treatment and antidotes see Chapter-26, for fire and NFPA (National Fire
Protection Association of USA) Code see Part 3.4 of Chapter-13, for ventilation see Chapter 10 and for
personal protective equipment see Chapter-25.

TLV and STEL are given in 2nd Schedule of the Factories Act. LD50, and LC50 are given in 1st
Schedule of the MSIHC Rules for the purpose of major accident hazard. LD,, for insecticides are given
in Rule 19 of the Insecticide Rules for labelling purpose. Lower these values, higher the toxicity. LD50
up to 200 mg/kg and LC50 up to 10 mg/l can cause major hazard. By local exhaust ventilation toxic gas,
dust or vapour must be captured and effective PPE must be worn by the workers. Above STEL, SBA is
desirable.

38. Tremcard : Transport Emergency Cards are to be given to the drivers carrying dangerous goods for
emergency information which may be needed at any time during journey. The cards contain short
information on nature of chemical, hazards involved, protective devices, emergency action for fire,
spillage, leakage, first-aid etc.

 Safety Precautions for Transporting:

o Railroad Transportation:

It accounts for quite a large proportion of the chemicals transportation. The greatest

hazard in this mode of transportation is that because of the far flung operations, it is not possible

to train everyone connected with the operation in the proper care to be taken. Proper labeling of

hazards involved is a help. Derailment and accidents are other hazards.

The preventive measures are:

(a) Improved design of the tankers and the couplers,

(b) Limitations on the size of the tanks,

(c) Positioning of the hazardous chemicals away from the locomotive

(d) Avoiding hunching together of hazardous chemicals

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(e) Properlabeling of content and the hazardous nature of the chemicals.

A serious risk is that an accident may occur at a place which is not easily accessible and

where competent guidance may not be available. In the USA Dan organization (CHEMETREC)

has been set up to deal with such cases.

(2) Transportation of Explosives by Rail :

Such rules (Railway Red Tariff Rules 62 to 74) are as under:

1. No explosives other than safety fuses and fireworks shall be transported by rail except

in the van specially constructed for the carriage of explosives and approved by the Chief

Controller of Explosives and the Railway Board.

2. Label &#39;Explosive&#39; on each side of the carriage shall be affixed.

3. Carriage containing explosives shall be kept away from the engine (other than electric

locomotive) and close coupled to the adjoining carriage not loaded with explosives or

other flammable or hazardous substances

4. Not more than 10 carriages containing explosives shall be attached to any one train. Not

more than 5 carriages of explosives shall be loaded oi unloaded at any one time at any

railway station.

5. No explosive shallbe transported by any passenger or mixed train.

6. Safety fuses for blasting, explosives of the third class (nitro compounds) in the form of

cartridges and not exceeding 2.5 kg in weight, detonators up to 200 (each weighing up to

225 gms) and sporting powders and propellants in double packing as prescribed, can be

transported by passenger or mixed trains.

7. Explosive consignment shall be received at the specified railway premises only, during

sunrise and sunset and by an authorized railway servant only.

8. Shunting of carriages containing explosives shall be carried out under the supervision of

authorized officer. Shunting speed shall not exceed 8 km/hi and no loose shunting will

take place.

9. The packages shall be removed by the consignee within 12 hours of day light following

their arrival. The Station Master shall keep the packages at a safe distance and covered

with tarpaulins or other suitable material.

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10. No explosive shall be carried except by rail across any railway bridge. This rule is not

applicable to carry safety fuses or gunpowder or nitro compound up to 5 kg or

ammunition Class-6, Division 2 and 3.

International Regulations concerning carriage of dangerous goods by rail (RID) and

British Railways list of dangerous goods and conditions of acceptances also provide rail

transport guidelines.

Road Transportation:

Road tankers are constructed in a wide variety of materials like steel, stainless steel,

lined material and FRP construction. Sometimes they need to be heated or cooled.

Road tankers and their fastenings should be capable of absorbing following forces -

1. In the direction of travel-twice the total weight.

2. Vertically downwards-twice the total weight.

3. Vertically upwards-total weight.

4. Horizontally at right angles to direction of travel-total weight.

The service equipment such as valves, fittings, gauges etc. should be protected against

impact. Three types of independent stop valves - internal, external and blind flange- are

required. For certain gases like HF, shell opening at bottom is not permitted. Fusible plug to

operate below 93 °C is suggested in case of petroleum tanker. Spark arrester on exhaust, a

portable fire extinguisher, TREMCARD emergency kit and instructions to driver are also

necessary.

See Part 6.2 of Chapter-28 for Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989 for transport of

hazardous goods also. Display of class labels on goods package (e.g. box, drum) and carriage

(e.g. vehicle, truck, tanker) are compulsory u/r 129 and 134 respectively.

U.N. Classification of Hazardous material :

Safety in chemical industry:

1. Study and identify chemical hazards using material safety data sheet (MSDS) and a

system of classification, packaging and labeling should be developed.

2. Select safer technology.

3. Select safer sitting of chemical industry for minimum loss to men, material, environment

64
etc.

4. Take all safety precautions at Design and construction stage.

5. Workplace hazards inside the factory should be controlled by good engineering controls,

(SOPs) safe operating procedure and using personal protective equipment.

6. All requisite safety devices, fittings, instruments, equipment, machines etc., must be

provided and well maintained.

7. Workers must be properly Educated &amp; trained for safe operation of the plant such as

proper Warning signs, color codes, Safety Work Permit Systems, fire fighting.

8. Conduct Mock-drills of MAH Unit &amp; Potential Emergencies due to Chemical Hazards to

know everybody their role in emergency planning and control.

9. Safe Storage, handling &amp; transportation of hazardous chemicals within and out-side

factory premises.

10. Safe Storage, disposal of hazardous wastes within and outside factory premises.(Sewage

&amp;Haz-Sludge)

11. Well monitoring and control of hazardous substances/Waste at work places (Inspection,

Audit &amp; Analysis / ETP &amp; STP) and of occupational ill-effects and diseases by pre and

periodical medical examinations of the workers.

The hazardous chemicals/dangerous goods are divided by the United Nation Committee

of Experts on the Transport of dangerous goods into the following classes:

CLASS 1 : Explosives

Division 1 - Substances and articles which have a mass explosion hazard.

Division 2 - Substances and articles which have a projection hazards but not a

mass explosion hazards.

Division 3 - Substances and articles which have a fire hazard and either a

minor blast hazard or a major projection hazard or both, but not a mass explosion hazard.

Division 4 - Substances and articles which present no significant hazard.

Division 5 - Very insensitive substances which have a mass explosion hazard.

CLASS 2 : Gases compressed, liquefied, dissolved under pressure or deeply refrigerated.

CLASS 3 : Inflammable liquids.

65
CLASS 4 : Inflammable solids, substances liable to spontaneous combustion; substances

which, on contact with water, emit inflammable gases.

Division 4.1 - Inflammable solids.

Division 4.2 - Substances liable to spontaneous combustion.

Division 4.3 - Substances which on contact with water emit inflammable gases.

CLASS 5 : - Oxidizing substances; organic peroxides.

Division 5.1 - Oxidizing substances.

Division 5.2 - Organic peroxides.

CLASS 6 : - Poisonous (toxic) and Infectious substances.

Division 6.1 - Poisonous (toxic) substances.

Division 6.2 - Infectious substances.

CLASS 7 : - Radioactive substance.

CLASS 8 : - Corrosives.

CLASS 9 : - Miscellaneous dangerous substance.

See IS: 1446 for classification of dangerous goods.

Arrangement for loading and unloading of the liquid has to be well designed. It is

preferred to load toxic and flammable material from the bottom. It is preferable to provide a

discharge pump on the tank.

Drums, crates and cylinders are also transported by trucks. The-important thing to see is

that the chemical is securely packed so that spillage do not occur on the road and the toxic

vapors are not released. The cylinders or drums should be securely lashed so that they do not fall

off the truck and cause danger. The driver and the attendant should be fully conversant with the

nature of the material and the hazards involved; and trained to handle the situation.

TRANSPORTATION BY CROSS COUNTRY PIPELINES

 The MSDC of the chemical those transported by pipelines are to be kept readily available and
also to be displayed at prominent locations.
 The above ground pipelines should not obstruct the vehicle transport, working staff, ant
operations.
 Incompatible chemicals should not be stored in the vicinity of such pipelines.

66
  The surrounding area should be kept in clean all the time. Pipelines are to be properly earthed
and continuity should be measured periodically.
 The flanges of pipelines carrying flammables should be properly bonded.
 Minimum flages are to be kept on such lines.
 If the pipelines crossing the road (cross country pipelines), then it should be covered with outer
pipelines on that portion to withstand the impact of vehicles.
 For underground pipelines corrosion protection measures (Cathodic protection)are to be
employed. The resistance is to be checked regularly.
 At some distance, along the U/g pipelines, identification boards (plates) to be displayed.
 Sensors are to be installed to indicate with alarm high/flow pressure, high/low tempratures, and
deviation if flow rates and trip system to stop the transfer pumps if any division in the parameters
occurs.
 Safety relief valves (safety valves) are to be installed on the pressure lines.
 Intermediate booster pumps are to be used to increases the pressure.
 Pipelines should be dedicated for each type of chemicals or otherwise pegging is to be done as
and when required.
 External inspection/examination to be every six-month, hydraulic testing is to be done every
four/five years.
 Maximum credible loss (MCLS) study is to be done and accordingly “emergency action plan” is
to be prepared and mock-drills are to be conducted every six-month.
 Required suitable personal protective equipments and rescue operation devices are to be kept
readily available to tackle the emergency if arises.
IN – PLANT TRANSPORTATION : While handling chemical within the plant, pipelines for gases and
liquids are used. The different kinds of backings are use, but some other forms of transport, such as
conveyor belts and pneumatic conveyors are also used. Important methods for in plant transportation are:

a) Pipelines most plants have a system of storage tanks for liquids or even materials which can be
easily melted. The liquids are pumped to measuring tanks from where they are charged to the
reactors. A typical installation should be providing for pumping to the measuring and an
overflow line returning to the tank.
The pipelines can be of various materials, depending upon the nature of chemicals handled –
steel, stainless steel, polyethene, polypropylene, pvc glass, lead, glass – lined, rubber – lined.
The pipe lines should be well laid, giving adequate support, provisions for maintenance, isolation
valves in case maintenance is require, and painted for correct identification as per IS: 2379.
Pipelines carrying LPG and flammable materials should be properly bonded and earthed.
Isolation valves should be providing for easy control in case of breakage.

SAFETY IN LIQUID LOADING AND UNLOADING :

1. Take care of adverse weather conditions.

2. Safe access to the top of the trailer tank car.
3. Suitable fire extinguishers
4. Where air pressure is needed or other gases such as nitrogen, adequate hose lines should be
provide with reducing valves. Recommended pressure is 20 psig.
5. Steam lines, if heating is necessary.
6. Personnel discharging should be in the vicinity.
7. Adequate personal protective equipment should be provided.
8. Emergency shower should be provided.
9. Ensure the sufficient space is available in the receiving tank.
10. Training of personnel.
11. Avoid mixing of chemicals. Take full precautions.

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 12. Routine through check – up procedure.
13. Proper identification on discharge lines.

b) DRUMS : When handling liquids, the material can be emptied bu sucking into a measuring
vessel ro by pumping out, using a small pump that could go into the bung opening, or by a gear
pump. Pressure should not be used, more so with corrosive liquids.
Solids can be discharged into reactors by drum tilters or emptied into specially designed screw
conveyor. Cut drums are invariably use and cause plenty of accidents, as workers are not careful
to hammer down the sharp edges. Partially used drums must be covered, special protection taken
to preserve the chemical and the product identified.
Empty drums are not really empty, if they have been used for solvents unless specially cleaned.
Dangerous chemicals like dimethyl sulphate, benzoyl chloride, etc. require elaborated cleaning to
really wash out the traces of harmful ingredients.
c) Naked carboys and glass bottles should never be transported. They should be transported in
wooden crates or cases and handled to avoid damage to the container.
d) Plastic carboys are very easy to handle and sturdy. Special spouts are usually provided to prevent
spillages.
e) Conveyor belts are frequently employed for handling quantities of chemicals. When dealing with
organic powders; steps should be taken to see that charge is not generated.
f) Pneumatic conveyors are increasingly used for transportation from one location to another within
the plant.
g) Gas cylinders should be handled with the right types of tackle and certainly not thrown about.
These should be protected against heat.

Pigging Operation in Pipeline:

In pipeline transportation, pigging is the practice of using devices known as pigs or scrapers to
perform various maintenance operations. This is done without stopping the flow of the product in the
pipeline. These devices are known as pigs because they scrape or clean just like a normal pig
These operations include but are not limited to cleaning and inspecting the pipeline. This is
accomplished by inserting the pig into a "pig launcher" (or "launching station") — an oversized
section in the pipeline, reducing to the normal diameter. The launching station is then closed and
the pressure-driven flow of the product in the pipeline is used to push the pig along down the pipe
until it reaches the receiving trap — the "pig catcher" (or "receiving station").

Pigging has been used for many years to clean large diameter pipelines in the oil industry. Today,
however, the use of smaller diameter pigging systems is now increasing in many continuous and
batch process plants as plant operators search for increased efficiencies and reduced costs.
Pigging can be used for almost any section of the transfer process between, for example, blending,
storage or filling systems. Pigging systems are already installed in industries handling products as
diverse as lubricating oils, paints, chemicals, toiletries, cosmetics and foodstuffs.
Pigs are used in lube oil or paint blending to clean the pipes to avoid cross-contamination, and to
empty the pipes into the product tanks (or sometimes to send a component back to its tank). Usually
pigging is done at the beginning and at the end of each batch, but sometimes it is done in the midst
of a batch, such as when producing a premix that will be used as an intermediate component.

68
Pigs are also used in oil and gas pipelines to clean the pipes. There are also "smart pigs" used to
inspect pipelines for the purpose of preventing leaks, which can be explosive and dangerous to the
environment. They usually do not interrupt production, though some product can be lost when the
pig is extracted. They can also be used to separate different products in a multiproduct pipeline.
If the pipeline contains butterfly valves, or reduced port ball valves, the pipeline cannot be pigged.
Full port (or full bore) ball valves cause no problems because the inside diameter of the ball opening
is the same as that of the pipe.

Mechanical interlocks
There are many reports of incidents in which operators have been injured or even killed while
performing a pigging operation. Common causes of such events are:

 opening of the closure door while the vessel is still pressurized;

 opening of the main process valve while the closure door is not fully closed;
 opening of the closure door while a high concentration of H₂S or other toxins remains inside the
vessel;
 The vent valve remaining open while the vessel is being pressurized with its medium.

Type of Pigs:

 Physical separation between different fluids flowing through the pipeline

 Internal cleaning of pipelines
 Inspection of the condition of pipeline walls (also known as an Inline Inspection (ILI) tool)
 Capturing and recording geometric information relating to pipelines (e.g., size, position).

Intelligent pig

Inserting a pig into a natural gas pipeline

Modern intelligent or "smart" pigs are highly sophisticated instruments that include electronics and
sensors that collect various forms of data during their trip through the pipeline. They vary in
technology and complexity depending on the intended use and the manufacturer.
The electronics are sealed to prevent leakage of the pipeline product into the electronics since
products can range from being highly basic to highly acidic and can be of extremely high pressure
and temperature. Many pigs use specific materials according to the product in the pipeline. Power
for the electronics is typically provided by onboard batteries which are also sealed. Data recording
may be by various means ranging from analog tape, digital tape, or solid-state memory in more
modern units.

69
The technology used varies by the service required and the design of the pig, each pigging service
provider may have unique and proprietary technologies to accomplish the service. Surface pitting
and corrosion, as well as cracks and weld defects in steel/ferrous pipelines are often detected
using magnetic flux leakage (MFL) pigs. Other "smart" pigs use electromagnetic acoustic
transducers to detect pipe defects.[14] Caliper pigs can measure the roundness of the pipeline to
determine areas of crushing or other deformations. Some smart pigs use a combination of
technologies, such as providing MFL and caliper functions in a single tool. Trials of pigs
using acoustic resonance technology have been reported.[15]
During the pigging run the pig is unable to directly communicate with the outside world due to the
distance underground or underwater and/or the materials that the pipe is made of. For example,
steel pipelines effectively prevent any significant radio communications outside the pipe. It is
therefore necessary that the pig use internal means to record its own movement during the trip. This
may be done by odometers, gyroscope-assisted tilt sensors and other technologies.[16] The pig
records this positional data so that the distance it moves along with any bends can be interpreted
later to determine the exact path taken.

Cathodic Protection in Underground Pipeline

Cathodic protection (CP) is a technique used to control the corrosion of a metal surface by making
it the cathode of an electrochemical cell.[1] A simple method of protection connects the metal to be
protected to a more easily corroded "sacrificial metal" to act as the anode. The sacrificial metal then
corrodes instead of the protected metal. For structures such as long pipelines, where passive
galvanic cathodic protection is not adequate, an external DC electrical power source is used to
provide sufficient current.
Cathodic protection systems protect a wide range of metallic structures in various environments.
Common applications are: steel water or fuel pipelines and steel storage tanks such as home water
heaters; steel pier piles; ship and boat hulls; offshore oil platforms and onshore oil
well casings; offshore wind farm foundations and metal reinforcement bars in concrete buildings and
structures. Another common application is in galvanized steel, in which a sacrificial coating
of zinc on steel parts protects them from rust.

Pipelines
Hazardous product pipelines are routinely protected by a coating supplemented with cathodic
protection. An impressed current cathodic protection system (ICCP) for a pipeline consists of a DC
power source, often an AC powered transformer rectifier and an anode, or array of anodes buried in
the ground (the anode grounded).
The DC power source would typically have a DC output of up to 50 amperes and 50 volts, but this
depends on several factors, such as the size of the pipeline and coating quality. The positive DC
output terminal would be connected via cables to the anode array, while another cable would
connect the negative terminal of the rectifier to the pipeline, preferably through junction boxes to
allow measurements to be taken. Anodes can be installed in a grounded consisting of a vertical
hole backfilled with conductive coke (a material that improves the performance and life of the
anodes) or laid in a prepared trench, surrounded by conductive coke and backfilled. The choice of
grounded type and size depends on the application, location and soil resistivity. The DC cathodic
protection current is then adjusted to the optimum level after conducting various tests including
measurements of pipe-to-soil potentials or electrode potential.
It is sometimes more economically viable to protect a pipeline using galvanic (sacrificial) anodes.
This is often the case on smaller diameter pipelines of limited length. Galvanic anodes rely on

70
the galvanic series potentials of the metals to drive cathodic protection current from the anode to the
structure being protected.
Water pipelines of various pipe materials are also provided with cathodic protection where owners
determine the cost is reasonable for the expected pipeline service life extension attributed to the
application of cathodic protection.

Chapter 4: Safety In Plant and Maintenance

.

START UP & SHUT DOWN PROCEDURE:

START UP :

71
For an air craft landing take off are more hazardous operation, similarly in chemical plant, the hazard is
greater during start up and shutdown.

The start up considered here is not the metal commissioning but the resumption of operation after a
shutdown. The actual producing for start up and shutdown depends on the precess and varies some whet
accordingly.

It is convenient here to mention briefly about the startup shutdown. Plant start up is and operation which
needs to be properly planned so that all the resources are available when required. Start up requires that
the plant be taken through a predetermined sequence of stages. It is important that this sequence be
planned see that it is safe and avoid damage to the plant and this planning should be flexible enough to
handle difficulties which may arise. The personnel involved in start up should understand the rosery for
the sequence chosen.

There are different modes of start up of the plant

1. Initial start up of plant

2. Start up of plant on demand
3. Start up of plant section when rest of plant shutdown
4. Start up of plant section when rest of plant shutdown
5. Start up of plant section when rest of plant is in services.
START UP ACTIVITIES:

1. Preparation before start up – Inspection of plant (for removal of blind and position of values)
2. Activation of services – Activation of compressed air, steam, water, purge gas.
3. Purging – It is done with water, steam or with purging inert gases.
4. Leak testing – By inspection pressure is testing etc.
5. Drainage/ venting – removal of water, purge gas etc.
6. Conditioning – freedom from toxic gases.
7. Taking into services – gradual adjustment of temp. Pressure etc. up to (bringing on stream)
normal of the plant.
HAZARDS ASSOCIATED WITH STARTUP ACTIVITIES :

Wrong operation of valve – involving failure to ensure that correct valves are open and remaining valves
are closed.

Drain in start up normal sequence operation.

Valve left closed resulting in over – pressurization in the system.

Failure in temperature adjustment.

Purging material remained in the system.

Thermal and mechanical shock to the equipment

Mixing of steam and water-condensate causes water hammer.

Back flow of material, due to not maintaining pressure system correctly.

Safety Measures During Start Up – The plant should be inspected to check that it is ready for start up.
The axially system such as utilities, instruments, should be activated. Shutdown blinds should be removal
and running blinds be installed.

72
Start up is a time there is grates risk of getting unwanted material such as air, water into the system. So it
is necessary to remove such material before start up. During start up there is risk of instrument should be
checked. It is essential air avoiding diff. hazard during start up operational that there should be formal
and practical system of proper documentation and the personnel should be trained in the procedures such
as work permit.

There are various hazards associated with activation of steam system which includes water hammer, over
should be mechanical shock. Steam should be introduced gently with vents and drains open. Steam trap
should be commissioned measures should be taken to avoid collections of condensate which may give
rise to water hammer. Air should be removed by purging with suitable material steam is effective
material for purging. Water and inert gas should be also used as purging material.

1. Vacuum equipment may be free air by refilling with inert gas.

2. All joints and connections should be inspected for leakages.
Shutdown Activities : There are different made of shutdown which are as follows :

1. Normal shutdown of plant

2. Emergency shutdown of plant
3. Partial shutdown of plant
Shutdown includes following activities

a) Cooling and depressurizing

b) Pumping out or drain
c) Removal of residual product/reactant
d) Removal of corrosive or toxic materials
e) Removal of water purging material
f) Blinding activities
Removal of pyrophoric iron sulphide.

 If shutdown is prolonged precautions should be taken to prevent deterioration of the plant

 The excess pressure should be released.
 Vacuum unit should be cooled, the vacuum producing unit shut off and then the vacuum is
broken by introducing inert gas.
 When the unit cooled and depressurized the material should be pumped out. Can should be taken
that during pumping cut pump should not left suction because short period running can arsis
serious hazard.
 Residual removed by using suitable purging material such as water steam or inert gas and than
air should be passed to avoid under pressure
 Residual corrosive and toxic material should be removed by proper purging and cleaning for
maintenance.
 The installation of shutdown blind and removal of running blind should be carried out with work
permit system. Also isolation and line breaking is carried out with thus system.
 Removal of pyrophoric iron sulphide should be carried out with all fire extinguishing system.

COLOUR CODES:

USE OF COLOUR : Perception of visibility is improved by use of suitable colours on walls, ceilings,
floors and equipments. Light-reflecting qualities of surfaces contribute to fuller utilization of available

73
light and properly chosen colours help eliminate sharp contracts in brightness in the workers’ field of
vision, thus controlling good seeing.

White ceiling give maximum brightness. If floors and equipments are rather dark reflecting 25% to 40%
of the light, then upper walls should have a colour, an interior can be made parts of a plant. Green and
blue colour give a cool effect and are thus valuable psychologically, when temperatures are relatively
high.

Ivory and cream are warm colours. Rose shades are suitable for women, s rest rooms, whereas blue
colour is preferred for men’s rest rooms. Light gray is effective for machinery, parts at a point of
operation being painted orange to highlight the danger at that point.

Colour. Coding: Colour may be used as a coding technique for various controls. Colour codes can 1) be
useful for visual identification 2) be useful for standardizing controls for identification purposes and 3)
offer a moderate number of coding categories.

Colour is used extensively for safety purposes. While never intended as a substitute for good safety
measures and use of mechanical safeguards, standard colours are used to identify specific hazards and
their use eliminates confusion and misunderstanding.

Fire Protection Red recommended for identifying fire protection equipment, danger and emergency stops
on machines.

High Visibility Yellow because of its high visibility is the standard colour for marking hazards that may
result in accidents from slipping, Falling, striking against etc.

Safety Green in combination with white, such as the green cross on a white background designates the
location of first-aid and safety equipment.

Black & While and their combinations in stripes or checks are used for housekeeping and traffic
markings.

Alert Orange is the standard colour to highlight hazardous parts of machines or electrical equipment.
Such as exposed edges of cutting devices, the inside of removed guards and the doors and covers of
switch boxes and other similar electrical equipments.

Blue is used as signs to designate caution against starting or moving machines or equipment being
worked on.

Reddish Purple identifies radiation hazards such as radioactive material in rooms and containers.While is
for traffic lines.

COLOUR IDENTIFICATION OF PIPING SYSTEM :

Lack of uniformity of colour coding pipelines in industrial installations has often been responsible for
destruction of property and injury to personnel due to faulty manipulation of valves, particularly when
outside agencies such as contractor’s workers; fire-fighting squads etc. are called in. uniformity of colour
marking promotes greater safety, lessens the chances of errors and warns against the hazards involved in
the handling of materials inside the pipelines.

The piping in a plant may carry harmless, valuable or dangerous contents. Therefore, it is highly
desirable to identify different piping systems in accordance with a standard to prevent errors,
misunderstandings etc. the contents of a pipeline are generally classified as follows:

74
Classification Colour Designation

Fire Protection Red

Dangerous Orange or Yellow

Safe Green

Protective Material Bright Blue

The proper colour as above, may be applied to the entire length of the pipe or at least in bands 8” to 10”
wide near valves, pumps and at repeated intervals along the line. The name of specific materials may also
be stencilled in black at readily visible location such as valves and pumps. The code also recommends
highly resistant coloured substances for use, where and other substances may affect paints.

The system of colour coding on pipelines consists of a ground colour and colour bands superimposed on
the ground floor. The ground colour identifies the basic nature of the fluid carried and also distinguishes
one fluid from another. The various ground colours are given below :

Substances Ground Colour

Water Sea Green

Steam Silver Grey

Mineral, Vegetable and Animal Oils, combustible liquids Light Brown

Acids and Alkalies Dark Voilet

Air Sky Blue

Other Liquids Black

Cases Canary Yellow

Whenever ground colour is not applied throughout the entire length, it shall be applied near valves,
junctions, joints, service appliances, bulkheads, walls etc.

Colour bands are superimposed on the ground colour to distinguish a) one kind or condition of a fluid
from another kind of condition of the same fluid or b) one fluid from another but belonging to the same
group for example carbon monoxide from coke oven gas or diesel oil from furnace oil.

The ground colours should be extended on both the sides of the colours band to avoid confusions. Colour
bands must be applied near the valves, junctions, walls etc. the relatives proportional widths of the first
colour band to the subsequent band shall be 4:1 the minimum width of the narrowest colour band shall be
25mm. Arrows should be painted to indicate the direction of flow, particularly near valves, walls etc. and
also at suitable intervals along the pipe in a manner it is necessary to indicate separately the flow and
return pipes, this should be done by the use of word “FLOW” or letter “F” on the one pipe and the word
“RETURN” or letter “R” on the other.

For lettering for additional identification, there are recommended sizes of lettering for pipes of different
diameters. Attention should be given to the visibility of colour markings and where the pipelines are
located above the normal line of vision of the operator, the lettering should be placed below the
horizontal line of the pipes.

75
Tables are available for the following :

 For different types of services such as water for different purposes, air at different pressures,
vacuum, steam, drainage, lown gas and different types of oils showing their respective ground
colour and their first and second colour.
 Colour codes for different industrial gases together with their ground colour (usually canary
yellow or dark violet) and their first and second colour bands.
 Colour codes for medical gases with their grounds colour (usually canary yellow or sky blue)
with their first or second colour bands.
HAZARDS MARKING OF PIPELINES :

When it is desired to indicate that a pipeline carries a hazardous material, a panel of colours of suitable
width, as given below, shall be superimposed on the ground colour at suitable intervals, in addition to the
colour bands and the letterings.

 Slightly radioactive hazards : A base colour of jasmine yellow with black dots, suitably
superimposed.
 Highly radioactive hazards : A base colour of light orange with cross-diagonal stripes of black
colour, suitably superimposed.
 Other special hazards, equal diagonal stripes of black and golden yellow colours.
ACCIDENT PREVENTION SIGNS :

Accident Prevention sings are amongst the most widely used safety measures used in industry, so that
uniformity in the colour and design of sings is essential. Many employees may be unable to speak or read
the usual sings in the language of the majority of employees or standard sings, if properly trained. For
such purposes, the following colours are specified:

Red warns of special dangers.

Yellow denotes caution of possible dangerous of unsafe practices.

Green is used for safety instructions.

Black is for directional signs such as arrows pointing to stairways and exits.

Reddish Purple is used to identify radiation hazards such as radioactive materials in rooms and
containers.

Blue is for signs warning against starting or moving machines or equipments being worked on. Any
colour except red or yellow may be used for informational sings. \

Pressure Relief Devices :

If pressure inside a tank rises due to any reason, it may burst the tank from its weakest part or cause
leakage from where it is possible. The content thus coming out is a material loss and in addition, it may
create fire, explosion or toxic hazard. Therefore to avoid such situation a pressure relief device is
necessary.

76
A safety valve is a common pressure relief device. It can be set to a predetermined (desired) pressure and
when pressure exerted on it exceeds that pre-set value, it automatically opens and allows the pressure
to release in the atmosphere or in a catch-pot or drowning tank if the content coming out is hot or
hazardous. It automatically closes down also, after release of the excess pressure. Safety valves are of
four types - spring loaded, weight lever, solenoid and pilot. Safety valves are used to release gas or
vapour but not the liquid.

A Rupture Disc is required for the fast release or more flow from a bigger size hole or if internal pressure
is too high or too rapid or the material is sticky and chokes the safety valve. This disc is selected based
on many parameters (e.g. type of chemical, working pressure, temperature, reaction, material of the tank,
viscosity, corrosivity, toxicity and flammability of the content etc.) One disc can be used for one pressure
i.e. its set-pressure cannot be changed like safety valve, and after rupture the same disc cannot be reused.
Once opened, it cannot reset at the lowered pressure like safety valve, and will allow the whole mass to
come out till the hole is closed or the disc is replaced. This is its disadvantage. Therefore, it is
inadvisable on tanks containing flammable gases or liquids. Rupture disc can be used in conjunction with
a safety or relief valve. Then the disc will burst first without affecting the valve. If pressure is further
built up, then the valve will open. Pressure gauge is provided between the disc and the valve to indicate
that the disc has opened and what is the bursting pressure. Imperfections in manufacture, installation or
caused by corrosion can result in premature failure of the disc. The rupture discs are used to release gas,
vapour or liquid.

Relief valves do not full open at set pressure like safety valve, but open slightly and then open further as
the pressure increases. They are of two types - spring loaded or power actuated by electric, air, steam or
hydraulic power activated by a pressure sensor in upstream of the valve. Manually operated relief valves
(like vent valve) are also possible but they are to be operated after seeing the pressure in the pressure
gauge or after hearing an alarm. Relief valves are used for liquid discharge and not for gas or vapour.

Safety-relief valves can be used either as a safety valve or a relief valve, depending on the application.
They are used for gas, vapour and liquids.

Breather Valves:

Breather Valves, also known as direct acting Pressure/Vacuum Relief Valves, are special types
of Relief Valves which are specifically designed for tank protection. The range includes
pressure only, vacuum only and combined Pressure/Vacuum Valves, all available with flanged
outlets or vented to atmosphere.
Pressure/Vacuum Relief Valves are used extensively on bulk storage tanks, including fixed roof
tanks with floating covers, to minimise evaporation loss. The Valves prevent the build up of
excessive pressure or vacuum which can unbalance the system or damage the storage vessel.
Pressure and vacuum protection levels are controlled with weighted pallets or springs and can
be combined to provide the required Pressure/Vacuum settings. It is common to combine pallet
and spring systems in one unit i.e. pressure settings require a spring section, whilst the vacuum
settings use the pallet method.

Breather Valves operate

77
Most atmospheric tanks require a venting device that will allow large volumes of vapor
to escape under relatively low pressures. Usually the allowable set pressure is in
inches of water column pressure, both for positive and vacuum conditions. This is
because most large storage tanks have a relatively low maximum allowable working
pressure.

These tanks are generally large volume welded vessels that are built to API 650
standard. In order to accommodate large volumes at low set pressures, these Valves
have ports that are greater in area than the inlet or nozzle connection. The low setting
required necessitates weight loading the Valve as opposed to spring loading. Because
of the above, a Breather Valve requires approximately 100% over set pressure in order
to reach full opening of the Valve.

However, when deciding on a set pressure, the weight-loaded Valve operation MAWP
should be at least twice the required set pressure to obtain optimum flow. If the MAWP
is less than 100% above the required set, the Valve could be larger in size than
normally required. The possibility of Valve chatter and accelerated seat and diaphragm
wear will exist if less than 20% over pressure is allowed. Simply stated, a
Pressure/Vacuum Valve is not exactly like a high pressure safety Relief Valve and
should not be sized at 10% or 20% over pressure. When sizing a Pressure/Vacuum
Valve, consult the manufacturer flow curves and allow sufficient overset pressure

Flare System:

A gas flare, alternatively known as a flare stack, is a gas combustion device used in industrial plants
such as petroleum refineries, chemical plants and natural gas processing plants. They are also
common at oil or gas extraction sites having oil wells, gas wells, offshore oil and gas
rigs and landfills.
In industrial plants, flare stacks are primarily used for burning off flammable gas released
by pressure relief valves during unplanned over-pressuring of plant equipment.[1][2][3][4][5] During plant

78
or partial plant startups and shutdowns, they are also often used for the planned combustion of
gases over relatively short periods.
At oil and gas extraction sites, gas flares are similarly used for a variety of startup, maintenance,
testing, safety, and emergency purposes.[6] In a practice known as production flaring, they may also
be used to dispose of large amounts of unwanted associated petroleum gas, possibly throughout
the life of an oil well

The adjacent flow diagram depicts the typical components of an overall industrial flare stack system:

 A knockout drums to remove any oil or water from the relieved gases.
 A water seal drum to prevent any flashback of the flame from the top of the flare stack.
 An alternative gas recovery system for use during partial plant startups and shutdowns as well
as other times when required. The recovered gas is routed into the fuel gas system of the
overall industrial plant.
 A steam injection system to provide an external momentum force used for efficient mixing
of air with the relieved gas, which promotes smokeless burning.
 A pilot flame (with its ignition system) that burns all the time so that it is available to ignite
relieved gases when needed.[8]
 The flare stack, including a flashback prevention section at the upper part of the stack.

Mechanical Failure Prevention Strategy:

As a machinery breakdown can severely hamper the productivity and operations of a business, it is in
administrator’s best interest to ensure that equipment functions properly and fulfills the longest service
lifetime possible.

A priority of any organization that relies on critical equipment is to prevent its failure. As a machinery
breakdown can severely hamper the productivity and operations of a business, it is in administrators' best
interests to ensure that equipment functions properly and fulfills the longest service lifetime possible. To

79
prevent equipment failure and reduce maintenance costs, organizations can take a few steps to improve
these efforts:

1) Establish a maintenance schedule

When repairs and upkeep take place on machines at regular intervals, these efforts can significantly
improve the equipment reliability of these systems. Therefore, organizations should be sure to establish a
consistent schedule to follow for preventive maintenance, The Dominion advised. As part of this process,
administrators and key employees should first identify critical machines to be included in these plans.
The schedule should also list the types of maintenance that should be performed on each individual
system and at what intervals these fixes should be carried out. Administrators can count on the advice
and knowledge of key workers dealing with this equipment on a regular basis, as well as the
recommendations of manufacturers to help create this plan.

2) Eliminate potential defects

In addition to creating a plan for preventive maintenance, organizations should also seek to eliminate any
potential machinery defects which could lead to failure, stated Lifetime Reliability. Plant managers and
operators should do their research about the machines utilized in their facilities, and identify any
equipment defects that could create downtime. By looking into past failures of the same machines
experienced by other users as well as any notices from the manufacturer, individuals can prevent these
defects from affecting their business.

3) Utilize equipment monitoring

one of the best ways to prevent equipment failure is to deploy a condition monitoring system to gain
insight into the health of key assets. This technology includes sensors to measure key components and
provides opportunities to perform preventive maintenance before larger issues arise. This system can
boost overall facility uptime as well as equipment reliability, making it a smart investment.

80
 Chapter 5: Fire and Explosion

Fire Definition:Fire is a chemical chain reaction (Oxidation Process) initiated by factors such
as Combustible materials, Air & Heat source with ignition temperature exerting heat, light and
poisonous gases/ smoke/ CO2 gas due to combustion.

Classification of fire:CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE AND EXTINGUISHERS

Table A and B give the classes of fire (A to E) and portable fire extinguishers necessary
for them.
Table A :Classes of Fire and Extinguishers

Class of Description Extinguishing IS No.

fire Medium
A Fires involving ordinary combustible Water type 934
materials like wood, paper, textiles, (Soda acid)
fibres and vegetables etc. where the Water type (gas 940
cooling effect of water is essential for pressure)
the extinction of fires. Water type 6234
(constant air
pressure),
Anti – freeze types
and
Water buckets
B Fire in flammable liquids like oils, Chem. Foam 933
grease, solvents, Petroleum products, Carbon dioxide 5507
varnishes paints etc. where a blanketing 10474
effect is essential. 2878
8149
Dry Powder 2171
4308
Dry Powder 10658
Mechanical foam 10204
Halon 1211 11108
Sand buckets

81
C Fires involving gaseous substances Carbon dioxide 2878
under pressure where it is necessary to 8149
dilute the burning gas at a very fast rate Dry powder 2171
with an inert gas or powder. Dry powder 4308
Halon 1211 11108
D Fire involving metals like magnesium, Dry powder 2171
aluminum,zinc, potassium etc., where Special dry powder 4861
the burning metal is reactive to water for metal fire 11833
and which requires special extinguishing Sand buckets
media or technique.
E Fires involving electrical equipment Carbon dioxide 2878
where the electrical non-conductivity of Dry chemical powder 2171
the extinguishing media is of first 4308
importance. Halon 1211 11108
When electrical
equipment is de-
energized, same as
for Classes A & B
Sand buckets.

* Class E is omitted is some literature (eg. IS: 2190)

Class K is suggested for fire involving cooking oils.
Table B :Types of Extinguishers and suitability for Fire (IS:2190)

Type of Extinguisher IS No. For type of Fires

A B C D
1. Water type (Soda acid) 934 S NS NS NS
4406 * *
2 Water type (gas cartridge) 940 S NS NS NS
3 Water type (stored pressure) 6234 S NS NS NS
4 Chemical foam type 933 NS S NS NS
5507
10474
5 Mechanical foam type 10204 NS S NS NS
6 Dry powder type 2171 NS S NS NS
10658
7 Dry powder type 11833 NS NS NS S
8 CO2 type 2878 NS S S NS
8149
9 Halon 1211 type 11108 NS S S NS
* S = Suitable , NS = Not Suitable

82
NFPA classification of Fire Extinguishers

83
Class A : Fires in ordinary combustible material, such as wood, cloth, paper, rubber
and many plastics, that require the heat-absorbing coolant effect of water
or water solutions, the coating effects of certain dry chemicals that retard
combustion, or the interruption or the combustion chain reaction by the
dry, chemical or halogenated agents.
Class B: Fires in flammable or combustible liquids, flammable gases, grease and
similar material that must be put out by excluding air (oxygen), by
inhibiting the release of combustible vapor with AFFF or FFFP agents, or
by interrupting the combustion chain reaction.
ClassC : Fires in live electrical equipment. The operator's safety requires the use of
electrically non conductive extinguishing agents, such as dry chemical as
halon. When electric equipment is de-energized, extinguishers for class A
or B fires maybe used.
ClassD : Fires in certain combustible matals, such as Mg, Ti, Zr, Na, & K that
require a heat absorbing extinguishing medium that does not react with
the burning metals.
ClassK : Class K fires involve cooking oils. This is the newest of the fire classes.
Common Causes of Industrial Fire:
One study of more than 19000 fires in industrial plants revealed the following causes of fire:

Causes of Fire %
Electrical 19

Friction 14

Foreign Substance 12

Open flames 9

Smoking & matches 8

Spontaneous ignition 8

Hot surfaces 7

Not determinable 7

Combustion sparks 6

Miscellaneous 5

Overhead materials 3

Static electricity 2

100%

84
 Another study of more than 25000 fires reported to the Factory Mutual Engineering
Corporation from 1968 to 1977 gives following causes:

Causes of Fire % Share

Electrical 22

Incendiaries (deliberate 10
fire)

Smoking 9

Hot surfaces 9

Friction 7

Overheated materials 7

Cutting & Welding 7

Burner flames 6

Spontaneous ignition 5

Exposure 4

Combustion sparks 3

Miscellaneous 3

Mechanical sparks 2

Molten substances 2

Static sparks 2

Chemical action 1

Lightening 1

Total 100

85
Above percentage indicates the frequency of fire causes. It is not indicative of their relative
importance at particular plant, place or property. These are old figures and old causes.
Change in causes is always possible.
These causes can be subdivided in many sub causes as under:
Sparks may be mechanical, electrical, static, due to cutting and welding etc.
Hot surfaces may be due to bearings and shafting, stoves, heaters and small appliances,
petrol, kerosene, LPG, acetylene or alcohol torches, potable furnaces, blow torches, smoke
pipes, chimneys, flues and stacks, stationary heating devices, gas fired appliances viz. stoves,
heaters, boilers, salamanders etc.
Spontaneous ignition is due to oxidation of fuel where air is sufficient but ventilation
is insufficient to carry away the heat as fast as it is generated. Exposure to high temperature
and, presence of moisture increase the tendency toward spontaneous ignition. We unslaked
lime and sodium chlorate, rags or wash saturated with linseed oil or paint, sawdust, hay
grains etc., and finally divided metals promote spontaneous ignition.
Hazardous chemicals and metals like phosphorous, sodium, potassium, oxidising
materials nitro-cellulose film and pyroxylin plastics, fuels solvents, lubricants, wood, paper,
cloth and rubber products, sprays and mists, LPG and other flammable or explosive gases are
known for fire hazards.
Hyperboles, pyrophoric substances, adiabatic compression, radiation, catalytic action,
natural sources, lightening, cooking equipment, electrical distribution and installation, static
electricity, arson, rubbish, playing with fire, hand tools, pallet material storage and explosive
dust, gas, vapour or air mixture are all causes contributing to fire.

10.2 Fire Load Determination :

After fire detection and alarm system and before fire suppression or extinguishing system, it
is necessary to know the fire load so that based on that, amount of fire extinguishing system
can be designed and number of fixed and portable fire extinguishers can be calculated.
Fire load is the concentration or amount of combustible material in a building per sq.
mt. of floor area. It is defined as the amount of heat released in kilo calories by the fuel per
square meter area of the premises. Fire loads are useful to calculate the water requirement to
quench the fire, as when water comes in contact with burning surface it absorbs heat. I cc of
water absorbs I cal of heat when the' temperature is raised by 1°C. The fact should also be
considered that all the fuel does not burn at a time and all the water does not absorb heat as it
flows away.
Bombay Regional Committee (BRC) on fire has prescribed rules for fire load
calculation. Fire loads are calculated to assess potentiality of fire hazard, need of amount of
fire prevention and protection systems (e.g. water or other agent) and amount of premiums
required for fire insurance.
Fire load classification is as follows:
Low fire load - Less than 1 lakh B.Th.U.
Moderate fire load - Between 1 to 2 lakhs B.Th.U.
Higher fire load - More than 2 lakhs B.Th.U
See Rule 66A(11) of the Gujarat Factories Rules for area calculation by ABCD formula.
For fire load calculation see-last Part 8.

86
WORKED EXAMPLES :
Fire load calculation:
For the purpose of solving examples, following information needs to be understood.An
important factor in establishing the basis for the assessment of the fire risk pertaining to any
building is the concept of 'fire load' which indicates the quantity of heat liberated per unit
area when a - building and its contents are completely burnt.All occupancies/buildings, etc.
can be graded according to their fire hazard and are to be provided for with suitable fire
precautions on the basis of the fire load.Hence, grading of buildings according to both, fire
load and fire resistance, can be made.
The formula for calculating fire load is as under:
Fire load= (combustibles in kg) x calorific value in kcal/kg
Floor area in square meters

 Fire grading of the structures:Structural elements of buildings are graded according

to the time factor which is nearly equal to but does not exceed the test period which
the element fulfills its specified requirements.
Accordingly, all structural elements have been graded under the following five
categories depending upon their fire resistance, viz.,
Grade 1......... 6 hours
Grade 2......... 4 hours
Grade 3......... 2 hours
Grade 4......... 1 hours
Grade 5......... 0.5 hours

Occupancies of High fire load:

Godowns, warehouses, etc. This category as per I.S. specifications exceeds the fire load by
550,000 kcal/sq.mtr, but does not exceed an average of 1,100,000 kcal/sq.mtr of floor area. A
fire resistance of 4 hours for these types of occupancies is considered sufficient.
(For reference, the maximum for this type in F.P.S. system is 4,00,000B.Th.U/sq.ft
exceeding an average of 2,00,000 B.Th.U/sq.ft).
Occupancies of Moderate fire load:Retail shops, bazaars, stalls, factories, etc. Here the fire
load exceeds 2,75,000 kcal/sq.mtr, and is up to 550,000 kcal/sq.mtr. Occupancies of this type
should have a fire resistance of two hours.
Occupancies of Low fire load:Ordinary buildings for residential purposes, hotels, offices,
schools, etc, or occupancies having a fire load not exceeding 2,75,000 kcal/sq.mtr of net floor
area of any compartment, nor exceeding an average of 550,000 kcal/sq.mtr on a limited
isolated area. (for reference, the maximum for this type in F.P.S. system is 1,00,000
B.Th.U/sq.ft)
The fire resistance required by buildings of this category to withstand the complete
burn-out of their. contents without collapse is I hour as has been found after tests. Extensive
investigations carried out in Switzerland and Germany have shown that the fire load in
offices varies from 10 kg to 30 kg/sq.mtr wood equivalent to 43,356 to 130,068 kcal/sq.mtr.
This type of occupancy has an one hour rating with maximum fire loading up to 60 kg/sq.m.
Equivalent to 270,978 kcal/sq.mtr

87
 Example-1: A manufacturing process industry uses the following material. Calculate
the Fire load by using the following data: -

Area in Sq. Calorific value

Material Quantity in Kg.
mtr. (kJ/kg) (Kcal/kg)

Paper 100 100 15600 3725.28

Wood 2000 300 17500 4179

Coal 10000 500 20000 4776

Rubber 500 200 40000 9552

Petroleum 5000 400 43000 10268.4

product

1 K Joul = 0.2388 K. Cal

Fire load = (Combustibles in kg) x Calorific value in kcal/kg

Floor area in square meters

Fire load (paper) = 100 x 3725 = 3725 kcal/sq.mt

100

Fire load (wood) = 2000 x 4179 = 27860 kcal/sq.mt

300

Fire load (coal) = 10000 x 4776 = 95520 kcal/sq.mt

500

Fire load (rubber) = 500 x 9552 = 23880 kcal/sq.mt

200
Fire load (petroleum products) = 5000 x 10268 = 128350 kcal/sq.mt
400
Total fire load = 279335 kcal/sq.mt

As this is less than 550000 kcal/sq.mt, as stated above, it indicates low fire load and
requires fire resistance of 1 hour.
Installation of fire extinguishers:
Example-2:
Determine the number of fire extinguishers required to give adequate protection for a
given property. Risk: Light engineering workshop (Light hazard) Area: 315m x 112
m.
Type of hazard: Class 'A' fire due to normal combustibles.As per IS 2190 this is Light hazard.
Therefore one 9 ltr.water expelling extinguisher for every 600 sq.mtr of floor area is
required.Extinguisher should be available within 25mtr. radius..

88
Here total area = 315m x 112 m. = 35,280 sq. mtr.
No. of extinguishers= 35,280 sq.mt = 58.8 = 59
600 sq.mt
Example-3:Determine the number of fire extinguishers required to give adequate protection
for a given property. Risk: Petroleum processing unit (High hazard) Area: 300m x 150 m. i.e.
45000 sq. mtr. Type of hazard: Class 'B' fire due to petroleum products.
As per IS 2190 this is High hazard. Therefore two 9 ltr foam chemical/mechanical type; or 5
kg capacity dry powder extinguisher for every 600 sq.mtr with minimum of four
extinguishers per compartment is required.
Extinguisher should be available within 15 mtr radius.
Here total area is 45000 sq.mt.
Therefore No. of extinguisher = 45000 sq.mt .= 75
600 sq.mt
Fire Resistance of Building Materials :
In flammable area when building materials and paints are used, they should have good
fire resistance. Steel and masonry are fire resistant materials. Fire resistive structural material
should be selected depending upon the type of fire possible.

There are three types of materials:

(1) Non-flammable viz. metals, brick, clay, asbestos, concrete, cement, gravel, ceramics, sand
etc.
(2) Hardly flammable viz. staw brick, dry gypsum plaster, fibreboard, linoleum etc.
(3) Flammable viz. organic origin such as wood, cardboard, felt, paper etc.
As far as possible non-flammable material should be selected.
Fire or flame resistance is the capacity of structural element to perform its load-
bearing and enclosing functions i.e. to retain its strength and ability to withstand action of
fire, for a particular time during fire.
The fire resisting limits of buildings should be high to ensure safety and escape in
case of fire. Such limits are measured in terms of time (h) from the start of the fire to the
indication of any crack or loss of load carrying capacity (collapse) .or rise of excessive
temperature. The fire resisting limits also depend on the size (thickness and cross section) and
the physical properties of the building material. For example, 12 cm thick wall can withstand
fire for 2.5 h and a 25 cm thick wall for 5.5 h. Fire retardant coatings on wood and flame
proofing of fabrics are useful to some extent.
IS-.1642, 3079, 3594, 3808, 3809 and 6329 provide further details.

Design of Fire Safety of building plant, exists, etc: The building should be
protected both horizontally and vertically from spread of fire through floors, stairs, walls,
ventilating ducts etc. Fire resistant barriers can be used for this purpose.A fire stopping is a
fire-check wall of nonflammable material with a fire resistance limit of at least 2.5 h. It may
be blind or with fire resisting doors or gates. Stopping can be internal, external, roof and
separate (stand alone) fireproof walls. They are constructed to intersect the floors, ceilings
and roofs with fibreboard of 30 cm over roofs from non-flammable materials. Fire-resistance
limit of doors and gates in stopping should be more than 1.5 h. The total area of such
openings should not be more than 25% of the total surface area of the stopping.
Where the construction of stopping is not possible, fire check-zones (strips of non-flammable
materials) should be provided to divide floors and walls into sections more than 6 m wide.

89
Ventipanes or smoke escape windows should be provided to facilitate smoke removal during
fire. Exits and escape ways should be as per statutory requirement. Width of escape should be
more than a meter and should increase depending upon the maximum persons likely to use it.
High fire risk areas; storage, packing and dispatch areas, boiler and fuel rooms,
transformer room, kitchen and car parks should be separated by fire resistant construction.
Storage of flammable liquids and gases should be minimum possible. Gas cylinders should be
stored either in open air with shade or in a room of non-flammable construction and
ventilated permanently to the external air. Fire hazards of storage of explosive and flammable
substances, electrical equipment, static electricity, heating processes, painting, sparkling etc.,
should be foreseen and fully protected.
Lightening protection of buildings is most important as the heavy electric charge (up
to 150000 KV and 200 KA) may prove destructive causing fir6 and explosion in the ground
structure. Appropriate lightening arrester (protector) should be fitted higher than the highest'
object and covering the lightening protected zone. The resistance of the grounding device
should be less than 10 or 20 ohms depending upon its category.

Fire safety should be well thought of from sitting: and location stage to the maintenance stage
as follows:

a) Sitting and location: sufficient space, water and emergency facilities, effects of past
disasters, location of process areas for quick vapour dispersal and location of control
rooms.

b) Plant layout: Segregation of hazardous processes and storage, drainage and

compliance of statutory standards.

c) Design and Construction: Relief valves, by-passes, rupture discs, explosion vents,
safety interlocks, flame arresters, flameproof fittings, selection of material, fire
resistant construction, Under Ground storage

d) Plant Operation: Limited storage of flammable materials, good housekeeping, good

ventilation, work permit system, emergency action plan and training of employees.

e) Plant Maintenance : Reliability and monitoring procedures, inspection, testing and

preventive maintenance, spares availability and maintenance of fail-safe safety
devices.

IS-.1642, 3594, 6329,1646 and 15:2190 must always be followed for material and
details of construction of buildings, storage and use of portable fire extinguishers.
See Part 3.1 for statutory detail.

90
10.3 Causes of Fire & Remedial Measures:
Cause Remedial Measure

1 Electricity Standard and safe wiring, over load protection, double insulation
and earthing on portable equipment, ELCB and waterproof cord in
wet environment, use of proper flameproof equipment in
hazardous area and periodical inspection.
2 Bad house Storing rubbish, waste, oil, grease etc. in a waste-bin with closed
keeping cover, regular cleaning and inspection, bund (dyke) to storage
tanks of flammable liquid dust collectors, safe disposal,
incineration.
3 Bidi-Cigarretts No-smoking notices, separate smoking booths, checking of match
box, lighter etc. at security gates.
4 Hot surfaces Good insulation, fencing, ducting for smokes and flue.

5 Friction Good lubrication, proper belt tension, alignment, dust removal,

inspection and maintenance.
6 Excessive Heat Cooling, temperature controls trained operators and supervisors.

7 Welding cutting Special place or partition, heat resistant floor, spark control,
keeping flammable substance away, hot work permit,
flammability test in tank before hot work, use of proper
equipment.
8 Flame and Proper design, operation and maintenance, sufficient ventilation
combustion and ignition safety, heater insulation, hood, chimney, keeping
flame away, trips and interlocks.
9 Self ignition Keep environment cool and dry, necessary ventilation and
protection, keeping ducts and passages of waste and smoke clean,
separate store of highly flammable materials, not to put oil soaked
rags on hot surfaces, lagging and cladding, small vessels, good
House Keeping.
10 Exposure Barrier wall, sprinklers on fire path, wire glass in windows.

11 Ignition sparks Proper equipment, closed combustion chamber, spark arrester on

flammable vent and vehicle exhaust, flare, trip.
12 Mechanical Machine guarding to avoid entry of foreign particle, fencing,
sparks magnetic separator, non-sparking tools.
13 Molten hot Proper equipment with handles, better operation, and Maintenance
substance Non- mixing of water.
14 Static electricity Grounding, bounding, ionization and humidification, vehicle
(Due to belt drive, earthing while transfer through pipeline, earthing of vessel,
paper/ plastic equipment and piping, flow rate reduction, avoiding flammable
reeling, human atmosphere, splashing and settling, using earthed probe, antistatic

91
 body, fluidized device, conductive shoes and flooring, copper earthing with earth
bed, pneumatic resistance less than 10 ohm additive to change liquid resistance,
conveying, dust keeping filters away from storage tanks, extending inlet pipe up to
handling, liquid bottom to avoid free fall of liquid, non-conductive parts and
mixing, flow in earthing of l4evel gauges, avoiding oil drops in water, small size
vessel or pipe of non-conducting plastic containers, using N2 instead of CO2 as
agitation etc. inert gas, electrostatic eliminators on paper / plastic reeling
machines, use of radioactive ionization etc.

Control of Fire and Explosion in Flammable Substances :Fire or explosion in

flammable substance is possible only when it leaks and forms vapour in explosive range.
Therefore the first step necessary is to regularly check the tank, container, piping, equipment
etc. for leakage and to stop it.
Depending on the vapour density, ventilation should be provided at bottom or upper
level to remove accumulation of flammable vapour. If because of heating or cooling, the
vapour density is changeable, the ventilation/exhaust system should be designed for operating
conditions and not for MSDS value.
Natural ventilation openings can be provided near floor, near ceiling or both. Local
exhaust ventilation with explosion-proof .electrical equipment is the best measure.
Un-burnt gases or flammable vapour in combustion chambers of heater, ovens,
boilers, furnaces may form an explosive mixture. Therefore in the event of flame failure,
proper venting or purging time should be allowed or a timed precognition purge cycle should
be followed.
a) A gas detector can be used to check explosive range in the suspected area.
b) Gas valves and joints should be frequently checked for leaks. If gas is present,
ventilation should be allowed before restarting.
c) Source of ignition is another contributory factor for fire or explosion. Use of
flame/smoke detector, flameproof electric equipment, proper earthing to discharge
static electricity, checking of spark or heat generating processes and their control, hot
work permit etc. are the remedial measures.
 Fighting Fires of Pesticides :
Pesticides when bum emit toxic fumes and when dissolve in fire water; it cannot be allowed
to run anywhere as its contact will become poisonous and birds and animals may die if they
drink it. Effect depends upon its toxicity and concentration in air or water. Hazard is also
faced by the fire fighters, and the people in vicinity. Therefore utmost care is required while
fighting fire of pesticides.
Design of pesticide storage is most important in this regard. Fire detectors and automatic
sprinklers should work avoiding human need. Water inside must flow on well designed slope
to go to retention basin and from there to the specific collection pond or tank to collect
polluted water. Such pond/tank should have proper fencing to keep away people and animals.
After the control of fire, this contaminated water must be treated for safe discharge.
If fire takes place in open, persons fighting fire should wear self breathing apparatus,
should not face the wind direction, feet, hands and body should be protected, water should be
safely diverted to a safe place and covered by sand, lime or any inactivating media.
In case of solvent based liquid pesticide, foam and DCP may be more useful.
Other precautions include prohibition of smoking, keeping flammable pesticide away
from sun, heat and source of ignition, keeping people away from risk, calling help if needed

92
and cleaning up area and clothing after extinguishing the fire. Medical attention and treatment
without loss of time are necessary if any person is adversely affected.

Types of Extinguishers and suitability for Fire (IS:2190)

Type of Extinguisher IS No. For type of Fires

A B C D

1. Water type (Soda acid) 934 S NS NS NS

4406 * *
2 Water type (gas cartridge) 940 S NS NS NS

3 Water type (stored pressure) 6234 S NS NS NS

4 Chemical foam type 933 NS S NS NS

5507
10474
5 Mechanical foam type 10204 NS S NS NS

6 Dry powder type 2171 NS S NS NS

10658
7 Dry powder type 11833 NS NS NS S

8 CO2 type 2878 NS S S NS

8149
9 Halon 1211 type 11108 NS S S NS

S = Suitable , NS = Not Suitable

 NFPA classification of Fire Extinguishers

NFPA 10 classifies fires and fire extinguishers into the following 4 types:
Class A : Fires in ordinary combustible material, such as wood, cloth, paper,
rubber and many plastics, that require the heat-absorbing coolant effect
of water or water solutions, the coating effects of certain dry chemicals
that retard combustion, or the interruption or the combustion chain
reaction by the dry, chemical or halogenated agents.
Class B: Fires in flammable or combustible liquids, flammable gases, grease
and similar material that must be put out by excluding air (oxygen), by
inhibiting the release of combustible vapor with AFFF or FFFP agents,
or by interrupting the combustion chain reaction.
Class C : Fires in live electrical equipment. The operator's safety requires the use
of electrically non conductive extinguishing agents, such as dry
chemical as halon. When electric equipment is de-energized,
extinguishers for class A or B fires maybe used.
Class D : Fires in certain combustible metals, such as Mg, Ti, Zr, Na, & K that
require a heat absorbing extinguishing medium that does not react with
the burning metals.
Class K : Class K fires involve cooking oils. This is the newest of the fire
classes.

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Foam System:ItIt uses fixed foam apparatus either automatic or manual. It may consist of
one or more portable foam extinguishers suspended in such a way that flame or heat releases
a cord or fusible link to operate the extinguisher automatically. Discharge rate may vary from
15 to 4000 gpm. Foams are of two types - chemical and mechanical. Chemical foam is
produced by a chemical reaction of CCX, bubbles and a foaming agent. Mechanical foam is
created when air and water are mechanically agitated with a foam solution.
Fire fighting foam (gas
(gas-filled
filled bubble solution) is lighter than most flammable liquids.
Therefore it formss a floating blanket on burning liquid, cuts off oxygen supply and also cools
the fuel.

94
 Foam system is generally used to protect fuel tanks, oil and paint storage rooms,
asphalt coating etc. It can be injected on the liquid surface in a tank to provide blanketing
effect and to cut off flames and vapours.
Foam is of two types - Low expansion and High expansion foam. Low expansion
foam is of four types Chemical foam, Mechanical -or air-generated foam, Protein foam and
Synthetic (fluorinated surface active agent) foam. Foam generators of different types are
available.
Foam-water sprinkler and spray systems use mechanical foam equipment with a
deluge sprinkler system.
High-expansion foam is best suited for class A and B fires in confined spaces
such as sewers, basement. It is made by mixing a small amount (@ 1.5%) of foam liquid into
a foam generator where water and large quantities of air are mixed. Accumulated foam can
act as an insulating barrier for the surface not involved in fire. Thus it prevents fire spread.
Ventilation is necessary to vent the displaced air and gases when foam is being
applied.

Carbon dioxide systems :These are fixed, local or flood type. They are generally useful
for electrical, liquid and gas fires.CO2 system may be of high-pressure or low pressure type.
In the high pressure system, CO2 is kept in a compressed gas cylinder at normal temperature,
while in the low pressure system, it is stored in an insulated pressure vessel at —18 °C and
300 psi by mechanical refrigeration. At such low temperature more CO2, can be stored
economically. Safety valves are provided to take care of refrigeration failure. Liquid CO2 can
bedelivered through nozzles at 15 kg/sec.In both the systems, CO2 can be released manually
or automatically through nozzles close to the expected source of fire. Unlike water or
chemical, CO2 does not spoil the stock or equipment.
In a room, compartment or small building, total flood system can be used where wall
openings can automatically be shut when the gas is released. Warning alarm to alert people
working nearby is necessary. Sufficient time must be allowed to evacuate the area.In a
confined place, the area should be well ventilated and checked for 0, content after the fire is
extinguished.
Dry Chemical Powder (DCP): Dry Chemical Powder is neither toxic nor conductor of
electricity, nor does it freeze. It is stored in an inert gas cylinder under pressure. Installations
can be provided for simultaneous closing of fire doors, windows, ventilating ducts, operating
valves, shutting off fans and machinery and actuating alarms.
The dry chemical piped systems are developed for fast extinguishment in a confined
area or for localized application. They are useful on flammable liquid and electrical hazards
and can be operated manually, automatically or remotely. The agent is kept in a pressurized
container fixed or mounted on vehicles.
Action of extinguishment is to interrupt the chain reaction of fire by the dry chemical
agent.Dry chemicals include Sodium bicarbonate as standard dry chemical. Potassium
bicarbonate.General purpose powder (ABC) and Monnex powder. If electrical equipment is
not involved, foam can be used to follow DCP application.

Fixed Fire Installations:Fixed automatic fire installations are desirable from the design
stage, as they can be used for longer time and are more effective than the portable type.

(1) Fire Hydrants:Fire hydrants are economical and should be installed freely around the
plant. They should be kept accessible, unobstructed and protected for safety. Indicator posts
are advisable.
Fire hydrants, hoses, nozzles and couplers are part of the system. Fixed nozzles are
single or double headed. Monitor nozzles are on swivel joint and can be turned as desired and

95
to clear any obstruction. Hose nozzles can be extended and laid (i.e. more flexible) wherever
required. They are of fixed flow type, adjustable flow (variable discharge) type and a
combination type.
The number of hydrants needed depends on the fire exposure and the hose-laying
distance to the built-up areas. The discharge ports should be at least 18 inch (45 cm) above
the ground level.
Fire Hose and Nozzles of standard size, double jacketed rubber-lined should be stored
in hose boxes and should be subjected to a full pressure test once a year. Space around hose
lines and control valves should be clear. Aisles and door ways should be wide enough and
clear to allow rapid use of hose reel cart or mobile equipment.

Monitor Nozzles are used in yards and large congested areas where it is difficult to lay hose
line in an emergency. The nozzle is so positioned to direct a high pressure water stream over
desired area and height.

Water Reservoirs are necessary for the supply of fire water at good pressure and
volume. They should not be used for other purposes such as process requirement. If the
reservoir is common, suction pipe (its bottom end) for process water should be at a higher
level than the suction pipe for fire water into the bottom of the reservoir to maintain the level
of reserved water for fire protection.
Water Supply from reliable sources is essential. Reservoirs, overhead tanks, pressure
tanks, pumps, pipes and connections must be maintained well. Flow discharge may vary from
10 to 40 litres per second and pressure from 7 to 10 kg./cm2.

96
TAC guidelines(rules) for water supply for hydrants are as under :Water for the hydrant
service shall be stored in any easily accessible surface or underground lined reservoir or
above ground tanks of steel, concrete or masonry. The effective capacity of the
reservoir(above the level of the foot valve seat in case of negative suction and above the level
of the top of the pump casing in case of positive suction) for the various classes of
occupancies (as per rule 7.2) and size of hydrant installations shall be as indicated in Table C
hereunder:
Note 1: Reservoirs of and over 2,25,000litres capacity shall be in two interconnected
compartments to facilitate cleaning and repairs.
Note 2: Large natural reservoirs having water capacity exceeding ten times the aggregate
water requirements of all the fire pump drawing there from may be left unlined.
Table C : Capacity of water storage
Nature of Risk Capacity of static storage exclusively
reserved for hydrant service.

1. Light Hazard Not less than 1 hour’s aggregate pumping

capacity with a minimum of 1,35,000litres.

2. Ordinary Hazard Not less than 2 hour’s aggregate pumping

capacity.

3. High Hazard (A) Not less than 3 hours’ aggregate pumping

capacity.

4. High Hazard (B) Not less than 4 hours’ aggregate pumping

capacity.

Note 1 : The capacity of the reservoir for Ordinary and High Hazard Class Occupancies may,
at the discretion of the Committee, be reduced by 2 hours' inflow from a reliable source
(other than a town's main) but in no case shall the reservoir capacity be less than 60% of that
mentioned above.

Note 2 : In case of Light Hazard Class Occupancies the minimum capacity of the reservoir
shall be increased to 2,25,000 litres if the highest floor of the building is more than 15 mt
above the surroundings ground level.

97
 The capacity for hydrant service shall be determined by the class of occupancy and
size of installation as per Table D.
Table D: Pump, Capacity and Delivery Pressure:
Sr. Nature of Number of Hydrants Pump Delivery
No. Risk Capacity in pressure at
Litres / Sec rated
3
(m / hour) capacity
kg/cm2

1 Light hazard i) Not exceeding 20 27 (96) 5.6

ii) Exceeding 20 but not exceeding 55 38 (137) 7
iii) Exceeding 55 but not exceeding 100 47 (171)
7
iv) Exceeding 100 47 (171) plus

47 (171) for
every additional 7/8.8
125 hydrants or
part thereof.

Note : The total pumping capacity need not be greater than 190 (683) irrespective of the
number of hydrant points.

2 Ordinary i) Not exceeding 20 38 (137) 7

Hazard
ii) Exceeding 20 but not exceeding 55 47 (171) 7
iii) Exceeding 55 but not exceeding 100 76 (273)
iv) Exceeding 100
76 (273) plus 7
76 (273) for
every
additional 125 7/8.8
hydrants or
part thereof.

Note : The total pumping capacity need not be greater than 302 (1092) irrespective of the
number of hydrant points.

3. High Hazard i) Not exceeding 20 47 (171) 7

(A) ii) Exceeding 20 but not exceeding 55 76 (273) 7/8.8
iii) Exceeding 55 but not exceeding 100

iv) Exceeding 100

114(410) 7/8.8
114(410) 7/8.8/10.5
114(410) for
every

98
 additional 150
hydrants or
part thereof.

4 High Hazard i) Not exceeding 20 Two of 47 (171) 7

(B) Two of 76 (273) 7/8.8
ii) Exceeding 20 but not exceeding 55 Two of 114(410)
7/8.8
iii) Exceeding 55 but not exceeding 100 Two of 114(410)
plus one of
114(410) for
every additional
200 hydrants or
part thereof. 7/8.8/10.5
iv) Exceeding 100

This provision will apply only in cases where the hydrant service has been hydraulically
designed as per NB 3(13) u/r 7.5.10.
Note: In case of Light Hazard Occupancies, the pump delivery pressure will need to
be 7 kg/ cm2 if the highest floor of the risk is at a height exceeding 15 mt above the
surrounding ground level:
Proper drainage facility shall be provided to drain the fire-fighting water out of the
basement.
Storage of material in the open shall be protected as under:
Metals, Metallic goods, Machinery and goods, One single hydrant for every 60m. of the storage
Machinery and other non-hazardous storage. periphery located beyond 2 m., but within 15 m.
of storage area.

Coal or Coke One single hydrant for every 45m. of the storage
periphery located beyond 2 m., but within 15m.
ofstorage area.

Other storage One double hydrant for every 45 m. of the

storage periphery located beyond 2 m., but within
22.5m. of storage area.

Note 1:In case of open storage areas of following materials, at least 50% of hydrants shall be
replaced by fixed monitors having nozzle bore of 38 mm diameter if the individual stack
height is more than 6 m. and total storage exceeds 5000 tonnes.
Bamboo Bagasse.
Grass/Hay Timber.
Note 2: Where hydrants/monitors located along one longer side of a storage area are more
than 90 m. from those along the other longer side, such a storage area shall not be deemed
to be protected.
Protection for combustible/flammable liquid Storage Tanks:
Tank less than 20 m. in diameter. One double headed preferably two single
headed hydrants located beyond 15 m., but
within 35m.of tank shell.

Tanks over 20 m. in diameter. Two double headed or four single headed

hydrants located beyond 15 m. but within 35
m. of tank shell.

99
Note 1: In case tanks are located more than 22.5 m. from the dyke walls, one double hydrant
or two single hydrants shall be replaced by a 38 mm monitor.
Note 2 : Where the distance of tank from the monitor exceeds 45 m. in addition to provisions
of Note I, the tank shall be protected by Fixed Foam or Medium Velocity Water Spray
System having prior approval of the Committee.
Note 3 : Hydrants/Monitors shall not be installed within dyked enclosures nor can the hydrant
main pass through it.
Note 4 :Fixed roof type storage tanks, floating roof type storage tanks exceeding 30 m. in
diameter and Bullets/Spheres containing products having flashpoint below 32 °C shall be
protected by Medium Velocity Water Spray System conforming to relevant regulations.
However, manually-operated systems shall also be acceptable.
Water spray systems shall not be insisted for Insulated Vessels/Spheres."
Water spray protection for small size tanks up to 10 mtr. diameters in ordinary and high
hazard risks shall not be insisted upon."
(2)Automatic Water Sprinklers :They are of six types. Wet pipe, dry pipe, pre-action,
deluge, combined dry pipe and pre-action and sprinklers for limited water supply system.
Automatic alarms operated by the flow of water should be a part of sprinkler installation.
Such an alarm may be connected to a central fire station. The sprinklers should be regularly
checked to avoid their failure to work.Automatic sprinklers are most efficient and widely
used. It reduces insurance premium considerably.
Its basic function is to spray water automatically to a fire, the system can also work as
a fire alarm. This can be done by installing an electrical water flow alarm switch in each main
riser pipe.
Sprinklers should be selected on the basis of temperature rating and occupancy. Their
types are Either heat-element or chemical melts or expands to open the sprinkler. Normal
detector setting is 68 °C. Sprinklers heads normally cover 12 m3 per head. Amount of water
required depends on risk protected, flow range being 0.04 to 0.514 I/m'.
In deluge system, water is admitted to sprinklers that are open at all times. Deluge
valves (water supply valves) can be operated manually or automatically by an automatic
detection system.
Maintenance and inspection of water supply valves, system piping for obstruction,
nozzles and water supply tests etc. are necessary.

(3) Water Spray System :Water spray system uses water in small droplets through
special nozzles giving various pressures. The system is supplemented to and not a
replacement for automatic sprinklers. It should be checked that the water should not be
reactive with the material burning.
The system is similar to the deluge system except that the open sprinklers are replaced
by spray nozzles. The system is generally applied to flammable liquid and gas tanks, piping
and equipment, electrical equipment such as oil filled transformers, switches and motors. To
avoid short circuit, current should be cut off before applying tile spray.
The spray nozzle holes are smaller than those in ordinary sprinklers, therefore they
can be choked. To avoid this, strainers (filter or screen) are required in water supply lines.
The nozzles having the smallest holes, have their own internal strainer in addition to the
supply line strainer.
TAC guidelines on Water Spray Systems give retailed rules. Some extract is given
below:
Definitions and terminology relating to the components of the water spray systems are as
follows:

100
(a) Water Spray System : A special fixed pipe system connected to a reliable source of fire
protection water supply and equipped with water spray nozzles for specific water discharge
and distribution over the surface or area to be protected. The piping system is connected to
the water supply through an automatically actuated Deluge Valve which initiates flow of
water. Automatic actuation is achieved by operation of automatic detecting equipment
installed along with water spray nozzles. There are two types of systems namely High
Velocity and Medium Velocity systems. The former is useful for liquids with flash point
above 65 °C and the latter for flash point below 65 °C.
(b) Spray Nozzle and Valves: A normally open water discharging device which, when
supplied with water under pressure will distribute the water in a special directional pattern
peculiar to the 'particular device. Nozzles used for High Velocity Water Spray systems are
called "Projectors" and nozzles used for Medium Velocity Water Spray systems are called
"Sprayers". Both these nozzles are made in a range of orifice sizes with varying discharge
angles so that discharge can be controlled for optimum protection.
Different types of valves are used with fire water piping system or water hydrants as
shown in fig.
(c) Deluge Valve : A quick opening valve which admits water automatically to a system of
projectors or sprayers and is operated by a system of detectors and/ or sprinklers installed in
the same areas as nozzles.
(d) Control of Burning : Application of water spray to equipment or areas where a fire may
occur to control the rate of burning and thereby limit the heat release from a fire until the fuel
can be eliminated or extinguishment effected.
(e)Exposure Protection: Application of water spray to structures or equipment to limit
absorption of heat to a level which will minimise damage and prevent failure whether source
of heat is external or internal.
(f) Impingement: The striking of a protected surface by water droplets issuing directly from
projectors and/or sprayers.
(g) Run Down : The downward travel of water along a surface caused by the momentum of
the water or by gravity.
(h) Slippage : The horizontal component of the travel of water along the surface beyond the
point of contact caused by the momentum of water.

101
 Fig .Types of valves.

(i) Insulated Equipment : Equipment, structure vessels provided with insulation which for
the expected duration of exposure, will protect steel from exceeding a temperature of 454 "C
(850 °F) for structural members and 343 °C (650 °F) for vessels.

(j) Density: The unit rate of water application to an area or surface expressed in litres/min/ m

102
(k) Automatic Detection Equipment : Equipment which will automatically detect one or
more components directly related to combustion such a heat. Smoke, flame and other
phenomenon and automatic actuation of alarm and protection equipment.
(l) Fire Barrier : It is a continuous wall or floor that is designed and constructed to limit the
spread of fire.
(m) Range Pipes : Pipes on which sprinklers are attached either directly or through short
arm pipes which do not exceed 30 cm in length.
( n) Distribution Pipes : Pipes which directly feed the range pipes.
Testing and maintenance of water spray system is given m Table Table Periodical
Testing and Maintenance Chart

Sr Subject Activities Duration

1 Reservoir Level checking Weekly

Clearing One in 2 years

2 Pump Running test Daily

Test flow 5 minutes

Lubrication Annually

Gland Quarterly

Packing Weekly

Overhaul One in 2 years

3 Engine Running Once in day (5 mins)

Fuel tank check Daily

Lubrication Quarterly

Battery status Weekly

Load test Annually

Overhaul Once in 2 years

4 Motor Lubrication Weekly

Starter contact checking Weekly

Insulation resistance check Half yearly

5 Main piping Gauge pressure Check daily

Flushing Once in 2 years

6 Sluice valves Operation Monthly

103
 Gland packing Monthly

Lubrication Quarterly

7 Deluge valves Operation Weekly

Alarm check Weekly

Cleaning Quarterly

Overhaul Annually

8 Sprayers Cleaning Quarterly

Flow test Quarterly

9 Detectors Performance Six monthly

10 Spray installation Performance Quarterly

Physical check up of piping for Monthly

seeing dislocation of support,
wrong orientation overloading
etc.

11 Pressure gauges Calibration Annually

12 Painting of entire Every 2 years

installation

(4)Foam System :It uses fixed foam apparatus either automatic or manual. It may consist of
one or more portable foam extinguishers suspended in such a way that flame or heat releases
a cord or fusible link to operate the extinguisher automatically. Discharge rate may vary from
15 to 4000 gpm. Foams are of two types - chemical and mechanical. Chemical foam is
produced by a chemical reaction of CCX, bubbles and a foaming agent. Mechanical foam is
created when air and water are mechanically agitated with a foam solution.
Fire fighting foam (gas-filled bubble solution) is lighter than most flammable liquids.
Therefore it forms a floating blanket on burning liquid, cuts off oxygen supply and also cools
the fuel.
Foam system is generally used to protect fuel tanks, oil and paint storage rooms,
asphalt coating etc. It can be injected on the liquid surface in a tank to provide blanketing
effect and to cut off flames and vapours.
Foam is of two types - Low expansion and High expansion foam. Low expansion
foam is of four types Chemical foam, Mechanical -or air-generated foam, Protein foam and
Synthetic (fluorinated surface active agent) foam. Foam generators of different types are
available.Foam-water sprinkler and spray systems use mechanical foam equipment with a
deluge sprinkler system.High-expansion foam is best suited for class A and B fires in
confined spaces such as sewers, basement. It is made by mixing a small amount (@ 1.5%) of
foam liquid into a foam generator where water and large quantities of air are mixed.
Accumulated foam can act as an insulating barrier for the surface not involved in fire. Thus it
prevents fire spread.Ventilation is necessary to vent the displaced air and gases when foam is
being applied.

104
Fire Detection and Alarm Systems:Various types of detectors are available operating
on principles of thermal expansion, thermoelectric sensitivity, thermo conductivity or
photosensitivity to detect presence of smoke, increase in temperature, light intensity or total
radiation. Their types are: Thermal expansion detectors. Radiant energy detectors.Light
interference detectors and ionization detectors. They should be properly located depending
upon their range. They simply give alarm and cannot extinguish fire. They make us alert for
fire fighting.

Fire detectors (A & B) and LPG detector (C)

Though fire detection and alarm systems are separate systems but the latter has to operate just
after the former operates. Therefore they are considered together. IS 2175 and 2189 also deal
with them together.
Two main functions of any fire detection system are
1. To give alarm to start up extinguishing procedure, and
2. To give early warning to area occupants to escape.
It is wrong to speak 'fire detectors'. Actually they detect sensible heat, smoke density or flame
radiation to operate before actual fire follows. Their 'sensor' detects measurable quantity of
these parameters. A decision making device coupled with the sensor, compares the measured
quantity with a predetermined ' value, and when it is different, an alarm is sounded. A
detector both detects and signals.
Human being is a good detector as he can act m a flexible way i.e. run away, put out
the fire or call the fire department. No other detector can work in such selective manner.
Selection of the type of detector is important For example, low risk areas need
thermal detectors, a ware house may have infrared and ionization detectors and a computer
area requires ionization or combination detectors.
Location and spacing should be determined to obtain the earliest possible
warning.Sensitivity, reliability, maintainability and stability are important factors for
selection.
Fire process has four stages - incipient stage, smouldering stage, flame stage and heat
stage. Many types of fire detectors are available for various situations and useful at different

105
stages of a fire (see part 1.4). Thermal detectors are of fixed temperature detectors, rate-
compensated thermal detectors, rate of rise thermal detectors, line thermal detectors and the
bulb detection system.
Smoke detectors are of photoelectric type and are of two classes - The beam
photoelectric or reflected beam photoelectric detectors.
Flame detectors are of infrared (IR) or ultraviolet (UV) type.
Ionization (combustion products) detectors are the
single chamber or dual chamber ionization detector and the
low-voltage ionization detector.
Fire Alarm system may be separate to run manually or
connected with fire detectors and operable automatically. All
workers must be made aware of the sound pattern and its
meaning. Fire alarm sound should be distinguishable from
other sound m that area. It should be clearly audible to all
facility personnel. Sound for beginning of fire and end of fire
should be kept different.

10.5 BLEVE (Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion ):

Boiling liquid expanding vapour explosion (BLEVE), also referred as a fireball, is a
combination of fire and explosion with an intense radiant heat emission within a relatively
short time interval.
When a tank or pressure vessel containing liquid or liquefied gas above its boiling
point (so heated) fails or ruptures the contents release as a turbulent mixture of liquid and gas,
expanding rapidly and dispersing in air as a cloud. When this cloud is ignited, a fireball
occurs causing enormous heat radiation intensity within a few seconds. This heat is sufficient
to cause severe skin burns and deaths within a few hundred meters depending on the mass of
the gas involved. A BLEVE involving a 50- tone propane tank can cause '"third-degree burn
at @ 200 mt and blisters at @ 400 mt
Road/rail accident to a tank car/wagon or due to weakening of structure by fire or
physical impact on a overstressed vessel/tank can cause a BLEVE.

Some reported major BLEVE examples are as under:

Year Location Chemical Death Injury

1966 Feyzin, France LPG (Propane) 18 90

1969 Laurel, Miss LPG 2 -

1970 Cresent City, III LPG 0 66

1971 Houston, Tex Vinyl chloride 1 -

1972 New Jersey Propylene 2 -

1985 Mexico City LPG 650 2500

106
Types of Explosion
Dust Explosion: It is possible due to flammable dusts of wood, coal, food(starch, flour,
sugar, cocoa, feed stuffs), chemicals, plastics (urea formaldehyde, resin, polyethylene,
polystyrene), metals(aluminum, magnesium) etc.
It results from rapid combustion of fine solid particles like iron, aluminum, wood,
starch etc. Many solid particles when reduced to fine powder becomes very flammable and
explosive.
At a starch/corn plant at Ceder Rapids, Iowa in 1919, 43 people were killed and at
Peking, Illinois in 1924, 42 people were killed due to dust explosion.
At a starch plant at Ahmedabad, 29 workers injured and out of them 20 died due to
starch dust explosion on 19-12-1991.
Explosion characteristics of dust suspension are as under:
1. Explosibility classification.
2. Minimum explosible concentration.
3. Minimum ignition temperature.
4. Minimum ignition energy.
5. Maximum permissible oxygen concentration to prevent ignition.
6. Explosion pressure characteristics.
(a) maximum explosion pressure.
(b) maximum rate of pressure rise.
(c) average rate of pressure rise.
Sources of ignition for dust explosions are :
(1) Flames, heat or hot surfaces
(2) Welding and cutting
(3) Mechanical sparks
(4) Self-heating
(5) Static electricity and
(6)Electricalequipment.

107
Preventive methods for dust explosion include:
(1) Avoidance of dust suspensions
(2) Wet process
(3) Elimination of source of ignition and
(4) Inserting.
Methods of protection against dust explosion include;
(1) Isolation
(2) Containment
(3) Explosion suppression and
(4) Explosion venting.
Dust fires can occur in dust deposits and are of two types - flaming and smouldering fires.

 Halon Gas Extinguisher (Halon Alternatives):

Halon 1011, 1211 or 1301 a liquid gas is filled in extinguishers. It is used in place of CO,
extinguishers but is lighter in comparison. 1.5,3 and 6 kg cylinders and bigger sizes are available
in wheel mounted model. By pressing a knob in cap-assembly it can be started. Nose should be
covered to avoid direct inhalation.
It is suitable for class B and C fires. See IS 11108 for Halon 1211.
Halon is a fast extinguishing agent. It is ideal for intense and rapid fires. It is non-conductive and
leaves no traces when applied. Therefore it is also suitable for electrical fires, computer rooms
etc.
Halon interrupts the chain reaction at the flame zone of fire. It is two times as effective as CO2
on a weight basis and five times as effective as CO2 on volume basis.
Halon is stored under pressure in a cylinder. A squeeze grip type nozzle is provided on top of the
cylinder valve depending upon capacity. It is available in 2,4,5,25 and 50 kg capacities. Mostly
two types of Halons (halogenated agents) are used as they are less toxic - (1) Halon 1211-
Bromochloro difluromethane i.e. CF2BrCI and (2) Halon 1301 - Bromotrifluromethane CF2Br.

Portable Fire Extinguishers:In addition to the fixed fire installations stated in next part,
portable (first-aid) fire extinguishers are always desirable for quick manual use on small fires and
fort the period till automatic equipment or outside fire fighters work. All such extinguishers
should be (1) of reliable make, standard (IS) and properly identified (2) of right type depending
upon the class of fire (3) sufficient in number (4) properly located where they are necessary and
readily accessible (5) recharged periodically, inspected and maintained in good working
condition and (6) known by the operators who are trained to use them.
Their types are : (1) Water type (2) Soda acid type (3) Carbon dioxide type (4) Foam type
(5) Dry chemical powder type and (6) Vaporizing liquid type. IS:2190 is most useful for
selection, installation and maintenance of portable first aid fire extinguishers. Details of these six
types are also given in IS:940, 6234, 934, 2878, 933 and 2171. Tables of their suitability
according to class of fire and scale i.e. their range or area coverage arc also given therein. Based
on them, number of extinguishers can be determined. Methods of their testing and test form are
also prescribed. Refer them for further details.

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 For small fires mostly portable fire extinguishers are used. They are explained below in
brief:
(1) Soda Acid (Water Type) Extinguisher:This extinguisher is useful for class
A fire (wood, paper, fabrics, rubbish etc.). It should not be used on fires of
electricity, oil, chemical or metal. It is available in both the shapes cylindrical
and conical.Its normal capacity is 9 Ltr (weight 14 Kg) and to be used in a range
of 6 to 8 mt. It consumes within I to 1.5 minute. It should be checked every 3
months.It is held vertically up (not inverted). By standing 4 to 5 mt. away from
the fire, after opening the plunger, it is struck on the hard surface. A small
H„SC) (Sulphuric acid) bottle breaks and due to its mixture with soda
bicarbonate solution, C0„ (Carbon dioxide) is generated. Pressure of CO, throws
water at a distance. Its handle and bottom are held by two hands and water is
sprayed on fire to extinguish it.
(2) Foam Extinguisher:It is used on class B small fires. It: should not be
used on electrical or metal fire. It is available in 9 Ltr cylinder and used
in 4 to 6 mt range. It consumes within 1.5 minute. It is available in wheel
mounted trolley of 18 Ltr and 150 Ltr capacity for longer use. It should be
checked every 3 months.
By standing 3 to 4 mt away from the fire, the plunger is. pulled up and
turned right up to a slot. It is shaked by turning 180" twice. Then it is held
inverted. By chemical reaction CO is generated which throws foam outside.
The foam is not thrown directly in fire but it is thrown on nearer hard surface
so that because of striking further foam is generated and spread on burning
surface. It stops oxygen availability for burning and controls the fire. Foam
is effective up to 120 °C temperature only.

(3) CO2 (Compressed gas) Extinguisher:It is useful on class E i.e. electrical fire
because CO2 is nonconductive gas. It can be used on class B and C fire also, as it
diminishes oxygen to control fire. It is not advisable to use it in a closed room as more
CO2 may be inhaled. Therefore open doors and windows before using it in a room. It
should not be used on fires of metal, sodium, potassium and metal hydrides.
It is available in 2 kg ,4 kg, 6.8 kg and 22.5 kg capacities. Small cylinders have
handles and big cylinders have wheels. Its range is 1 to 1.5 mt. CO2 pressure is at 64 to
70 bar. It should be checked every three months.
(4) Dry Chemical Powder (DCP) Extinguisher :This can be used on any class of
fire. Therefore it is known as 'universal type extinguisher'. It is generally used on fire of
flammable liquid. It is not effective on fire of benzene, ether, EO and
CS2 For metal fire, special powder extinguishers are available. 1,2,5 and
10 kg extinguishers in cylinders and 68 kg in wheel models are
available.
A 10 kg cylinder is consumed within 12 to 15 seconds and its
range is 3 to 6 mt. A 68 kg cylinder is consumed within I to 1.5 minute
and its range is 6 to 8 mt. Both should be checked at 3 months interval.
By standing 6 to 8 mt near the fire, the cylinder is shacked twice
by turning 180°, a safety clip is removed and plunger is pressed or struck

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so that CO, bottle breaks and it throws dry chemicals out. The dry powder blankets the burning
surface, stops 0, contact and CO, coming out also diminishes 0 proportion. Therefore fire is
controlled by double action. Its long nozzle should be turned in wind direction like a broom.
(5) Halon Gas Extinguisher (Halon Alternatives):Halon 1011, 1211 or 1301 a liquid gas is
filled in extinguishers. It is used in place of CO, extinguishers but is lighter in comparison.
1.5 ,3 and 6 kg cylinders and bigger sizes are available in wheel mounted model. By pressing a
knob in cap-assembly it can be started. Nose should be covered to avoid direct inhalation.
Halon is a fast extinguishing agent. It is ideal for intense and rapid fires. It is non-
conductive and leaves no traces when applied. Therefore it is also suitable for electrical fires,
computer rooms etc.
Halon interrupts the chain reaction at the flame zone of fire. It is two times as effective as
CO2 on a weight basis and five times as effective as CO2 on volume basis.
Halon is stored under pressure in a cylinder. A squeeze grip type nozzle is provided on
top of the cylinder valve depending upon capacity. It is available in 2,4,5,25 and 50 kg
capacities. Mostly two types of Halons (halogenated agents) are used as they are less toxic - (1)
Halon 1211-Bromochloro difluromethane i.e. CF2BrCI and (2) Halon 1301 -
Bromotrifluromethane CF2Br

Fixed Fire Installations :Fixed automatic fire installations are desirable from the design
stage, as they can be used for longer time and are more effective than the portable type.

10.6 Deflagration:It is an explosion with a resulting shock wave moving at a speed less than
the speed of sound in unreacted medium.
Deflagration is very rapid auto combustion of particles of explosive as a surface
phenomenon. It may be initiated by contact of a flame or spark but may be caused by impact or
friction. It is a characteristic of low explosives.
Deflagration or detonation is a form of explosion, the former is due to low burning
velocity (flame speed as I m/s) while the later is due to high burning velocity (flame speed as
2000-3000 m/s). A detonation generates high pressure and is more destructive than a
deflagration. The peak pressure caused by a deflagration in a closed vessel can reach up to 70-80
kPa (8 bar), whereas in case of detonation it easily reaches up to 200 kPa (20 bar).
A deflagration can turn into a detonation while travelling through a long pipe. In that case
deflagration velocity exceeds that mentioned above.
Detonation:It is an explosion with a resulting shock wave' moving at a speed more than the
speed of sound in unreacted medium.
Detonation is extremely rapid, self-propagating decomposition of an explosive
accompanied by a high pressure-temperature wave that moves at from 10009000 m/sec. It may
be initiated by mechanical impact, friction or heat. It is a characteristic of high explosives which
varies considerably in their sensitivity to shock, nitro-glycerine being one of the most dangerous
in this regard.Whether a deflagration or detonation takes place depends on the material involved
and the conditions under which it occurs. A vapour phase explosion requires some degree of
confinement for a detonation to take place.

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 Detonation of a gas-air mixture is possible directly by a powerful ignition source or by
transition from deflagration. Such transition requires a strong acceleration of the flame front. It is
possible in pipelines but rarely possible in vessels.
A number of substances are listed which can produce detonation in gas-air mixture.
Some commonly known substances are:
Acetone Ethylene
Acetylene Hydrogen
Benzene Methane
Chloroform Methanol
Cyclohexane Naphthalene
Diethyl ether Trichloro ethylene
Detonation usually occurs at well below the upper explosive limits. Separate Detonation Limits
are available for some substances as under:
Substance Detonation Limits (%) Explosive Limits (%)

Lower Upper LEL UEL

Acetylene 4.2 50 3 82

Ether 2.8 4.5 1.8 48

Hydrogen 18.3 59 4 75

Though upper detonation limits are normally below upper explosive limits, exceptions have been
reported.
FIRE AND EXPLOSIONPHENOMENA
To understand these, some definitions arenecessary.
2.1 Definitions:
1. Auto-ignition (spontaneous ignition)temperature is the temperature at which amaterial will
self-ignite and sustaincombustion in the absence of a spark orflame.
2. Automatic Fire Alarm System is a fire alarmsystem comprising components and subsystem
required for detecting a fire,initiating an automatic alarm for fire andinitiating other action as
required.
3. Combustibility (Flammability orIgnitability) is the capacity of a substance toignite and
continue to burn in the presenceof a heat source.
4. Combustion is a chemical changeaccompanied by the evolution of heat andlight.
5. Control Centre is a permanently mannedroom preferably on ground floor within thepremises
at risk for the receipt of emergencycalls and equipped with communications needed for
transmission of calls forassistance to services, such as fire and police.
6. Detonation is propagation of flamesfollowing shock wave through pipes, vessels,etc., at a
very high speed (supersonic) and high localized pressure.
7. Explosion is an extremely rapid chemical(explosive) transformation of fuelaccompanied by
release of energy andcompression of gases capable of producingmechanical work.
8. Extinguishing media are agents which canput out fires. Common extinguishing agentsare
water, carbon dioxide, dry chemical,alcohol foam, halogenated gases (Halons)and water jel
compound.

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9. Fire is a rapid oxidation-reduction reactionwhich results in the production of heat
andgenerally visible light.
10. Fire Alarm System is a combination ofcomponents for giving an audible andvisible and/or
other perceptible alarm offire. The system may also initiate otherancillary action. It includes
manual callpoints for initiating alarm.
11. Fire Point is the lowest temperature atwhich a mixture of vapour and air continuesto burn
when ignited.
12. Fire Resistance is the ability of an element ofbuilding construction, component forstructure
to fulfill, for a stated period of time,the required stability, fire integrity and/orthermal insulation
and/or other expectedduty in a standard fire resistance test (see IS3809).
13. Fire Resisting Wall is a wall capable ofspecifying the criteria of fire resistance withrespect
to collapse, penetration and excessivetemperature rise.
14. Flammability limits (Explosive range) i.e.the values (upper and lower) expressed inpercent
by volume of fuel vapour in air, isthe range of concentration within which aparticular vapour or
gas mixture with airwill burn (or explode) when ignited. Belowthe LEL the mixture is too lean to
burn andabove the UEL it is too rich to burn.
15. Flameproof Enclosure is an enclosure forelectrical machinery or apparatus that
willwithstand, when the covers or other accessdoors are properly secured, an internalexplosion of
the flammable gas or vapourwhich may enter or which may originateinside the enclosure,
without sufferingdamage and without communicating theinternal flammation (or explosion) to
theexternal flammable gas or vapour in which itis designed to be used, through any joints orother
structural openings in the enclosure.(The term ‘explosion proof’ is synonymous).
16. Flash back occurs when a trail of flammablegas, vapour or aerosol is ignited by a
distantspark, flame or other source of ignition. Theflame then travels back along the trail of
fuelto its source resulting into fire or explosion.
17. Flash fireis vary rapid combustion.
18. Flash Point is the lowest temperature atwhich a liquid will give off enough flammable
vapour at or near its surface, suchthat its mixture with air can be ignited by aspark or flame. It is
of more interest in safetythan the fire point.
19. Fuel is a substance that acts as a reducingagent, giving up electrons to an oxidizer
(e.g.Oxygen in air) in a chemical combustion. Itmay be an element like carbon,
hydrogen,magnesium etc., a single compound like CO,methane CH4, a complex compound
likewood or rubber or mixture like LPG.
20. Ignition Temperature is the lowesttemperature at which ignition occurs in amixture of
explosive gas and air when themethod specified in IS 7820 is followed.(Flash point is a higher
temperature at whichthe most explosive mixture will ignitespontaneously on account of
theenvironmental temperature).
21. Material Factor of a substance is a measureof its energy potential and is a function
offlammability and reactivity of the substance.The flammability depends upon the flashpoint or
heat of combustion while thereactivity depends upon the instability ofwater. Higher is the
Material Factor, higheris the fire and explosion hazard potential of aparticular substance. For
details see NFPA-704-M-1969.
22. Smoke Vents are openings, fitted withmanual shutters for removal of smoke froma fire.
23. Spontaneous Ignition or Combustionoccurs as the result of the gradualdevelopment of heat
generation by chemicalchanges. For example, baggas (grass) cubesheaped to be used as fuel,
generatesometimes, spontaneous combustionwithout spark and resulting into fire.

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Similarly oil soaked rags can sometimesignite without spark due to combining withoxygen
(oxidation), evolving heat and if theheat given off reaches the apparent ignitiontemperature of
the rags it may burst intoflame and result in fire. Water spraying canavoid such phenomenon.
24. Venting Fire is the process of inducting heatand smoke to leave a building as quickly
aspossible by such paths that lateral spread offire and heat is checked, fire fightingoperations are
facilitated and minimum firedamage is caused.

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Chapter-6 Pressure Vessels

 Pressure vessel :
Horizontal pressure vessel in steel.
A pressure vessel is a container designed to hold gases or liquids at a pressure substantially different from
the ambient pressure.
Pressure vessels can be dangerous, and fatal accidents have occurred in the history of their development
and operation. Consequently, pressure vessel design, manufacture, and operation are regulated by
engineering authorities backed by legislation. For these reasons, the definition of a pressure vessel varies
from country to country.
Design involves parameters such as maximum safe operating pressure and temperature, safety factor,
corrosion allowance and minimum design temperature (for brittle fracture). Construction is tested using
nondestructive testing, such as ultrasonic testing, radiography, and pressure tests. Hydrostatic tests use
water, but pneumatic tests use air or another gas. Hydrostatic testing is preferred, because it is a safer
method, as much less energy is released if a fracture occurs during the test (water does not rapidly
increase its volume when rapid depressurization occurs, unlike gases like air, which fail explosively).
In most countries, vessels over a certain size and pressure must be built to a formal code. In the United
States that code is the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC). These vessels also require an
authorized inspector to sign off on every new vessel constructed and each vessel has a nameplate with
pertinent information about the vessel, such as maximum allowable working pressure, maximum
temperature, minimum design metal temperature, what company manufactured it, the date, its registration
number (through the National Board), and ASME's official stamp for pressure vessels (U-stamp). The
nameplate makes the vessel traceable and officially an ASME Code vessel.
The earliest documented design of pressure vessels is described in the book Codex Madrid I, by Leonardo
da Vinci, in 1495, where containers of pressurized air were theorized to lift heavy weights underwater,
however vessels resembling what are used today did not come about until the 1800s where steam was
generated in boilers helping to spur the industrial revolution. However, with poor material quality and
manufacturing techniques along with improper knowledge of design, operation and maintenance there
was a large number of damaging and often fatal explosions associated with these boilers and pressure
vessels, with a death occurring on a nearly daily basis in the United States. Local providences and states
in the US began enacting rules for constructing these vessels after some particularly devastating vessel
failures occurred killing dozens of people at a time, which made it difficult for manufacturers to keep up
with the varied rules from one location to another and the first pressure vessel code was developed
starting in 1911 and released in 1914, starting the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC).[1] In
an early effort to design a tank capable of withstanding pressures up to 10,000 psi (69 MPa), a 6-inch
(150 mm) diameter tank was developed in 1919 that was spirally-wound with two layers of high tensile
strength steel wire to prevent sidewall rupture, and the end caps longitudinally reinforced with lengthwise
high-tensile rods. The need for high pressure and temperature vessels for petroleum refineries and
chemical plants gave rise to vessels joined with welding instead of rivets (which were unsuitable for the
pressures and temperatures required) and in 1920s and 1930s the BPVC included welding as an
acceptable means of construction, and welding is the main means of joining metal vessels today.
There have been many advancements in the field of pressure vessel engineering such as advanced non-
destructive examination, phased array ultrasonic testing and radiography, new material grades with
increased corrosion resistance and stronger materials, and new ways to join materials such as explosion
welding (to attach one metal sheet to another, usually a thin corrosion resistant metal like stainless steel to
a stronger metal like carbon steel), friction stir welding (which attaches the metals together without
melting the metal), advanced theories and means of more accurately assessing the stresses encountered in
vessels such as with the use of Finite Element Analysis, allowing the vessels to be built safer and more
efficiently. Today vessels in the USA require BPVC stamping but the BPVC is not just a domestic code,
many other countries have adopted the BPVC as their official code. There are, however, other official

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codes in some countries (some of which rely on portions of and reference the BPVC), Japan, Australia,
Canada, Britain, and Europe have their own codes. Regardless of the country nearly all recognize the
inherent potential hazards of pressure vessels and the need for standards and codes regulating their design
and construction.
Pressure vessel features
Shape of a pressure vessel
Pressure vessels can theoretically be almost any shape, but shapes made of sections of spheres, cylinders,
and cones are usually employed. A common design is a cylinder with end caps called heads. Head shapes
are frequently either hemispherical or dished (torispherical). More complicated shapes have historically
been much harder to analyze for safe operation and are usually far more difficult to construct.
Spherical gas container.
 Cylindrical pressure vessel.
 Picture of the bottom of an aerosol spray can.
Fire Extinguisher with rounded rectangle pressure vessel
Theoretically, a spherical pressure vessel has approximately twice the strength of a cylindrical pressure
vessel with the same wall thickness,and is the ideal shape to hold internal pressure. However, a spherical
shape is difficult to manufacture, and therefore more expensive, so most pressure vessels are cylindrical
with 2:1 semi-elliptical heads or end caps on each end. Smaller pressure vessels are assembled from a
pipe and two covers. For cylindrical vessels with a diameter up to 600 mm (NPS of 24 in), it is possible to
use seamless pipe for the shell, thus avoiding many inspection and testing issues, mainly the
nondestructive examination of radiography for the long seam if required. A disadvantage of these vessels
is that greater diameters are more expensive, so that for example the most economic shape of a 1,000
litres (35 cu ft), 250 bars (3,600 psi) pressure vessel might be a diameter of 91.44 centimetres (36 in) and
a length of 1.7018 metres (67 in) including the 2:1 semi-elliptical domed end caps.
Construction materials
Composite overwrapped pressure vessel with titanium liner.
Many pressure vessels are made of steel. To manufacture a cylindrical or spherical pressure vessel, rolled
and possibly forged parts would have to be welded together. Some mechanical properties of steel,
achieved by rolling or forging, could be adversely affected by welding, unless special precautions are
taken. In addition to adequate mechanical strength, current standards dictate the use of steel with a high
impact resistance, especially for vessels used in low temperatures. In applications where carbon steel
would suffer corrosion, special corrosion resistant material should also be used.
Some pressure vessels are made of composite materials, such as filament wound composite using carbon
fiber held in place with a polymer. Due to the very high tensile strength of carbon fibre these vessels can
be very light, but are much more difficult to manufacture. The composite material may be wound around
a metal liner, forming a composite overwrapped pressure vessel.
Other very common materials include polymers such as PET in carbonated beverage containers and
copper in plumbing.
Pressure vessels may be lined with various metals, ceramics, or polymers to prevent leaking and protect
the structure of the vessel from the contained medium. This liner may also carry a significant portion of
the pressure load.
Pressure Vessels may also be constructed from concrete (PCV) or other materials which are weak in
tension. Cabling, wrapped around the vessel or within the wall or the vessel itself, provides the necessary
tension to resist the internal pressure. A "leakproof steel thin membrane" lines the internal wall of the
vessel. Such vessels can be assembled from modular pieces and so have "no inherent size
limitations".There is also a high order of redundancy thanks to the large number of individual cables
resisting the internal pressure.
Safety features
Leak before burst

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Leak before burst describes a pressure vessel designed such that a crack in the vessel will grow through
the wall, allowing the contained fluid to escape and reducing the pressure, prior to growing so large as to
cause fracture at the operating pressure.
Many pressure vessel standards, including the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code[citation needed]
and the AIAA metallic pressure vessel standard, either require pressure vessel designs to be leak before
burst, or require pressure vessels to meet more stringent requirements for fatigue and fracture if they are
not shown to be leak before burst.
Safety valves

Example of a valve used for gas cylinders.

As the pressure vessel is designed to a pressure, there is typically a safety valve or relief valve to ensure
that this pressure is not exceeded in operation.
Maintenance features
Pressure vessel closures
Pressure vessel closures are pressure retaining structures designed to provide quick access to pipelines,
pressure vessels, pig traps, filters and filtration systems. Typically pressure vessel closures allow
maintenance personnel.
Uses
An LNG carrier ship with four pressure vessels for liquefied natural gas. Pressure vessels are used in a
variety of applications in both industry and the private sector. They appear in these sectors as industrial
compressed air receivers and domestic hot water storage tanks. Other examples of pressure vessels are
diving cylinders, recompression chambers, distillation towers, pressure reactors, autoclaves, and many
other vessels in mining operations, oil refineries and petrochemical plants, nuclear reactor vessels,
submarine and space ship habitats, pneumatic reservoirs, hydraulic reservoirs under pressure, rail vehicle
airbrake reservoirs, road vehicle airbrake reservoirs, and storage vessels for liquefied gases such as
ammonia, chlorine, and LPG (propane, butane). A unique application of a pressure vessel is the passenger
cabin of an airliner: the outer skin carries both the aircraft maneuvering loads and the cabin pressurization
loads.
Safety and Health Codes Board to formulate rules, regulations, etc.; cost of administration.
A. The Board is authorized to formulate definitions, rules, regulations and standards which shall be
designed for the protection of human life and property from the unsafe or dangerous construction,
installation, inspection, operation, maintenance and repair of boilers and pressure vessels in this
Commonwealth.
In promulgating such rules, regulations and standards, the Board shall consider any or all of the
following:
1. Standards, formulae and practices generally accepted by recognized engineering and safety authorities
and bodies.
2. Previous experiences based upon inspections, performance, maintenance and operation.
3. Location of the boiler or pressure vessel relative to persons.
4. Provisions for operational controls and safety devices.
5. Interrelation between other operations outside the scope of this chapter and those covered by this
chapter.
6. Level of competency required of persons installing, constructing, maintaining or operating any
equipment covered under this chapter or auxiliary equipment.
7. Federal laws, rules, regulations and standards.
Installations, repairs and alterations to conform to rules and regulations; existing installations:
(a) No boiler or pressure vessel which does not conform to the rules and regulations of the Board
governing new construction and installation and which has been certified by the Board shall be installed
or operated in this Commonwealth after twelve months from July 1, 1973. Prior to such date no boiler or
pressure vessel shall be installed and operated unless it is in conformity with the rules and regulations
established pursuant to this chapter which were in existence on July 1, 1972.

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(b) This chapter shall not be construed as in any way preventing the use, sale or reinstallation of a boiler
or pressure vessel constructed prior to July 1, 1972, provided it has been made to conform to the rules and
regulations of the Board governing existing installations prior to its reinstallation or operation.
(c) Repairs and alterations shall conform to the rules and regulations set forth by the Board.
Exemptions.
The provisions of this article shall not apply to any of the following:
1. Boilers or unfired pressure vessels owned or operated by the federal government or any agency thereof;
2. Boilers or fired or unfired pressure vessels used in or on the property of private residences or apartment
houses of less than four apartments;
3. Boilers of railroad companies maintained on railborne vehicles or those used to propel waterborne
vessels;
4. Hobby or model boilers as defined in
5. Hot water supply boilers, water heaters, and unfired pressure vessels used as hot water supply storage
tanks heated by steam or any other indirect means when the following limitations are not exceeded:
a. A heat input of 200,000 British thermal units per hour;
b. A water temperature of 210 degrees Fahrenheit;
c. A water-containing capacity of 120 gallons;
6. Unfired pressure vessels containing air only which are located on vehicles or vessels designed and used
primarily for transporting passengers or freight;
7. Unfired pressure vessels containing air only, installed on the right-of-way of railroads and used directly
in the operation of trains;
8. Unfired pressure vessels used for containing water under pressure when either of the following are not
exceeded:
a. A design pressure of 300 psi; or
b. A design temperature of 210 degrees Fahrenheit;
9. Unfired pressure vessels containing water in combination with air pressure, the compression of which
serves only as a cushion, that do not exceed:
a. A design pressure of 300 psi;
b. A design temperature of 210 degrees Fahrenheit; or
c. A water-containing capacity of 120 gallons;
10. Unfired pressure vessels containing air only, providing the volume does not exceed eight cubic feet
nor the operating pressure is not greater than 175 pounds;
11. Unfired pressure vessels having an operating pressure not exceeding fifteen pounds with no limitation
on size;
12. Pressure vessels that do not exceed:
a. Five cubic feet in volume and 250 pounds per square inch gauge pressure;
b. One and one-half cubic feet in volume and 600 pounds per square inch gauge pressure; and
c. An inside diameter of six inches with no limitations on gauge pressure;
13. Pressure vessels used for transportation or storage of compressed gases when constructed in
compliance with the specifications of the United States Department of Transportation and when charged
with gas marked, maintained, and periodically requalified for use, as required by appropriate regulations
of the United States Department of Transportation;
14. Stationary American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME) LP-Gas containers used exclusively
in propane service with a capacity that does not exceed 2,000 gallons if the owner of the container or the
owner's servicing agent:
a. Conducts an inspection of the container not less frequently than every five years, in which all visible
parts of the container, including insulation or coating, structural attachments, and vessel connections, are
inspected for corrosion, distortion, cracking, evidence of leakage, fire damage, or other condition
indicating impairment;
b. Maintains a record of the most recent inspection of the container conducted in accordance with
subdivision a; and

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c. Makes the records required to be maintained in accordance with subdivision b available for inspection
by the Commissioner;
15. Unfired pressure vessels used in and as a part of electric substations owned or operated by an electric
utility, provided such electric substation is enclosed, locked, and inaccessible to the public; or
16. Coil type hot water boilers without any steam space where water flashes into steam when released
through a manually operated nozzle, unless steam is generated within the coil or unless one of the
following limitations is exceeded:
a. Three-fourths inch diameter tubing or pipe size with no drums or headers attached;
b. Nominal water containing capacity not exceeding six gallons; and
c. Water temperature not exceeding 350 degrees Fahrenheit.
Employment and appointment of inspectors and other personnel; inspections; reports.
The Commissioner is authorized to employ persons to enforce the provisions of this chapter and the
regulations of the Board. He shall be authorized to require examinations or other information which he
deems necessary to aid him in determining the fitness, competency, and professional or technical
expertise of any applicant to perform the duties and tasks to be assigned.
The Commissioner is authorized to appoint a Chief Inspector and to certify special inspectors who shall
meet all qualifications set forth by the Commissioner and the Board. Special inspectors shall be
authorized to inspect specified premises and without cost or expense to the Commonwealth. Reports of all
violations of the regulations or of this chapter shall be immediately made to the Commissioner. Other
reports shall be made as required by the Commissioner.
Examination of inspectors; certificate of competency required.
A. All applicants for the position of inspector authorized by § 40.1-51.9 shall be required to have
successfully completed an examination monitored by the Examining Board and to have received a
certificate of competency from the Commissioner prior to commencing their duties. A fee as set under
subsection A of shall be charged each applicant taking the inspector's examination.
B. Each inspector holding a valid certificate of competency and who conducts inspections, as provided by
this chapter, shall be required to obtain an identification card biennially, not later than June 30 of the year
in which the identification card is required. Application for the identification card shall be made on forms
furnished by the Department upon request. Each application shall be submitted to the Department,
accompanied by a post-office money order or check drawn to the order of the Treasurer of Virginia in the
amount as set under subsection A
Financial responsibility requirements for contract fee inspectors.
A. Contract fee inspectors inspecting or certifying regulated boilers or pressure vessels in the
Commonwealth shall maintain evidence of their financial responsibility, including compensation to third
parties, for bodily injury and property damage resulting from, or directly relating to, an inspector's
negligent inspection or recommendation for certification of a boiler or pressure vessel.
B. Documentation of financial responsibility, including documentation of insurance or bond, shall be
provided to the Chief Inspector within thirty days after certification of the inspector. The Chief Inspector
may revoke an inspector's certification for failure to provide documentation of financial responsibility in a
timely fashion.
C. The Safety and Health Codes Board is authorized to promulgate regulations requiring contract fee
inspectors, as a condition of their doing business in the Commonwealth, to demonstrate financial
responsibility sufficient to comply with the requirements of this chapter. Regulations governing the
amount of any financial responsibility required by the contract fee inspector shall take into consideration
the type, capacity and number of boilers or pressure vessels inspected or certified.
D. Financial responsibility may be demonstrated by self-insurance, insurance, guaranty or surety, or any
other method approved by the Board, or any combination thereof, under the terms the Board may
prescribe. A contract fee inspector whose financial responsibility is accepted by the Board under this
subsection shall notify the Chief Inspector at least thirty days before the effective date of the change,
expiration, or cancellation of any instrument of insurance, guaranty or surety.

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E. Acceptance of proof of financial responsibility shall expire on the effective date of any change in the
inspector's instrument of insurance, guaranty or surety, or the expiration date of the inspector's
certification. Application for renewal of acceptance of proof of financial responsibility shall be filed thirty
days before the date of expiration.
F. The Chief Inspector, after notice and opportunity for hearing, may revoke his acceptance of evidence
of financial responsibility if he determines that acceptance has been procured by fraud or
misrepresentation, or a change in circumstances has occurred that would warrant denial of acceptance of
evidence of financial responsibility under this section or the requirements established by the Board
pursuant to this section.
G. It is not a defense to any action brought for failure to comply with the requirement to provide
acceptable evidence of financial responsibility that the person charged believed in good faith that the
owner or operator of an inspected boiler or pressure vessel possessed evidence of financial responsibility
accepted by the Chief Inspector or the Board.

Right of access to premises; certification and recertification; inspection requirements.

A. The Commissioner, his agents or special inspectors shall have free access, during reasonable hours to
any premises in the Commonwealth where a boiler or pressure vessel is being constructed, operated or
maintained, or is being installed to conduct a variance review, an owner-user inspection agency audit, an
emergency repair review, an accident investigation, a violation follow-up, and a secondhand or used
boiler review for the purpose of ascertaining whether such boiler or pressure vessel is being constructed,
operated or maintained in accordance with this chapter.
B. On and after January 1, 1973, no boiler or pressure vessel used or proposed to be used within this
Commonwealth, except boilers or pressure vessels exempted by this chapter, shall be installed, operated
or maintained unless it has been inspected by the Commissioner, his agents or special inspectors as to
construction, installation and condition and shall be certified. A fee as set under subsection A of § 40.1-
51.15 shall be charged for each inspection certificate issued. In lieu of such fees both for certification and
recertification, an authorized owner-user inspection agency shall be charged annual filing fees as set
under subsection A of § 40.1-51.15.
C. Recertification shall be required as follows:
1. Power boilers and high pressure, high temperature water boilers shall receive a certificate inspection
annually and shall also be externally inspected annually while under pressure if possible;
2. Heating boilers shall receive a certificate inspection biennially;
3. Pressure vessels subject to internal corrosion shall receive a certificate inspection biennially;
4. Pressure vessels not subject to internal corrosion shall receive a certificate inspection at intervals set by
the Board, but internal inspection shall not be required of pressure vessels, the content of which are
known to be noncorrosive to the material of which the shell, heads or fittings are constructed, either from
the chemical composition of the contents or from evidence that the contents are adequately treated with a
corrosion inhibitor, provided that such vessels are constructed in accordance with the rules and
regulations of the Board;
5. Nuclear vessels within the scope of this chapter shall be inspected and reported in such form and with
such appropriate information as the Board shall designate;
6. A grace period of two months beyond the periods specified in subdivisions 1, 2, 3 and 4 of this
subsection may elapse between certificate inspections. The Chief Inspector may extend a certificate for up
to three additional months beyond such grace period subject to a satisfactory external inspection of the
object and receipt of a fee as set under subsection A of § 40.1-51.15 for each month of inspection beyond
the grace period.
D. Inspection requirements for operating equipment shall be in accordance with generally accepted
practice and compatible with the actual service conditions and shall include but not be limited to the
following criteria:
1. Previous experience, based on records of inspection, performance and maintenance;

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2. Location, with respect to personnel hazard;
3. Qualifications and competency of inspection and operating personnel;
4. Provision for related safe operation controls; and
5. Interrelation with other operations outside of the scope of this chapter.
E. Based upon documentation of such actual service conditions by the owner or user of the operating
equipment, the Board may, in its discretion, permit variations in the inspection requirements as provided
in this section.
F. If, at the discretion of the Commissioner, a hydrostatic test shall be deemed necessary, it shall be made
by the owner or user of the boiler or pressure vessel.
G. All boilers, other than cast iron sectional boilers, and pressure vessels to be installed in this
Commonwealth after the six-month period from the date upon which the rules and regulations of the
Board shall become effective shall be inspected during construction as required by the applicable rules
and regulations of the Board.
H. Ninety-one days after expiration of a certificate for any boiler or pressure vessel subject to this section,
the Commissioner may assign an agent or special inspector to inspect such boiler or pressure vessel, and
its owner or operator shall be assessed a fee for such inspection. The fee shall be established in
accordance with subsection A of § 40.1-51.15.
Issuance of certificates; charges:
The Commissioner may designate special inspectors and contract fee inspectors to issue inspection
certificates for boilers and pressure vessels they have inspected. If no defects are found or when the boiler
or pressure vessel has been corrected in accordance with regulations, the designated special inspector or
contract fee inspector shall issue a certificate on forms furnished by the Department. The designated
special inspector or contract fee inspector shall collect the inspection certificate fee required under § 40.1-
51.10 at the time of the issuance of the certificate and forward the fee and a duplicate of the certificate to
the chief inspector immediately.
Each designated special inspector or contract fee inspector may charge a fee as set under subsection A of
§ 40.1-51.15 for each certificate issued, but the charge shall not be mandatory. No charge shall be made
unless the inspector has previously contracted therefor.
Suspension of inspection certificate; injunctive relief.
A. The Commissioner or his authorized representative may at any time suspend an inspection certificate
when, in his opinion, the boiler or pressure vessel for which it was issued, cannot be operated without
menace to the public safety, or when the boiler or pressure vessel is found not to comply with the rules
and regulations herein provided. Each suspension of an inspection certificate shall continue in effect until
such boiler or pressure vessel shall have been made to conform to the rules and regulations of the Board,
and until such inspection certificate shall have been reinstated. No boiler or pressure vessel shall be
operated during the period of suspension.
B. Notwithstanding any other provision of this chapter to the contrary, in the event of violation of any
provision of this chapter or the regulations promulgated thereunder, the Board or the Commissioner may
petition any appropriate court of record for relief by injunction, without being compelled to allege or
prove that an adequate remedy at law does not exist.
Owner-user inspection agencies.
Any person, firm, partnership or corporation operating pressure vessels in this Commonwealth may seek
approval and registration as an owner-user inspection agency by filing an application with the chief
inspector on forms prescribed and available from the Department, and request approval by the Board.
Each application shall be accompanied by a fee as set under subsection A of § 40.1-51.15 and a bond in
the penal sum of $5,000 which shall continue to be valid during the time the approval and registration of
the company as an owner-user inspection agency is in effect. Applicants meeting the requirements of the
rules and regulations for approval as owner-user inspection agencies will be approved and registered by
the Board. The Board shall withdraw the approval and registration as an owner-user inspection agency of
any person, firm, partnership or corporation which fails to comply with all rules and regulations
applicable to owner-user inspection agencies. Each owner-user inspection agency shall file an annual

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statement as required by the rules and regulations, accompanied by a filing fee as set under subsection A
of § 40.1-51.15.
Violation for operating boiler or pressure vessel without inspection certificate; civil penalty.
A. After twelve months following July 1, 1972, it shall be unlawful for any person, firm, partnership or
corporation to operate in this Commonwealth a boiler or pressure vessel without a valid inspection
certificate. Any owner, user, operator or agent of any such person who actually operates or is responsible
for operating such boiler or pressure vessel thereof who operates a boiler or pressure vessel without such
inspection certificate, or at a pressure exceeding that specified in such inspection certificate shall be in
violation of this section and subject to a civil penalty not to exceed $100. Each day of such violation shall
be deemed a separate offense.
B. All procedural rights guaranteed to employers pursuant to § 40.1-49.4 shall apply to penalties under
this section.
C. Investigation and enforcement for violations of this section shall be carried out by the Department of
Labor and Industry. Civil penalties imposed for violations of this section shall be paid into the general
fund.

Posting of certificate.
Certificates shall be posted in the room containing the boiler or pressure vessel inspected. If the boiler or
pressure vessel is not located within the building the certificate shall be posted in a location convenient to
the boiler or pressure vessel inspected, or in any place where it will be accessible to interested parties.
When inspection certificate for insured boiler or pressure vessel invalid.
No inspection certificate issued for an insured boiler or pressure vessel based upon a report of a special
inspector shall be valid after the boiler or pressure vessel for which it was issued shall cease to be insured
by a company duly authorized to issue policies of insurance in this Commonwealth.
Operations and maintenance.
A. A hobby or model boiler must be attended by a person reasonably competent to operate such boiler
when in operation. For the purposes of this section, a hobby or model boiler may be considered as not
being in operation when all of the following conditions exist:
1. The water level is at least one-third of the water gauge glass;
2. The fire is banked and the draft doors closed or the fire is extinguished; and
3. The boiler pressure is at least twenty pounds per square inch below the lowest safety valve set pressure.
B. All welding performed on hobby or model boilers shall be done by an "R" stamp holder in accordance
with the inspection code of the National Board of Boiler and Pressure Vessel Inspectors.
C. Repairs to longitudinal riveted joints are prohibited.
Variances: Upon application pursuant to the provisions of subdivision 9 of § 40.1-6, the Commissioner
may allow variances from a specific statutory requirement of this article provided the applicant proves by
clear and convincing evidence his hobby or model boiler meets substantially equivalent construction and
operating criteria and standards.
Civil penalty: A. It shall be unlawful for any person, firm, partnership or corporation to operate in the
Commonwealth a hobby or model boiler without a valid certificate. Any such person shall be subject to a
civil penalty as provided by § 40.1-51.12.
B. Any owner or user who leaves or causes to leave a hobby or model boiler unattended while in
operation at an event to which members of the general public are invited shall be in violation of this
article and subject to a civil penalty not to exceed $5,000. Each instance of such violation shall be deemed
a separate offense.The chapters of the acts of assembly referenced in the historical citation at the end of
these sections may not constitute a comprehensive list of such chapters and may exclude chapters whose
provisions have expired.
The Virginia General Assembly is offering access to the Code of Virginia on the Internet as a service to
the public. We are unable to neither assist users of this service with legal questions nor respond to

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requests for legal advice or the application of the law to specific facts. Therefore, to understand and
protect your legal rights, you should consult an attorney.
The Code of Virginia online database excludes material copyrighted by the publisher, Michie, a division
of Matthew Bender. Copyrighted material includes annotations and revisors' notes, which may be found
in the print version of the Code of Virginia. Annotated print copies of the Code of Virginia are available
in most Virginia public library systems, from LexisNexis (1-800-446-3410), and from West, a Thomson-
Reuters business (1-800-344-5008).
5.Maintenance and use in accordance with manufacturers’ instructions
Manufacturers and suppliers are required to specify servicing requirements to purchasers of machinery.
This would include service periods for conditions of “normal use”. To ensure safe use, all machinery used
in the work place, including pressure vessels must be serviced and maintained in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendations.
The Department owning the vessel is responsible for establishing the equipment maintenance contract and
meeting the cost of maintenance.
The Local Estates Representative should be contacted when a maintenance contract is being established
or renewed – they may know of alternative suppliers offering more favourable terms or if a College-wide
contract is in place. In any case, the local Estates representative will need to be made aware of service
visits, as this can then be co-ordinated with insurance inspections when necessary, usually at time of
thorough examination.
Equipment may require more frequent and more stringent servicing as well as additional control measures
depending on its location and use. Advice should be sought from the manufacturer in this instance. See 8.
Information required by the Insurance Inspector
6. Requirement to inspect and examine
If a pressure vessel or part of a pressurised system fails, the consequences could be severe (explosion,
scalding etc). Therefore the User is responsible for ensuring that College-owned (including grant-funded)
pressure systems are maintained, operated safely, and precautions taken to prevent over-pressurisation.
In addition, the User must ensure that a competent person (the College Insurance Inspector) makes a
thorough annual inspection and regular examination of any College-owned pressure systems containing
steam or having a pressure x volume equal to 250 bar litres or more.
The scope and frequency of the examination is defined in a Written Scheme of Examination, drawn up by
the College Insurance Inspector. Usually a written scheme is produced as part of the commissioning
process, but in any case will be provided by the Insurance Inspector on the first examination. The
Decision Tree in Appendix 1 helps to determine the duty holders.

7. Written scheme of examination (WSE)

If the supplier has not provided documentary evidence on commissioning and testing, advice must be
obtained from the College Insurance Inspector(s) on whether a WSE should be drawn up before first use
of any relevant pressure equipment. The scope of the examination depends on the complexity of the
equipment and the harm resulting in the event of failure.
The User must determine the scope of the WSE – if for example the equipment is likely to be weakened
due to chemical or environmental conditions then pipe work should be included or if sudden failure of
pipe work would give rise to danger. In practice, the College Insurance Inspector would do this on the
User’s behalf provided he is supplied with certain information (see below).
The College Insurance Inspector sends the original WSE to the Estates Helpdesk, who in turn will send
copies to the local Estates representative. The Insurance Inspector will notify any subsequent
modifications to the WSE (after repair for example) to the Estates Helpdesk, who will notify to the local
Estates Contact by means of an amended hard copy and an electronic version, which is then circulated as
an update. Appendix 2 – Local Estates Contacts
8.Information required by the Insurance Inspector

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To determine the depth and frequency of an examination, the Inspector will need to be informed of the
use and environmental conditions that the equipment is subjected to, for example:
i)If environmental conditions are extreme, if corrosive chemicals such as acids or salts are used within the
vessel or are present in the external atmosphere, then physical degradation of the equipment components
is expected and the service frequency may need to be increased. Similar consideration must be given to
extremes of temperature, moisture, dust, etc.
ii)If domestic-type equipment is being used for research purposes (as this would not be considered to be
normal use by the manufacturer or supplier). Note that domestic pressure cookers must not be used for
laboratory-type work within the College.
The User should note under such circumstances, maintenance and servicing periods may need to be more
frequent then those specified by the manufacturer. See 5. Maintenance and use in accordance with
manufacturers’ instructions
9.Arranging an Insurance Inspection
This should coincide with annual maintenance, as the machine may need to be stripped down for the
Inspector to access its workings. To ensure that maintenance coincides with inspection, two actions are
necessary.
i)Your vessel(s) will need to be registered with the Estates Help Desk and the Dept/Divisional Safety
Officer.
ii)Your maintenance contractor’s details will need to be registered with the local Estates Contact who will
try to co-ordinate the visit of the Inspector with that of the service engineer.
The College currently meets the cost of the Insurance inspection.
Once the Inspector has visited he will issue a certificate. This will be issued as hard and electronic copy
to the Estates Helpdesk. The Estates Helpdesk will send hard copy to the local Estates representative and
to the Department Safety Officer.
If the Insurance Inspector identifies a safety problem he will inform the user and the local Estates
representative, who will be required to isolate and remove from service the piece of equipment pending
its repair by the department. See 15. Failing an inspection - actions to be taken
10. Procedures for registration with Estates
You must register existing, newly purchased and second-hand equipment by email to
estates_help@imperial.ac.uk. You will need to provide all the information required on the Estates form.
See Appendices Pressure Vessel Registration Form.
In addition, the supplier will provide commissioning and testing data. Pressure vessels may continue to
be used in departments for many years, and may even be moved between buildings, campuses etc. It is
important that original commissioning and testing data is not lost, so Users should send a copy of the
commissioning and testing data to the local estates contact, and give the original to the Department Safety
Coordinator.
On receipt of the completed form, the Estates Helpdesk will arrange for the Insurance Inspector to visit
the Department to make a WSE and inform the local Estates contact, maintenance provider, User,
Department Safety Coordinator and Divisional Safety Advisor that the Insurance Inspector has been
notified. Estates will add the item(s) to the College Register for subsequent annual inspections.
Newly purchased equipment must be registered in the same way, but the insurance inspection will only be
necessary 12 months after installation.
If registering newly installed second-hand pressure systems, unless the supplier has provided
commissioning and testing data, you will also need to ask the Helpdesk whether or not a WSE needs to be
drawn up before first use. Estates will contact the College Insurance Inspector to determine if this is
necessary and to arrange a visit.
The maintenance and inspection of fixed installations (those that form part of the building pressure
system) is organized by the Local Estates contact on some campuses. It remains the responsibility of the
department to check that maintenance and inspection is being done.
If vessels are already registered, they may have been marked with a unique identifier – such as a
consecutive number and a Building/campus code. The unique identifier will identify the equipment

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regardless of where it is located within the College. The unique identifier will appear on the Inspector’s
report, and on the College and Divisional database of pressure vessels. The serial number will act as the
unique identifier where this is not in evidence.
11. Entry of non-authorized personnel into laboratories
Insurance Inspectors, service engineers, Estates personnel etc may not enter biological Containment
Laboratories, plant rooms or other high-risk workplaces unless permit-to-work or equipment
decontamination procedures are followed accordingly (see College Guidance Note).
12.Rented and second-hand vessels
Mobile vessels are often on long-term hire. The owner of any pressure vessel is required to have it
maintained and tested (and examined where relevant). This applies to nitrogen pressure vessels owned by
nitrogen supply companies such as BOC. BOC are responsible for carrying out the annual maintenance
and testing on all of their vessels and would normally fix a label to the equipment showing when this was
next due. They usually provide a copy of the test certificate to the hirer (on Hammersmith Campus these
are kept by Stores), or a copy may be obtained directly from the BOC. The hirer is responsible for
checking that tests have been carried out, and for ensuring that vessels failing the test are removed from
service and either repaired or replaced by the supply company.
The purchase of second-hand pressure systems should be avoided to minimize risks. They may be in poor
condition and the maintenance history may be unknown. Before use of such equipment it is essential that
a full service visit (combined with an Insurance Inspection if over 250 bar litre) is arranged. See 10.
Procedures for registration with Estates
13. Laboratory equipment which is integral with the building
Some equipment is linked to a building steam generating plant, for example non-self generating
autoclaves. This type of machine will be examined in accordance with a WSE, as it forms part of a larger,
unseen steam system. Estates will arrange for the maintenance and testing of plant supplying the service
to the autoclave. However departments are responsible for ensuring that maintenance and examinations of
any attached autoclaves are carried out (as in 6-10). Other items such as gas generators and some
compressed gas supply lines may also be part of building-wide pressure system. The Estates Department
currently recharges user departments for the cost of maintaining this type of system. Pressure vessels
operating via a standard 13 Amp plug are unlikely to fall into this category. If you are uncertain, contact
the Estates Helpdesk for advice.
14. Procedures for inspection and re-inspection after repair or modification
On occasion, equipment will need to be repaired or modified. The Estates Helpdesk and the local Estates
contact must be informed immediately of any planned repairs or modifications so that these may be
notified to the Inspector, who may need to make an extra inspection, perhaps whilst the machine is still
stripped down by the service engineer.
Self-modifications made for example, as part of an experimental procedure must be subject to a full risk
assessment.
15.Failing an inspection - actions to be taken
 The Insurance Inspector will take the following actions if he considers there to be “imminent
danger” from a pressure vessel:
 Inform local laboratory staff, and advise that the machine is removed from use immediately.
 Issue a Site Defect Notice to the User or other responsible person (who must sign it), stating what
requirements are needed to make the machine safe (either repair or scrapping), and a time scale in
which to do it.
 Telephone the Estates Helpdesk and the local Estates Contact, who will complete a Dangerous
Occurrence Form.
 Inform the Health and Safety Executive (HSE).
The local Estates contact, once informed by the Insurance Inspector, will email the User, copying the
Department Safety Coordinator, their named deputy, the Head of Section/Department and the Divisional
Safety Advisor, advising that action is required.

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 Users are responsible for carrying out required actions (repair or disposal), but must not return a repaired
item to service until authorized to do so by Estates.
The DSC or deputy should check that the required action has been carried out, and send written
confirmation of this to the local Estates contact, to the Estates Helpdesk (who will inform the Inspector),
the Divisional Safety Advisor and the Head of Section/Department.
HSE may write or check personally whether the appropriate action has been taken; if action is not taken
by the specified deadline, HSE may serve an Improvement Notice or a Prohibition Notice depending on
the danger involved.
Pressure System Inspection Frequency

Equipment Inspection Type Inspection Frequency

Heating boiler External 3 years

Pressure vessel, corrosive service External and internal 2 years

Pressure vessel, non-corrosive

External 3 years
service
Vacuum vessel External 5 years

 Pressure system hazards and control:

General safety requirements for compressed air :

1. All pipes, hoses, and fittings must have a rating of the maximum pressure of the compressor.
Compressed air pipelines should be identified (psi) as to maximum working pressure.
2. Air supply shutoff valves should be located (as near as possible) at the point-of-operation.
3. Air hoses should be kept free of grease and oil to reduce the possibility of deterioration.
4. Hoses should not be strung across floors or aisles where they are liable to cause personnel to trip and
fall. When possible, air supply hoses should be suspended overhead, or otherwise located to afford
efficient access and protection against damage.
5. Hose ends must be secured to prevent whipping if an accidental cut or break occurs.
6. Pneumatic impact tools, such as riveting guns, should never be pointed at a person.
7. Before a pneumatic tool is disconnected (unless it has quick disconnect plugs), the air supply must be
turned off at the control valve and the tool bled.
8. Compressed air must not be used under any circumstances to clean dirt and dust from clothing or off
a person’s skin. Shop air used for cleaning should be regulated to 15 psi unless equipped with diffuser
nozzles to provide lessor pressure.
9. Goggles, face shields or other eye protection must be worn by personnel using compressed air for
cleaning equipment.
10. Static electricity can be generated through the use of pneumatic tools. This type of equipment must be
grounded or bonded if it is used where fuel, flammable vapors or explosive atmospheres are present.
 Safety Requirements for Operating & Maintaining Compressed Air Machinery:

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 All components of compressed air systems should be inspected regularly by qualified and trained
employees. Maintenance superintendents should check with state and/or insurance companies to
determine if they require their own inspection of this equipment.
Operators need to be aware of the following:

Air receivers:The maximum allowable working pressures of air receivers should never be exceeded
except when being tested. Only hydrostatically tested and approved tanks shall be used as air receivers.
1. Air tanks and receivers should be equipped with inspection openings, and tanks over 36 inches in
diameter should have a manhole. Pipelug openings should be provided on tanks with volumes of less
than five cubic feet.
2. The intake and exhaust pipes of small tanks, similar to those used in garages, should be made
removable for interior inspections.
3. No tank or receiver should be altered or modified by unauthorized persons.
4. Air receivers should be fitted with a drain cock that is located at the bottom Of the receiver.
5. Receivers should be drained frequently to prevent accumulation of liquid inside the unit. Receivers
having automatic drain systems are exempt from this Requirement.
6. Air tanks should be located so that the entire outside surfaces can be easily inspected. Air tanks
should not be buried or placed where they cannot be seen for frequent inspection.
7. Each air receiver shall be equipped with at least one pressure gauge and an ASME safety valve of the
proper design.
8. A safety (spring loaded) release valve shall be installed to prevent the receiver from
exceeding the maximum allowable working pressure.
9. Only qualified personnel should be permitted to repair air tanks, and all work must be done
according to established safety standards.
Air Distribution Lines:
1. Air lines should be made of high quality materials, fitted with secure connections.
2. Only standard fittings should be used on air lines.
3. Operators should avoid bending or kinking air hoses.
4. Air hoses should not be placed where they will create tripping hazards.
5. Hoses should be checked to make sure they are properly connected to pipe outlets before use.
6. Air lines should be inspected frequently for defects, and any defective equipment repaired or
replaced immediately.
7. Compressed air lines should be identified as to maximum working pressures (psi), by tagging
or marking pipeline outlets.
Pressure regulation Devices:
1. Only qualified personnel should be allowed to repair or adjust pressure regulating equipment.
2. Valves, gauges and other regulating devices should be installed on compressor equipment in
such a way that cannot be made inoperative.
3. Air tank safety valves should be set no less than 15 psi or 10 percent (whichever is greater)
above the operating pressure of the compressor but never higher than the maximum
allowable working pressure of the air receiver.
4. Air lines between the compressor and receiver should usually not be equipped with stop
valves. Where stop valves are necessary and authorized, ASME safety valves should be
installed between the stop valves and the compressor.
5. The Safety valves should be set to blow at pressures slightly above those necessary to pop the
receiver safety valves.

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6. Blowoff valves should be located on the equipment and shielded so sudden blowoffs will not
cause personnel injuries or equipment damage.
7. Case iron seat or disk safety valves should be ASME approved and stamped for intended
service application.
8. If the design of a safety or a relief valve is such that liquid can collect on the discharge side
of the disk, the valve should be equipped with a drain at the lowest point where liquid can
collect.
9. Safety valves exposed to freezing temperatures should be located so water cannot collect in
the valves. Frozen valves must be thawed and drained before operating the compressor.
Air Compressor Operation:
1. Air compressor equipment should be operated only by authorized and trained personnel.
2. The air intake should be from a clean, outside, fresh air source. Screens or filters can be used
to clean the air.
3. Air compressors should Never be operated at speeds faster than the manufacturers
recommendation.
4. Equipment should not become overheated.
5. Moving parts, such as compressor flywheels, pulleys, and belts that could be hazardous
should be effectively guarded.
Compressed Air Equipment Maintenance:
1. Only authorized and trained personnel should service and maintain air compressor
equipment.
2. Exposed, Noncurrent-carrying, metal parts of compressor should be effectively grounded.
3. Low flash point lubricants should not be used on compressors because of its high operating
temperatures that could cause a fire or explosion.
4. Equipment should not be over lubricated.
5. Gasoline or diesel fuel powered compressors shall not be used indoors.
6. Equipment placed outside but near buildings should have the exhausts directed away from
doors, windows and fresh air intakes.
7. Soapy water of lye solutions can be used to clean compressor parts of carbon deposits, but
kerosene or other flammable substances should not be used. Frequent cleaning is necessary to
keep compressors in good working condition.
8. The air systems should be completely purged after each cleaning.
9. During maintenance work, the switches of electrically operated compressors should be
locked open and tagged to prevent accidental starting.
10. Portable electric compressors should be disconnected from the power supply before
performing maintenance.

Pressure Measurement: Principles:

How Is Pressure Measured?
As with most measure and pressure measurement methods have varying suitability for different
applications. Measurement engineers need to be familiar with several techniques in order to select
the one that is most appropriate for their specific requirements.

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Deadweight Tester:
The most fundamental pressure measurement technique, and favored as well for primary
calibration of pressure sensors, is the deadweight tester, or piston gauge (see Figure 1). This device
uses calibrated weights (masses) that exert pressure on a fluid (usually a liquid) through a piston.
Deadweight testers can be used as primary standards because the factors influencing accuracy are
traceable to standards of mass, length, and time. The piston gauge is simple to operate; pressure is
generated by turning a jackscrew that reduces the fluid volume inside the tester, resulting in
increased pressure. When the pressure generated by the reduced volume is slightly higher than that
generated by the weights on the piston, the piston will rise until it reaches a point of equilibrium
where the pressures at the gauge and at the bottom of the piston are exactly equal.
The pressure in the system will be:Various pressure ranges can be achieved by varying the area
of the piston and the size of the weights. For extremely accurate and precise pressure calibrations,
many corrections must be made, exact areas and weights must be known, and great care must be
taken in the procedure. Obviously, this is not a practicable method for day-to-day pressure
measurements.
Fluid Head—Manometers: The height of a column of liquid, or the difference between the
heights of two liquid columns, is used to measure pressure head in devices called U-tube
manometers (see Figure 2). If a fluid is installed in an open U-shaped tube, the fluid level in each
side will be the same. When pressure is applied to one side, that level will go down and the level
on the other side will rise until the difference between the heights is equal to the pressure head.
The height difference is proportional to the pressure and to the density of the fluid. The U-tube
manometer is a primary standard for pressure measurement.
Although many manometers are simply a piece of glass tubing formed into a U shape with a
reference scale for measuring heights, there are many variations in terms of size, shape, and
material (see Figure 3). If the left side is connected to the measurement point, and the right is left
open to atmosphere, the manometer will indicate gauge pressure, positive or negative (vacuum).
Differential pressure can bemeasured by connecting each of the legs to one of the measurement
points. Absolute pressure can be measured by evacuating the reference side. A mercury barometer
is such an absolute pressure measuring manometer indicating atmospheric pressure.In some
versions, the two legs of the U are of different diameters. Some types incorporate a large-diameter
"well" on one side. In others, one tube is inclined in order to provide better resolution of the
reading. But they all operate on the same principle. Because of the many constraints on geometry
of installation and observation, and their limited range, manometers are not practical or effective
for most pressure measurements.

Force-Summing Devices:Mechanical pressure gauges and electromechanical pressure sensors

incorporate an elastic element called a force-summing device that changes shape when pressure is
applied to it.
The shape change is then converted to a displacement. Of the wide variety of force-summing
devices, the most common are Bourdon tubes and diaphragms. Bourdon tubes provide fairly large
displacement motion that is useful in mechanical pressure gauges; the lesser motion of diaphragms
is better in electromechanical sensors.The motion of the force-summing device can be linked to a
linear variable differential transformer, which acts as the electromechanical transduction element.
Alternatively, it can be linked, usually through a motion amplifying mechanism, to the wiper of a
potentiometer. To reduce acceleration error, a balancing mass may be provided.

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Mechanical Pressure Gauges.: In mechanical gauges, the motion generated by the force-
summing device is converted by mechanical linkage into dial or pointer movement. The better
gauges provide adjustments for zero, span, linearity, and (sometimes) temperature compensation
for mechanical calibration. High-accuracy mechanical gauges take advantage of special materials,
balanced movements, compensation techniques, mirror scales, knife-edge pointers, and expanded
scales to improve the precision and accuracy of readings. The most accurate mechanical gauges,
test gauges, are used as transfer standards for pressure calibration, but for applications requiring
remote sensing, monitoring, or recording they are impractical. Their mechanical linkages also limit
their frequency response for dynamic pressure measurements.

ElectromechanicalPressureSensors: Electromechanical pressure sensors, or pressure transducers,

convert motion generated by a force-summing device into an electrical signal. These sensors are
much more useful and adaptable than mechanical gauges, especially when applied in data
acquisition and control systems. In well-designed transducers, the electrical output is directly
proportional to the applied pressure over a wide pressure range. For rapidly changing—dynamic—
pressure measurement, frequency characteristics of the transducer are an important consideration.

Types of Pressure Sensors

Pressure sensors are available with a variety of reference pressure options: gauge (psig), absolute
(psia), differential (psid), and sealed (psis). All use a force-summing device to convert the pressure
to a displacement, but that displacement is then converted to an electrical output by any of several
transduction methods. The most common are strain gauges, variable capacitance, and piezoelectric.
Strain Gauge Transducers: Strain gauge transducers are based on metal or silicon semiconductor
strain gauges. The gauges can be discrete units attached to the surface of the strained element or
unbonded gauges. The gauge material can be sputtered onto a diaphragm or diffused into a silicon
diaphragm structure. The most common force-summing device for strain gauge transducers is the
diaphragm, which may be flat or sculptured. Strain gauges are also used on Bourdon tubes and
bellows assemblies.
Strain gauges are made of materials that exhibit significant resistance change when strained. This
change is the sum of three effects. First, when the length of a conductor is changed, it undergoes a
resistance change approximately proportional to change in length. Second, in accordance with the
Poisson effect a change in the length of a conductor causes a change in its cross-sectional area and
a resistance change that is approximately proportional to change in area. Third, the piezoresistive
effect, a characteristic of the material, is a change in the bulk resistivity of a material when it is
strained. All strain gauge materials exhibit these three properties, but the piezoresistive effect
varies widely for different materials. Metal strain gauges are networks of wire or patterns of thin
metal foil fabricated onto or into a backing material and covered with a protective film.Their
design permits the use of a large active length (= large R) in a small area. They are made of
specially formulated alloys with relatively large piezoresistive effects. Silicon strain gauges are
doped to resistivity levels that produce the optimum combination of piezoresistive and
thermoresistive effects. Strain gauge materials are characterized by their strain sensitivity, but
when fabricated into strain gauges they are characterized by their "gauge factor," defined as
relative resistance change divided by strain.

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Bonded Strain Gauges: Discrete metal or silicon strain gauges are usually bonded (glued) to the
surface where strain is to be measured, and provide an output proportional to the average strain in
their active area (see Figure 6). The typical gauge factor is around 2; a strain of 1 µin./in. would
produce a resistance change of 2 µ/. Unstrained resistance ranges from 120 to several hundred
ohms. Because a significant length of wire or foil is necessary to provide high unstrained
resistance, metal strain gauges cannot be made extremely small.

Unbonded Strain Gauges: Unbonded strain gauge transducers use relatively long strands of strain
gauge wire stretched around posts attached to a linkage mechanism (see Figure 7). The linkage is
designed such that when pressure increases, half of the wire isfarther stretched and the other half is
less so. The primary advantage of unbonded over bonded is a higher gauge factor, on the order of
3. Because no adhesives are required, they can also be designed and fabricated for use at higher
temperatures. Unbonded strain gauge transducers tend to be large.
Sputtered Strain Gauges: Strain gauge material may be sputtered onto a nonconductive
diaphragm to create the strain gauges (see Figure 8). Location and orientation are controlled by
masking, and the molecular bond created by the sputtering process eliminates any problems with
adhesive bonding. Gauge factors are similar to those of unbonded gauges. Surface preparation and
other process controls are quite critical. The fabrication process offers some of the advantages of a
silicon diaphragm, such as good linearity and highnatural frequency, as well as the good
temperature characteristics of metal gauges.
Semiconductor Strain Gauges: These devices are made of semiconducting silicon. Their gauge
factor is dependent on the doping level—more lightly doped, higher resistivity material has a
higher gauge factor. However, it also has greater thermal sensitivity, causing both resistance and
gauge factor to change significantly with temperature. Most silicon gauges are doped to provide a
gauge factor of 100?200, which gives acceptable temperature characteristics. Discrete silicon strain
gauges are used just as are metal gauges, glued to the strained surface in the desired orientation to
provide maximum sensitivity for pressure measurement. In addition to their higher gauge factor
(which provides higher sensitivity), they are also smaller, allowing more miniaturization.
Bonded Discrete Silicon Strain Gauges: Early silicon strain gauge transducers used discrete
silicon strain gauges bonded with adhesives to the surface of a strained element. These devices
were similar to bonded metal strain gauges, except that the silicon typesprovided much higher
output and had greater temperature errors. Furthermore, the silicon gauges were smaller than metal
gauges, so the sensors could be made smaller.
Diffused Diaphragm Sensors: Discrete strain gauges, metal or silicon, require tedious micro
assembly for installation, but diffused diaphragm sensors (see Figure 9) can be fabricated using
semiconductor masking and processing techniques. This approach provides precision location and
orientation of the gauges for optimum linearity and sensitivity, allows extreme miniaturization, and
reduces assembly costs. It also removes the variability of the adhesive and its application.
Sculptured-Diaphragm Sensors: Early diffused silicon diaphragm pressure transducers used a
simple, flat silicon diaphragm of uniform thickness. Silicon micro fabrication techniques (MEMS)
allow great flexibility in the mechanical design of the diaphragm.
Anisotropic etching provides precise control of etching directions in the silicon crystal. Extremely
small yet complex shapes can be fabricated, permitting the diaphragms to be shaped for optimum
combinations of linearity, sensitivity, and frequency response characteristics.

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Variable Capacitance Transducers: When one plate of a capacitor is displaced relative to the
other, the capacitance between the two plates changes. If one of the plates is the diaphragm of a
pressure sensor, the capacitance can be correlated to the pressure applied to it (see Figure 10). This
change of capacitance is either used to vary the frequency of an oscillator or is detected by a bridge
circuit. If the dielectric material is maintained constant, this mechanism provides a very repeatable
transducer. The primary advantages are low hysteresis; good linearity, stability, and repeatability;
static pressure measurement capability; and a quasi-digital output. However, complicated
electronics are required.
Piezoelectric Transducers: Piezoelectric (PE) pressure transducers (see Figure 11) use stacks of
piezoelectric crystal or ceramic elements to convert the motion of the force-summing device to an
electrical output. Quartz, tourmaline, and several other naturally occurring crystals generate an
electrical charge when strained. Specially formulated ceramics can be artificially polarized to be
piezoelectric, and they have higher sensitivities than natural crystals. Unlike strain gauge
transducers, PE devices require no external excitation. Because their output is very high impedance
and their signal levels low, they require special signal conditioning such as charge amplifiers and
noise-treated coaxial cable.
Some designs of PE transducers (ICP or voltage mode) therefore include an integral preamplifier
within the transducer's case. The output can then be an amplified (mill volt level) low output
impedance signal, greatly reducing cabling problems and simplifying signal conditioning. The
integral amplifier requires external power from a constant-current supply, using the same two
conductors as the signal circuit. The signal conditioner has a blocking capacitor to block the DC
power supply voltage and to transmit an AC signal.Because the PE transducers are self-generating,
dependent on changes of strain to generate electrical charge, they are not usable with DC or
steady-state conditions. They have an inherent low-frequency rolloff that is dependent on the
signal conditioning's low-frequency time constant.Their primary advantage is their ruggedness,
and, without integral electronics, their usefulness at high temperatures. If not properly
compensated, though, they are sensitive to shock and vibration and may exhibit large changes of
sensitivity with temperature variations.
Other Electromechanical Sensors. Virtually every technique for converting motion to an
electrical signal—variable reluctance, variable inductance, force balance, vibrating wires, vibrating
columns and tubes, piezoelectric film, and Hall effect—has been tried in pressure transducer
design. Several varieties of fiber-optic sensors have also recently become available. These make
use of variable reflectance, phase coherence, and microbend effects to convert the sensed pressure
into light variations that can be excited and caused to transmit signals via optical fibers. These
sensors may be advantageous in environments of high-amplitude electromagnetic fields or pulses.
Some "hybrid" systems use conventional transducers, then convert the electrical outputs to optical
signals for fiber-optic transmissions.
Scanners:Multichannel scanning pressure measurement systems are sometimes the best selection
when many measurement points are required. Two types are available: mechanical and electronic.
Mechanical scanners use only one sensor and mechanically route the pressure sequentially from
each measurement point to the sensor. Electronic scanners use many sensors in a common body,
and electrically time-multiplex the signals to data acquisition equipment. In both types, tubing
transmits the pressure from measurement points to one sensor.
Pressure-Scanning Valves: A pressure-scanning valve is a pneumatic switch capable of
sequentially multiplexing a number of pressures to a single transducer. The most common design
is based on a matched pair of lapped surfaces with one rotating relative to the other. The transducer

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is typically flush mounted very close to the valve in order to minimize the volume of gas subject to
the changes in pressure. The valve rotor is driven by a stepper motor, and the valve position is
indicated by a rotary encoder. A periodic recalibration can be incorporated into the system by
supplying accurately known pressures to one or more ports. The maximum scanning rate is
dependent on the accuracy required. If the dwell time at each measurement position is long enough
for the pressure equilibrium to be achieved, the accuracy is that of the transducer. Equilibrium time
is a function of the traveling volume and the magnitude of the pressure change. The typical
scanning rate for aerodynamic or jet engine pressure measurements is 5?10 measurements/s.
Multiple scanners can be time sequenced to provide faster effective scanning rates.
Electronic Pressure Scanners:combining miniature semiconductor strain gauge transducers and
solid-state electronic multiplexing into an integrated measurement system provides much higher
rates than possible with mechanical scanners. A multiple transducer array, a low-level multiplexer,
and an instrumentation amplifier in a shared housing make up the typical system. Some systems
also include a pneumatic valve that can be automatically switched to subject each sensor to a
calibrated pressure at any time. The calibrated pressure is supplied by a calibration manifold.
Because there is no mechanical switching of pressurized passages, there is no need to delay
measurements while a traveling volume is stabilized. Each transducer is always measuring, and its
output is periodically sampled by the electronic multiplexer scanning. Scanning speeds can be
10,000 to 20,000 sps. Of course, the connecting tubing between the measurement point and the
sensor will still impose a physical low-pass filter.
A steam explosion is an explosion caused by violent boiling or flashing of water into steam,
occurring when water is either superheated, rapidly heated by fine hot debris produced within it, or
heated by the interaction of molten metal’s (as in a fuel–coolant interaction, or FCI, of molten
nuclear-reactor fuel rods with water in a nuclear reactor core following a core-meltdown). Pressure
vessels, such as pressurized water (nuclear) reactors, that operate above atmospheric pressure can
also provide the conditions for a steam explosion. The water changes from a liquid to a gas with
extreme speed, increasing dramatically in volume. A steam explosion sprays steam and boiling-hot
water and the hot medium that heated it in all directions (if not otherwise confined, e.g. by the
walls of a container), creating a danger of scalding and burning.

Steam explosions are not normally chemical explosions, although a number of substances react
chemically with steam (for example, zirconium and superheated graphite react with steam and air
respectively to give off hydrogen, which burns violently in air) so that chemical explosions and
fires may follow. Some steam explosions appear to be special kinds of boiling liquid expanding
vapor explosion (BLEVE), and rely on the release of stored superheat. But many large-scale
events, including foundry accidents, show evidence of an energy-release front propagating through
the material (see description of FCI below), where the forces create fragments and mix the hot
phase into the cold volatile one; and the rapid heat transfer at the front sustains the propagation.
STEAM EXPLOSION:
If a steam explosion occurs in a confined tank of water due to rapid heating of the water, the
pressure wave and rapidly expanding steam can cause severe water hammer. This was the
mechanism that, in Idaho, USA, in 1961, caused the SL-1 nuclear reactor vessel to jump over 9
feet (2.7 m) in the air when it was destroyed by a criticality accident. In the case of SL-1, the fuel
and fuel elements vaporized from instantaneous overheating.
Events of this general type are also possible if the fuel and fuel elements of a liquid-cooled nuclear
reactor gradually melt. Such explosions are known as fuel–coolant interactions (FCI).[citation

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needed] In these events the passage of the pressure wave through the predispersed material creates
flow forces which further fragment the melt, resulting in rapid heat transfer, and thus sustaining the
wave. Much of the physical destruction in the Chernobyl disaster, a graphite-moderated, light-
water-cooled RBMK-1000 reactor, is thought to have been due to such a steam explosion.
In a nuclear meltdown, the most severe outcome of a steam explosion is early containment failure.
Two possibilities are the ejection at high pressure of molten fuel into the containment, causing
rapid heating; or an in-vessel steam explosion causing ejection of a missile (such as the upper
head) into, and through, the containment. Less dramatic but still significant is that the molten mass
of fuel and reactor core melts through the floor of the reactor building and reaches ground water; a
steam explosion might occur, but the debris would probably be contained, and would in fact, being
dispersed, probably be more easily cooled. See WASH-1400 for details.
Steam explosions are often encountered where hot lava meets sea water. Such an occurrence is
also called a littoral explosion. A dangerous steam explosion can also be created when liquid water
encounters hot, molten metal. As the water explodes into steam, it splashes the burning hot liquid
metal along with it, causing an extreme risk of severe burns to anyone located nearby and creating
a fire hazard.
LIQUEFIED PETROLEUM GAS (LPG)
LPG is a mixture of commercial butane and commercial propane having both saturated
and unsaturated hydrocarbons. LPG marketed in India shall be governed by Indian
Standard Code IS-4576 (Refer Table 1.0) and the test methods by IS-1448.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS
DENSITY
LPG at atmospheric pressure and temperature is a gas which is 1.5 to 2.0 times heavierthan air. It
is readily liquefied under moderate pressures. The density of the liquid isapproximately half that of
water and ranges from 0.525 to 0.580 @ 15 deg. Cosine LPG vapour is heavier than air, it would
normally settle down at ground level/ lowlying places, and accumulate in depressions.
VAPOUR PRESSURE
The pressure inside a LPG storage vessel/ cylinder will be equal to the vapour
pressurecorresponding to the temperature of LPG in the storage vessel. The vapour pressure
isdependent on temperature as well as on the ratio of mixture of hydrocarbons. At liquidfull
condition any further expansion of the liquid, the cylinder pressure will rise byapprox. 14 to 15
kg./sq.cm. for each degree centigrade. This clearly explains thehazardous situation that could arise
due to verfilling of cylinders.
FLAMMABILITY
LPG has an explosive range of 1.8% to 9.5% volume of gas in air. This is considerablynarrower
than other common gaseous fuels. This gives an indication of hazard of LPGvapour accumulated
in low lying area in the eventuality of the leakage or spillage.The auto-ignition temperature of LPG
is around 410-580 deg. C and hence it will notignite on its own at normal temperature.Entrapped
air in the vapour is hazardous in an unpurged vessel/ cylinder during pumping/filling-in operation.
In view of this it is not advisable to use air pressure to unload LPGcargoes or tankers.
COMBUSTION
The combustion reaction of LPG increases the volume of products in addition to thegeneration of
heat. LPG requires up to 50 times its own volume of air for completecombustion . Thus it is
essential that adequate ventilation is provided when LPG is burntin enclosed spaces otherwise
asphyxiation due to depletion of oxygen apart from theformation of carbon-dioxide can occur.
ODOUR

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LPG has only a very faint smell, and consequently, it is necessary to add some odorant,so that any
escaping gas can easily be detected.Ethyl Herceptin is normally used as stanching agent for this
purpose. The amount to beadded should be sufficient to allow detection in atmosphere 1/5 of lower
limit offflammability or odor level 2 as per IS : 4576.
COLOUR
LPG is colorless both in liquid and vapor phase. During leakage the vaporization ofliquid cools the
atmosphere and condenses the water vapour contained in them to form awhitish fog which may
make it possible to see an escape of LPG.
TOXICITY
LPG even though slightly toxic, is not poisonous in vapor phase, but can, however,suffocate when
in large concentrations due to the fact that it displaces oxygen. In view ofthis the vapor possesses
mild anaesthetic properties.
SAFETY:
LPG is just as safe as any other fuel. In fact, it is safer than most fuels because neither LPG itself
nor the end products that are produced by burning LPG in a suitable appliance are poisonous to
inhale. Since LPG cannot burn without air, there can never be a ‘flashback’ into the cylinder.You
can feel safe with LPG as the most thorough precautions are taken to ensure your safety. All you
have to do is to handle it correctly while adhering to the simple instructions provided.
Location of LPG storage area
 Cylinders should be stored in a well-ventilated position in the open air on flat, suitable
hardstanding.
 Unless fire separation walls are provided, the cylinders should be kept at least 1 meter
awayfrom any boundary, building or source of ignition.
 LPG should not be kept, stored or displayed below ground level, such as in a cellar, pit
orbasement where escaping gas is likely to accumulate.
 There should be no opening into buildings, cellars or pits within 2 meters of the LPG
storagearea.
 If a drain or gully is unavoidably within 2 metres of the storage area the opening should
besecurely covered or fitted with a suitable water seal to prevent the entry of vapour.
 Electrical fittings within 1.5 metres vertically and 1 metre horizontally of any cylinder
containingLPG are required to be suitable for use in a Zone 2 area (BS EN 60079 -10-1:2015
Explosiveatmospheres. Classification of areas. Explosive gas atmospheres).
 A suitable notice should be displayed prominently to indicate: the presence of LPG;
thecontents are highly flammable; smoking and other sources of ignition are prohibited;
whatto do in the case of fire or leakage of LPG.
 The extent of the storage area, unless a fence or cage is provided, should be clearly marked.
 The storage of LPG should not obstruct means of access, egress, passageways oremergency
exits.
Security of LPG storage area
 For retail and temporary storage such as petrol station forecourts, cylinders may be kept
ina small lockable wire cage. A small mesh size should be selected to prevent any
unauthorized tampering with the cylinder valves from outside the cage.
 If a secure storage compound is used instead of a lockable cage, the compound must
besurrounded by a substantial fence constructed from industrial type mesh, for example
12 gauge 52mm x 52mm welded panels or 12 gauge link fencing, and at least 1.8 metre
high.

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  A single entrance to the compound is permitted provided that the escape travel distance
from any part of the storage area is less than 12 meters, measured around the containers.
 The gate should not be self-locking, must open outwards and be easily and
immediatelyoperable from the inside.
 The doors or gates to any storage facility must be kept locked when unattended.
Emergency measures
 There should be adequate firefighting equipment on the premises. Specific guidance on this
matter may be obtained from the States of Jersey Fire & Rescue Service. However,
forquantities of LPG less than 400 kg, it is advised that at least one 9 litre water
extinguisherand one 2 kg dry powder extinguisher be provided and kept ready for use.
 People on premises where LPG is stored should receive adequate instruction and trainingon
the actions to be taken in the event of fire or a leakage of LPG. These instructions shouldbe
repeated on a regular basis.
 Notices setting out the emergency procedures should be prominently displayed near theLPG
storage area.
 In the event of a leakage of gas being detected from an LPG cylinder, the Fire &
RescueService should be called immediately.
 PROVIDED IT IS SAFE TO DO SO, nearby sources of ignition should be extinguished,
thecylinder valve closed and any plug or cap securely replaced. If the leak cannot be stopped,
AND IT IS SAFE TO DO SO, the container should be removed to a well-ventilated
openspace which is well away from drains, buildings, sources of ignition and other LPG
cylinders.
General access to the leaking cylinder should be prevented, by barriers if necessary.
Notices advising of the presence of a leaking cylinder and prohibiting smoking and other naked
lights should be displayed. The supplier of the cylinder should then be informedimmediately. No
attempt should

 Corrosion, Erosion, Causes, Inspection and Prevention:

Reasons of Pressure Vessel Failure are many. Wrong selection of material of construction,
mechanical failure due to overpressure, overheating, external loading (e.g. platform, stairs,
ladders, supports, brackets etc.), excessive stress (uneven or over tightening), brittle fracture,
creep (due to fire or maloperation), mechanical fatigue and shock (due to pressure or flow
variations, vibrations, expansion effects), thermal fatigue and shock (due to temperature
difference and rate of change of temperature), hydrogen attack (blistering or embrittlement) and
corrosion failure are some of the reasons.
Corrosion is an electrochemical reaction between a metal and its environment. It results
in a loss of metal or weakening of it Corrosion reaches deeply, creates maintenance problems
and incurs cost of loss in lacs of rupees over the years.
Corrosion failure has also many reasons to occur. General, local and external corrosion,
galvanic, crevice, knife-line, intergranular and stress-related corrosion, scaling, exfoliation,
corrosion pitting and erosion are some common types of corrosion in process plants including
pressure vessels.

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 Corrosion due to oxidation at high temperature is called scaling, e.g. steam boilers.
Exfoliation is a type of scaling caused by oxidation in steam atmosphere e.g. feed water heaters.
General corrosion takes place due to a corrosive chemical or impurity over the exposed surface.
Inter granular corrosion occurs in stainless steels heated upto 500-800 °C and then
exposed to corrosive conditions.
Galvanic corrosion happens due to current flowing between tow dissimilar metals which
form a galvanic cell. It occurs when two such metals are joined together at a weld. A typical pair
is iron and copper.Corrosion pitting results from electrochemical potential set up by differences
of oxygen concentration inside and outside the pit. The oxygen-lean part acts as anode and the
metal surface as cathode.
Knife-line corrosion takes place between parent and weld metals, e.g. austenitic stainless
steels.Crevice or contact corrosion occurs at the point of contact of a metal and non-metallic
material, e.g. threaded joints.Erosion is a type of corrosion and is caused by flow restriction or
change of direction, e.g. elbows, tees, baffles, nozzles and valves and point opposite to inlet
nozzle. It is increased if the flow contains solid particles or by bubbles in liquids and by two
phase flow. Wet steam flow, air jet flashing flow and pump cavitation can cause severe
erosion.External corrosion occurs by material of insulation. Leaching of chloride salts from
insulation can corrode pipe work.
Underground piping can be corroded by soil due to electrochemical action and cathodic
protection is used to control it.
Stress corrosion cracking is the result of corrosion and static tensile stresses. Corrosion
fatigue is caused by corrosion and by alternating fatigue stresses. Chlorides are a common cause
of stress corrosion cracking. Stress may be internal or external. Stress corrosion cracking caused
by an alkaline solution is known as caustic embrittlement, which has been a frequent cause of
failure in boilers. Therefore treatment to boiler feed water (removal of caustic and chloride
content) is necessary. Control measures are elimination of corrodants, reduction of residual
stresses and vibrations etc.
In plants handling nitric acid and nitrates, "nitrate stress corrosion cracking" of mild steel
is possible. This was the reason of crack in the reactor at Flixborough resulting in removal of the
reactor and temporary installation of the 20" pipe which gave way and the disaster took place.
At high stresses and temperatures, traces of other metals like zinc can cause rapid and
severe zinc embrittlement of some types of steels. Wetting of the steel by molten zinc is a
favourable condition to zinc embrittlement. This may cause local fire and catastrophic failure. To
avoid this, zinc-coated items should not be placed in direct contact with stainless steel or in
positions where they can drip molten zinc on it. For example galvanized wire netting used in
insulation should not be in direct contact with stainless steel pipe. During welding and
fabrication, zinc contamination of stainless steel should be prevented. Special metallurgical
examination will reveal zinc embrittlement.
Corrosion Prevention is of high importance as it prevents accidents and reduces cost of
corroded materials. Substitution of non-corrosive or less corrosive material (e.g. SS instead of
MS) tolerated by the process technology and economy and selection of such material from the
design and erection stage avoids most of the corrosion problems. Then selection of powder
coated metal parts (sheets, structural members, machine parts, guards, covers etc.) instead of
painted, give long life. Mild steel parts of tanks structures piping, machines and vessels must be
regularly painted by anti-corrosive paints. Protection from rain and plant water, dripping and
leaking of corrosive chemicals, oxidation and contact of zinc and copper is necessary. Rapid

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cleaning of spillage, good housekeeping, cathodic protection, control of flow, fluctuations and
vibrations, water softening and removal of salts, checking of scale formation on plates and tubes,
thickness measurement and defect monitoring by NDT methods stated in foregoing Part 9.5.2
and latest instruments and equipment, scanning by computer methods, descaling, dechoking,
scrapping, timely repairing and preventive maintenance are also useful to avoid corrosion and
erosion.
Other methods to stop corrosion and erosion are as under:
1. Two compatible metal prevent or slow down the rate of corrosion.
2. A strategically placed gasket i.e.to provide insulating material between the two metals.
3. Cathodic protection and conversion coating.
4. Crevice corrosion can be avoided by choosing materials having corrosion resistance.
Stainless steels are prone to crevice corrosion and not recommended for such use.
5. Dezincificaiton (removal of zinc from brass) can be prevented by using alloys of brass
containing Sn, As, P or Sb.
6. Use of non-metallic material like plastic.
7. Applying monomolecular film (inhibitor) of grease, paint, synthetic organic coating or a
plastic sheet (liner) over the surface.
8. Use of oxygen scavengers (e.g. Sodium sulphite and hydrazine) to add into boiler water to
remove oxygen.
9. Inhibitors like phosphonates are used in cooling water for corrosion control.
10. Use of acid pickling as corrosion inhibitors.
11. Use of heavy oils or greases, waxes dissolved in solvents or sulphonate salts dissolved in
petroleum as a barrier between die environment and the metal surface.
However it should be verified that chemicals being selected as inhibitors should not be
carcinogenic.as they can cause cancer. For example p-t-butyl benzoic acid, sodium nitrite,
nitrosamines, thiourea etc. are carcinogenic and should not be used.
12. Non-metallic materials like plastic, rubber and synthetic elastomers can also be attached
by corrosion or cracking due to solvent, environmental stress or thermal effect. Corrosion
process in plastic takes place because of swelling, softening or loss of physical properties.
Polyurethane, polyethylene, polystyrene, ABS, acetal homopolymers and polyethersulfone are
the plastics having good resistance against corrosion.-Rubber lining (e.g. chloroprene, nitrile and
butyl rubber) on steel tank prohibits attack of strong acids.

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