Anatomy Learning

Objectives

Check the very first lecture slides on terminology needed to know.

Embryology

• Describe the critical events that take place during embryo

development to form a functional human body
• Understand the cellular basis of the mechanisms of these events
• Use this knowledge to predict what would happen if things do not
go to plan

 Review questions
• Why is it important to study embryology?
• Why are the early cell divisions called ‘cleavages’?
• What are the two cell types of the blastocyst?
• What is gastrulation?
• What is the function of the notochord?
• From which germ layer does the neural tube form?
• Where do neural crest cells come from?
• What organs are formed by the ectoderm?

- What drives embryonic folding?

- Name the three parts the mesoderm can be divided into.
- What gives rise to the urogenital system?
- What structures does the paraxial mesoderm form?
- What are somites?
- What are dermatomes?
- What gives rise to the male and female reproductive tracts?
- What organs/structures develop from the lateral mesoderm?
- What germ layer forms the lungs?
- What are the derivatives of foregut?
- Describe briefly how the stomach develops.
- How does the development of lungs start?
- What are the common elements in each of the pharyngeal arches?

 Further reading
- Wolpert, Tickle, Lawrence, Meyerowitz, Robertson, Smith and Jessell
(2011)
“Principles of Development” (Oxford University Press)
- Gilbert (2010) “Developmental Biology” (Sinauer Assoc., Sunderland,
MA)
- “Larson’s Human Embryology” (Elsevier)
- Fitzgerald & Fitzgerald “Human embryology” (Bailliere Tindall)
- “Langman’s Medical Embryology” (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins)
- Carlson “Human Embryology and Developmental Biology (Saunders)

Nervous System

Objectives
• Anatomical orientation: the location of the nervous system
• Organisation the central nervous system
• Organisation of the peripheral
nervous system
• Efferents, afferents and nerves
• Somatic versus Autonomic
divisions
• Segmental innervation

Skeletal System and Bones

Learning Outcomes
• Understand the gross anatomy of bone, bone composition, and
the specific gross anatomy of long bones
• Classify bones by their shapes into long bones, short bones, flat
bones, and irregular bones
• Summarise the functional properties of trabecular and
cancellous bone
• Understand the neurovascular supply of bones
• Describe the role of osteoblasts and osteoclasts
• Describe the processes of intramembranous and endochondral
ossification
• Understand the process of bone remodelling and describe the
factors that affect bone growth and remodelling over a lifetime
• Be familiar with the anatomical terminology of bone markings
and apply this terminology to specific bony landmarks

Articular System and Joints

Learning Outcomes
• Name the 3 types of cartilage found in the body and give an example of
where each type of cartilage can be found
• Describe the structure and function of fibrous and cartilaginous joints
• Describe the general features of a synovial joint
• Classify synovial joints by their shape and understand the degree of
movement produced at each type of synovial joint
• Give examples of each type of synovial joint
• Identify the accessory structures of a synovial joint and understand their
function in joint structure and mobility
• Describe the factors that affect joint mobility and stability

Muscular System and Muscles

Learning Outcomes
• Understand the functions and properties of muscle tissue and
distinguish between the three types of muscle tissue
• Describe the structure of skeletal muscle
• Name the common patterns of muscle fascicle arrangement and
give an example of each type of fascicle arrangement
• Understand muscle attachment points and describe the types of
connective tissue associated with skeletal muscle
• Understand the principles of muscle action and the types of
muscular contractions produced including the types of movement
associated with prime movers, synergists, antagonists and fixators
and provide examples of each
• Understand terminology for the naming of muscles
• Differentiate between superficial and deep fascial structures
• Describe the principles of the neurovascular supply of muscles

Vascular System and Vessels

Learning Outcomes
• Understand the layered structure of vessels and describe how these
layers differ between arteries, veins and lymphatic vessels
• Name the types of arteries and arterial branches and understand
their structural components
• Describe the functional role of anastomoses
• Describe the anatomical components of veins and venous tributaries
• Understand the principles of venous return including the thoracic
and musculovenous pump
• Understand the functional role of lymph vessels and lymph nodes
• Name the major sites of lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues
• Describe the principles of lymph flow and the neurovascular supply
of lymph vessels

Integumental System
Learning Outcomes
• Understand the layered composition of skin
• Explain the developmental origins of the epidermal and dermal
layers of skin
• Describe the major features of the epidermis, dermis including
their distinct layers and blood supply
• Understand the significance of dermal tension lines
• Describe the major features of subcutaneous tissue
• Describe the major features of accessory structures of the skin
including hair, nails and sebaceous and sweat glands
• List the types of sensory receptors found in the dermis
• Describe the process of somatic sensation and referred pain
• Understand the significance of dermatomes
• Describe clinical examples of damage to the skin

Vertebral Column and Back

• Understand and communicate the key functions and development of the

vertebral column
• Distinguish and differentiate the regions of the vertebral column
• Identify the major anatomical landmarks of a typical vertebra and
describe their basic functions
• Differentiate typical cervical, thoracic and lumbar vertebra via
distinctive features
• Identify and describe the different joints of the vertebral column
• Identify the major vertebral ligaments and the respective landmarks to
which they attach
• Identify, name and describe the key muscle groups of the back

Upper Limb 1 – Bones, Joints, and Movements

• Identify, name, classify and orientate all bones in the shoulder girdle,
arm and forearm
• Identify key bony landmarks of the all bones in the shoulder girdle, arm
and forearm
• Use key bony landmarks to orientate the bones in the shoulder girdle,
arm and forearm
• Identify, name, classify and orientate the major bone groups in the wrist
and hand
• Orientate the collective wrist-hand complex
• Identify, name, classify and describe the major articulations of upper
limb
• Deduce and describe the movements possible at the major articulations
of the upper limb
• Comprehend and appreciate basic upper limb clinical anatomy examples

Upper Limb 2 – Muscles, Vessels, and Nerves

Compartments
• Identify the major compartments and regions of the upper limb
Muscular
• Identify and name the major anterior and posterior axio-appendicular
muscles
• Identify, name and describe the basic functions of the scapulohumeral
muscles and muscles of the arm
• Identify the basic muscle groups of the forearm and hand
• Deduce basic actions of muscles in the forearm and hand given their
anatomical relationship to joints
Vascular
• Identify and name the major arteries and veins in the upper limb
• Describe key landmarks/features relevant to the basic pathway of major
vessels in the upper limb
Neural
• Describe the basic organization of the brachial plexus
• Identify the five terminal branches of the brachial plexus
• Describe the distinctive features relating to the motor supply and course
of the five terminal branches

Lower Limb 1 – Bones, Joints, and Movements

• Identify, name, classify and orientate all bones in the pelvic girdle, thigh
and leg
• Identify key bony landmarks of all the bones in the pelvic girdle, thigh
and leg
• Use key bony landmarks to orientate the bones in the pelvic girdle, thigh
and leg
• Identify, name, classify and orientate the major bone groups in the foot
• Orientate the foot and ankle complex and describe basic functions
• Identify, name, classify and describe the major articulations of lower
limb
• Deduce and describe the movements possible at the major articulations
of the lower limb
• Comprehend and appreciate basic lower limb clinical anatomy examples

Lower Limb 2 – Muscles, Vessels, and Nerves

Compartments
• Identify the major compartments and regions of the lower limb
Muscular
• Identify, name and describe the basic functions of the pelvic girdle
muscles and the anterior and posterior
compartments of the thigh muscles
• Identify the basic muscle groups of the medial compartment of the
thigh, the leg and foot
• Deduce basic actions of muscles in the lower limb given their anatomical
relationship to joints
Vascular
• Identify and name the major arteries and veins in the lower limb
• Describe key landmarks/features relevant to the basic pathway of major
vessels in the lower limb
Neural
• Describe the basic organization of the lumbar and lumbosacral plexus
• Identify the major peripheral nerves branches that supply the lower limb
musculature
• Describe the distinctive features relating to the motor supply of the
major peripheral branches

Viscera and Visceral Systems

Learning Outcomes
• Understand the structure and main features of
hollow and solid viscera
• Describe the organization, nerve supply and
vasculature of serous membranes that line the body
cavities
• Understand the differences between paired and
unpaired viscera, and how these relate to the pattern
of pain referred from each to the body walls
• Communicate examples of clinical and/or applied
anatomy relevant to each of the above learning
objectives

Upper Respiratory Tract – 1

Learning Outcomes
• Understand the organization of the upper respiratory tract into
nasal and oral cavities, the larynx and the pharynx
• Describe the main features of the nasal cavity, and how they each
contribute to respiratory function
• Explain the key features and clinical problems related to the
paranasal sinuses
• Describe the main features of the oral cavity, including the tongue
and teeth
• Describe the organization and main features of the larynx, and
explain the function of the vocal ligament in breathing and
phonation
• Describe the organization and main features of the pharynx,
including structures found in the nasopharynx, oropharynx and
laryngopharynx

Thoracic Walls and Diaphragm

Learning outcomes
• Name and describe the features of the bones contributing to the
thoracic cage
• Describe the joints of the thorax including associated features e.g.
ligaments
• Describe the structure and function of the intercostal muscles
• Describe the features, attachments, apertures and innervation of the
diaphragm
• Describe the characteristic movements of the thoracic wall during
respiration
• Describe the neurovascular supply of the thoracic wall

Lower Respiratory Tract – Airways, Pleaura, and Lungs

• Describe the structure and function of pleura
• Describe the anatomical features of the left and right lungs
• Understand the clinical significance of bronchopulmonary segments
• Describe the features of pulmonary circulation
• Understand the function of bronchial vessels
• Describe the structure and function of the lymphatic drainage of the
lungs
• Describe the innervation to the lungs and pleura

Cardiovascular – 1
• Identify the location and contents of the mediastinal subdivisions
• Name and describe the structure and function of pericardium
• Describe the orientation of the heart
• Identify the anatomical features of the heart and relate this to their
function
• Name and describe the features of the coronary circulation
• Describe the components of the cardiac conduction system and their
activation sequence

Abdomen – 1
• Understand and explain an overview of the abdomen including the
abdominal cavity, its walls and basic
abdominal functions (major abdominal contents will be covered in the
next lectures)
• Identify the layers of the anterolateral abdominal wall
• Identify and describe the bony framework from which the abdominal
musculature attach
• Identify and describe the basic attachments of the muscles of the
abdominal wall
• Explain the functions of the abdominal wall muscles via comprehending
their attachments
• Outline how the abdominal wall musculature contribute to the inguinal
canal
• Outline the basic contents of the male and female inguinal canal
• Describe why an inguinal hernia can occur

Gastrointestinal Tract / Abdomen 2,3

• Understand peritoneal development, its different components and
anatomical
relationships with gastrointestinal and abdominal viscera
• Identify the key anatomical landmarks of gastrointestinal and abdominal
viscera
• Describe the basic function, location and anatomical relationships of
gastrointestinal
and abdominal viscera
• Describe the basic blood supply of gastrointestinal and abdominal
viscera

Reproductive System – Female/Male

• Identify and describe the anatomy of pelvic viscera in males and
females.
• Identify and describe the function of different parts of the pelvic
diaphragm and
pelvic viscera in males and females.
• Understand the development and maturation of sperm and egg.
• Describe normal and pathological fertilisation and implantation.
• Outline the relation of the peritoneum with the pelvic organs in males
and
females.
• Describe the external genitalia in males and females and identify
similarities
and differences.

Urinary System
• Understand the overall basic functions of the urinary system
• Identify the kidneys and describe their location with reference to
adjacent structures
• Identify external and internal landmarks and describe their basic
function relating to filtration
• Describe the kidney blood supply and structures travelling through the
hilum of the kidney
• Identify and describe the function, origin, termination and common
constrictions of the ureters
• Identify the bladder and describe the internal surface, shape and
micturition
• Identify the urethra and contrast male and female features