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Indira Gandhi National Open University MPY – 001

School of Interdisciplinary and
Trans-disciplinary Studies
Indian Philosophy

Block 3

ORTHODOX SYSTEMS -1

UNIT 1
Nyaya-Vaiseshika

UNIT 2
Samkhya

UNIT 3
Yoga

UNIT 4
Mimamsa
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Expert Committee
Dr. Jose Kuruvachira
Prof. Gracious Thomas Salesian College &
Director, School of IGNOU Study Centre
Social Work Dimapur, Nagaland
IGNOU

Prof. Renu Bharadwaj

School of Humanities Dr. Sathya Sundar
IGNOU Sethy
Dept of Humanities
Prof. George IIT, Chennai.
Panthanmackel,
Senior Consultant, Dr. Joseph Martis
IGNOU St. Joseph’s College
Jeppu, Mangalore – 2
Dr. M. R. Nandan
Govt. College for Dr. Jaswinder Kaur
Women Dhillon
Mandya - Mysore 147, Kabir park
Opp. GND University
Dr. Kuruvila Amristar – 143 002
Pandikattu
Jnana-deepa Prof. Y.S. Gowramma
Vidyapeeth Principal,
Ramwadi, College of Fine Arts,
Pune Manasagangotri
Mysore – 570 001

Dr Babu Joseph
CBCI Centre
New Delhi

Prof. Tasadduq Husain

Aligarh Muslim
University
Aligarh

Dr. Bhuvaneswari
Lavanya Flats
Gangai Amman Koil
St.
Thiruvanmiyur
Chennai – 600 041

Dr. Alok Nag

Vishwa Jyoti Gurukul
Varanasi
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Block Preparation

Units 1 & 2 Dr. Chinnaiah

Sri Venkateswara University, Tirupati.
Unit 3 Dr. Shyamala
Payannur, Kannur, Kerala.

Unit 4 Dr. Chandrasekar

Vivekananda College, Chennai.

Content Editor
Dr. V. John Peter
IGNOU, New Delhi

Format Editor
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi.

Programme Coordinator
Prof. Gracious Thomas
IGNOU, New Delhi.
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BLOCK INTRODUCTION

Indian logic, epistemology, metaphysics, ethics and philosophy of language are developed and
discussed in Nyaya-Vaisesika, Samkhya-Yoga and Mimamsa systems. Nyaya develops logic and
epistemology with its theory of knowledge and of causation; Vaisesika develops metaphysics
and ontology with categories. Samkhya upholds dualistic realism of Purusa and Prakrti, with its
famous theory of evolution of the world. Yoga system substantiates Samkhya with its ethical
path towards cessation of the modification of mind. Mimamsa is famous for its interpretative
theories leading to philosophy of language.

Unit 1 tries to give central concepts of Nyaya and Vaisesika. Nyaya is a system of logical
realism and atomistic pluralism. Nyaya develops logic and epistemology; Vaisesika develops
metaphysics and ontology. First part of the unit explains Nyaya theory of knowledge, causation,
physical world, God and the proofs for the existence of God. In the second part of this unit
relating to the orthodox system of Vaisesika, we have discussed Vaisesika categories, atoms,
creation, destruction, bondage and liberation.

In the Unit 2 we have clear ideas about the central concepts of Samkhya. The Samkhya
metaphysics speaks of two principle categories of prakrti and purusa. Their combination is
manifested as the whole world. Samkhya believes in satkaryavada, and parinamavada the basic
theory of causation that explains transformation of what is in the cause into the effect. Samkhya
theory of liberation is just the absolute and complete cessation of all pain without a possibility of
return, as purusa realizes itself dissociated with the prakrti.
Unit 3 on Yoga system gives a description of Yoga as a philosophy associated with the school of
Samkhya as the practical method for achieving the understanding of the self. An attempt is made
to give the meaning of Yoga as defined as the cessation of the modification of chitta. It also
covers chitta and its vrittis. Again, Yoga also advocates control over the body, the senses and the
mind, through eight stages called as ashtanga yoga. A brief note on the theism in Yoga is also
dealt.
Unit 4 on Mimamsa school of Indian Philosophy known for its theory of interpretation highlights
the contribution of Mimamsa to Indian philosophy. Mimamsa interpretative tradition can be
considered to be the first in India to have embarked on interpreting the Vedas as gems of
hermeneutic analysis. The Unit describes the some of the basic features of both Kumarila Bhatta
and Prabhakara schools of Mimamsa in interpreting the Vedas, theory of validity of knowledge,
theory of error, theory of reality (realism) and theory of God.
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UNIT 1 NYAYA – VAISESIKA

Contents
1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Nyaya and Vaisesika
1.3 Nyaya theory of knowledge
1.4 Nyaya theory of causation
1.5 Nyaya theory of the Physical world
1.6 Nyaya concept of God
1.7 Vaisesika concept of padartha or Category
1.8 Vaisesika on Atoms and Creation
1.9 Bondage and Liberation
1.10 Let Us Sum Up
1.11 Key Words
1.12 Further Readings and References

1.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, the student should be able to:
• Understand the orthodox systems of the Nyaya and Vaisesika.
• Elucidate the Nyaya theory of knowledge.
• Discuss the Nyaya theory of causation.
• Recognize Nyaya conception of God and proofs for the existence of God.
• Be aware of the categories of Vaisesika.
• Appreciate the Vaisesika theory of Atomism.
• Comprehend the Vaisesika concept of Bondage and Liberation.

1.1 INTRODUCTION
The Nyaya is the work of the great philosopher and sage Gautama. It is a realistic philosophy
based mainly on logical grounds. It admits four separate sources of true knowledge. Perception
(pratyaksa), inference (anumana), comparison (upamana) and testimony (sabda) are the sources
of true knowledge. Perception is the direct knowledge of objects produced by their relation to our
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senses. Inference is the knowledge of objects not through perception but through the
apprehension of some mark. Comparison is the knowledge of the relation between a name and
things so named on the basis of a given description of their similarity to some familiar object.
Testimony is the knowledge about anything derived from the statements of authoritative persons.
The objects of knowledge, according to the Nyaya, are the self, the body, the senses and their
objects, cognition (buddhi), mind (manas), activity (pravritti), mental defects (dosa) rebirth
(pretyabhava), the feeling of pleasure and pain (phala), suffering (dukkha), and freedom from
suffering (apavarga). The Nyaya seeks to deliver the self from its bondage to the body, the
senses and their objects. It says that the self is distinct from the body and the mind. The body is
only a composite substance made of matter. The mind is a subtle, indivisible and eternal
substance. It serves the soul as an instrument for the perception of psychic qualities like pleasure,
pain, etc; it is, therefore, called an internal sense. The self (atman) is another substance which is
quite distinct from the mind and the body. Liberation (apavarga) means the absolute cessation of
all pain and suffering brought about by the right knowledge of reality (tattva jnana). Liberation
is only release from pain. The existence of God is proved by the Nyaya by several arguments.
God is the ultimate cause of the creation, maintenance and destruction of the world. Nyaya did
not create the world out of nothing, but out of eternal atoms, space, time, ether, minds and souls.
The Vaisesika system was founded by the philosopher and the sage Kanada. The Vaisesika is
allied to the Nyaya system and has the same end view, namely, the liberation of the individual
self. It brings all objects of knowledge, the whole world, under the seven categories of substance
(dravya), quality (guna), action (karma), generality (samanya), particularity (visesa), the relation
of inherence (samavaya), and non-existence (abhava). A substance is the substratum of qualities
and activities, but is different from both. A quality is that which exists in a substance and has
itself no quality or activity. An action is a movement. Particularity is the ground of the ultimate
differences of things. Inherence is the permanent or eternal relation by which a whole is in its
parts; a quality or an action is in a substance; the universal is in the particulars. Non-existence
stands for all negative facts. With regard to God and liberation of the individual soul the
Vaisesika theory is substantially the same as that of the Nyaya.
1.2 NYAYA AND VAISESIKA
Nyaya is a system of atomic pluralism and logical realism. It is allied to the Vaisesika system
which is regarded as ‘Samanatantra or similar philosophy. Vaisesika develops metaphysics and
ontology. Nyaya develops logic and epistemology. Both agree in viewing the earthly life as full
of suffering, as bondage of the soul; liberation is absolute cessation of suffering as the supreme
end of life. Both agree that bondage is due to ignorance of reality and that liberation is due to
right knowledge of reality. Vaisesika takes up the exposition of reality and Nyaya mostly accepts
the Vaisesika metaphysics. But there are some important points of difference between them
which may be noted. Firstly, while the Vaisesika recognizes seven categories and classifies all
real under them, the Nyaya recognizes sixteen categories and includes all the seven categories of
the Vaisesikas in one of them called prameya or the knowable, the second in the sixteen. The
first category is pramana or the valid means of knowledge. This clearly brings out the
predominantly logical and epistemological character of the Nyaya system. Secondly, while the
Vaisesika recognizes only two pramanas, perception and inference and reduces comparison and
verbal authority to inference, the Nyaya recognizes all the four as separate – perception,
inference, comparison and verbal authority.
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1.3 NYAYA THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

Knowledge or Cognition is defined as apprehension or consciousness. Nyaya believes that
knowledge reveals both the subject and the object; they are quite distinct from knowledge. All
knowledge is a revelation or manifestation of objects. Just as a lamp manifests physical things
placed before it, so knowledge reveals all objects which come before it. Knowledge may be valid
or invalid. Valid knowledge is defined as the right apprehension of an object. It is the
manifestation of an object as it is. Nyaya maintains the theory of correspondence (paratah
pramanya). Knowledge in order to be valid, must correspond to reality. Valid knowledge is
produced by the four valid means of knowledge-perception, inference, comparison and
testimony. Invalid knowledge includes memory (smrti), doubt (samshaya), error (viparyaya) and
hypothetical reasoning (tarka). Memory is not valid because it is not present cognition but a
represented one. The object remembered is not directly presented to the soul, but only indirectly
recalled. Doubt is uncertainty in cognition. Error is misapprehension as it does not correspond to
the real object. Hypothetical reasoning is no real knowledge.
Perception, inference, comparison or analogy and verbal testimony are the four kinds of valid
knowledge. Let us consider them one by one. Sage Gotama defines perception as non-erroneous
cognition which is produced by the intercourse of the sense-organs with the objects; it is not
associated with a name and which is well-defined. Inference is defines as that cognition which
presupposes some other cognition. Inference is mediate and indirect. Comparison defined as the
knowledge of the relation between a word and its denotation. It is produce by the knowledge of
resemblance or similarity. Verbal testimony is defined as the statement of a trustworthy person
and consists in understanding its meaning.
1.4 NYAYA THEORY OF CAUSATION
Let us now consider the Nyaya theory of Causation. A cause is defined as an unconditional and
invariable antecedent of an effect. The same cause produces the same effect and the same effect
is produced by the same cause. Plurality of cause is ruled out. The first essential characteristic of
a cause is its antecedence; the fact that it should precede the effect. The second is its
invariability; it must invariably precede the effect. The third is its unconditionality or necessity;
it must unconditionally precede the effect. Nyaya recognizes five kinds of accidental antecedents
which are not real causes. Firstly, the qualities of a cause are mere accidental antecedents. The
color of a potter’s staff is not the cause of a pot. Secondly, the cause of a cause or a remote cause
is not unconditional. The potter’s father is not the cause of a pot. Thirdly, the co-effects of a
cause are themselves not causally related. The sound produced by the potter’s staff is not the
cause of a pot, though it may invariably precede the pot. Night and day are not causally related.
Fourthly, eternal substances like space are not unconditional antecedents. Fifthly, unnecessary
things like the potter’s ass are not unconditional antecedents; though the potter’s ass may be
invariably present when the potter is making a pot, yet it is not the cause of the pot. A cause must
be an unconditional and necessary antecedent. Nyaya emphasizes the sequence view of causality.
Cause and effect are never simultaneous. Plurality of causes is also wrong because causal
relation is reciprocal. The same effect cannot be produced by another cause. Each effect has its
distinctive features and has only one specific cause. An effect is defined as the counter-entity of
its own prior non-existence. It is the negation of its own prior negation. It comes into being and
destroys its prior non-existence. It was non-existent before its production. It did not pre-exist in
its cause. It is a fresh beginning, a new creation.
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1.5 NYAYA THEORY OF THE PHYSICAL WORLD

Now we come to the topic of the objects of knowledge. The physical world is constituted by the
four physical substances of earth, water, fire and air. The ultimate constituents of these four
substances are the eternal and unchanging atoms of earth, water, fire and air. Akasa or ether, kala
or time, and dik or space is eternal and infinite substances, each being one single whole. Thus the
physical world is the product of the four kinds of atoms of earth, water, fire and air. It contains
all the composite products of these atoms, and their qualities and relations, including organic
bodies, the senses, and the sensible qualities of things. According to Gautama the objects of
knowledge are the self, the body, the senses and their objects, knowledge, mind, activity, the
mental imperfections, rebirth, the feelings of pleasure and pain, suffering, absolute freedom from
all suffering. All of these knowable are not to be found in the physical world, because it includes
only those objects that either physical or somehow belong to the world of physical nature. Thus
the self, its attribute of knowledge and manas are not at all physical. Time and space are two
substances which although different from the physical substances, yet somehow belong to the
physical world. Akasa is a physical substance which is not a productive cause of anything.

1.6 NYAYA CONCEPT OF GOD

God is the ultimate cause of creation, maintenance and destruction of the world. God is the
eternal infinite self who creates, maintains and destroys the world. He does not create the world
out of nothing, but out of eternal atoms, space, time, ether, minds and souls. The creation of the
world means the ordering of the eternal entities, which are co-existent with God, into a moral
world, in which individual selves enjoy and suffer according to the merit and demerit of their
actions, and all physical objects serve as means to the moral and spiritual ends of our life. God is
thus the creator of the world in the sense of being the first efficient cause of the world and not its
material cause. He is also the preserver of the world in so far as the world is kept in existence by
the will of God. So also He is the destroyer who lets loose the forces of destruction when the
exigencies of the moral world require it. Then, God is one, infinite and eternal, since the world of
space and time, minds and souls does not limit him, but is related to Him as a body to the self
which resides in it. He is omnipotent, although He is guided in His activities by moral
considerations of the merit and demerit of human actions. He is omniscient in so far as He
possesses right knowledge of all things and events. He has eternal consciousness as a power of
direct and steadfast cognition of all objects. Eternal consciousness is only an inseparable attribute
of God, not His very essence, as maintained in the Advaita Vedanta. He possesses to the full all
the six perfections and is majestic, almighty, all glorious, infinitely beautiful and possessed of
infinite knowledge and perfect freedom from attachment.
Just as God is the efficient cause of the world, so He is the directive cause of the actions of all
living beings. Nyaya gives the following arguments to prove the existence of God:
1. The world is an effect and hence it must have an efficient cause. This intelligent agent is
God. The order, design, co-ordination between different phenomena comes from God.
2. The atoms being essentially inactive cannot form the different combinations unless God
gives motion to them. The Unseen Power, the Adrsta, requires the intelligence of God.
Without God it cannot supply motion to the atoms.
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3. The world is sustained by God’s will. Unintelligent Adrsta cannot do this. And the world
is destroyed by God’s will.
4. A word has a meaning and signifies an object. The power of words to signify their
objects comes from God.
5. God is the author of the infallible Veda.
6. The Veda testifies to the existence of God.
7. The Vedic sentences deal with moral injunctions and prohibitions. The Vedic commands
are the Divine commands. God is the creator and promulgator of the moral laws.
8. According to Nyaya the magnitude of a dyad is not produced by the infinitesimal
magnitude of the two atoms each, but by the number of the two atoms. Number ‘one’ is
directly perceived, but other numbers are conceptual creations. Numerical conception is
related to the mind of the perceiver. At the time of creation, the souls are unconscious.
And the atoms and the unseen Power and space, time, mind are all unconscious. Hence
the numerical conception depends upon the Divine Consciousness. So God must exist.
9. We reap the fruits of our own actions. Merit and demerit accrue from our actions and the
stock of merit and demerit is called Adrsta, the unseen power. But this Unseen Power,
being unintelligent, needs the guidance of a supremely intelligent God.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) How many sources of knowledge are accepted by Nyaya? Explain.
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2) Explain asatkarya vada of Nyaya.
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3. State the arguments of Nyaya for proving the existence of God.
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1.7 VAISESIKA CONCEPT OF PADARTHA OR CATEGORY

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The Vaisesika system is regarded as conducive to the study of all systems. Its main purpose is to
deal with the categories and to unfold its atomistic pluralism. A category is called padartha and
the entire universe is reduced to six or seven padarthas. Padartha literally means the meaning
of a word or the object signified by a word. All objects of knowledge or all reals come under
padartha. Padartha means an object which can be thought and named.
Originally the Vaisesika believed in the six categories and the seventh, that of abhava or
negation was added later on. Though Kanada himself speaks of abhava, yet he does not give it
the status of a category to which it was raised only by the later Vaisesikas. The Vaisesika divides
all existent reals which are all objects of knowledge into two classes; bhava or being and abhava
or non-being. Six categories come under bhava and the seventh is abhava. All knowledge
necessarily points to an object of knowledge and is called a padartha. The seven padarthas are:
1 substance (dravya), 2 quality (guna), 3 Activity (karma), 4 generality (samanya), 5
particularity (visesa), 6 inherence (samavaya), and 7. non-being (abhava).
1. Dravya Or Substance
Dravya or substance is defined as the substratum where actions and qualities in here and which is
the coexistent material cause of the composite things produce from it. Substance signifies the
self-subsistence, the absolute and independent nature of things. The category of substance is the
substratum of qualities and actions. The dravyas are nine and include material as well as spiritual
substances. The Vaisesika philosophy is pluralistic and realistic but not materialistic since it
admits spiritual substances. The nine substances are: 1) earth (prthivi), 2) Water (Ap), 3) Fire
(tejas), 4) Air (vayu), 5) ether (akasa), 6) time (kala), 7) space (dik), 8) spirit (atman) and 9)
mind (manas). Earth, water, fire and air really signify not compound transient objects made out
of them, but the ultimate elements, the supersensible eternal part less unique atoms which are
individual and infinitesimal. Earth, water, fire, air and ether are the five gross elements. These
and manas are physical. Soul is spiritual. Time and space are objective and not subjective forms
of experience. Ether, space, time and soul are all-pervading and eternal. Atoms, minds and souls
are infinite in number. Ether, space and time are one each.
2. Guna or Quality
The second category is guna or quality. Unlike substance, it cannot exist independently by itself
and possesses no quality or action. It inheres in a substance and depends for its existence on the
substance and is not a constitutive cause of anything. It is called an independent reality because it
can be conceived, thought and named independent of a substance where it inheres. The qualities
are therefore called objective entities. They are not necessarily eternal. They include both
material and mental qualities. They are a static and permanent feature of a substance, whole
action of a dynamic and transient feature of a substance. A quality, therefore, is different from
both substance and action. Qualities include material and spiritual properties. Smell is the quality
of earth; taste of water; color of fire; touch of air; and sound of ether. Cognition, pleasure, pain,
desire, aversion, volition are the mental qualities which inhere in the self.
3. Karma or Action
The third category is karma or action. Like quality, it belongs to and inheres in a substance and
cannot exist separately from it. But while a quality is a static and permanent feature of a
substance, an action is a dynamic and transient feature of it. Unlike a quality, an action is the
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cause of conjunction and disjunction. Action is said to be of five kinds:1) upward movement, 2)
downward movement, 3) contraction, 4) expansion, and 5) locomotion.
4. Samanya or Generality
The fourth category is samanya or generality. Samanya is generality. Generality is class-concept,
class-essence or universal. It is the common character of the things which fall under the same
class. The universals reside in substances, qualities and actions. They are of two kinds, higher
and lower. The higher generality is that of ‘being’. It includes everything and itself is not
included in anything. Every other generality is lower because it covers a limited number of
things and cannot cover all things. A universal cannot subsist in another universal; otherwise an
individual may be a man, a cow, and a horse at the same time.
5. Visesa or Particularity
The fifth category is Visesa or particularity. It enables us to perceive things as different from one
another. Every individual is a particular, a single and a unique thing different from all others. It
has got a unique of its own which constitutes its particularity. It is opposed to generality.
Generality is inclusive; particularly is exclusive. Generality forms the basis of assimilation;
particularity forms the basis of discrimination. It is very important to remember that the
composite objects of this world which we generally call ‘particular’ objects are not real
particular.
6. Samavaya or Inherence
The sixth category is Samavaya or inseparable relation called ‘inherence.’ It is different
conjunction or samyoga which is separable and transient relation and is a quality. Samavaya is an
independent category. Kanada calls it the relation between cause and effect. Samvaya is one and
eternal relationship subsisting between two things inseparably connected.
7. Abhava
The seventh category is Abhava or non-existence. Kanada does not mention it as a separate
category. Absence of an object and knowledge of its absence are different. The first six
categories are positive. This is negative. The other categories are regarded as absolute, but this
category is relative in its conception. Non-existence is of four kinds: 1) antecedent non-
existence, 2) subsequent non-existence, 3) mutual non-existence and 4) absolute non-existence.

1.9 VAISESIKA ON ATOMS AND CREATION

According to Vaisesika diversity and not unity is at the root of the universe. Vaisesika says that
atom is the minutest particle of matter which may not be further divisible. The indivisible,
partless and eternal particle of matter is called an atom (paramanu). All physical things are
produced by the combination of atoms. Therefore creation means the combination of atoms in
different proportions and destruction means the dissolution of such combination. The material
cause of the universe is neither produced nor destroyed. It is the eternal atoms.

The atoms are said to be of four kinds; of earth, water, fire and air. Ether or akasha is not atomic.
It is one and all-pervading and affords the medium for the combinations of the atoms. The atoms
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differ from one another both in quantity and in quality. Each has a particularity of its own and
exists as a separate reality. During dissolution, they remain inactive. Motion is imparted to them
by the unseen power (adrsta) of merit (dharma) and demerit (adharma) which resides in the
individual souls and wants to fructify in the form of enjoyment or suffering. Atoms are supra-
sensible. Atoms increase by multiplication and not by mere addition. When motion is imparted to
them by the unseen power, they begin to vibrate and immediately change into dyads. A dyad is
produced by the combination of two atoms. The atoms are its inherent cause; conjunction is its
non-inherent cause; and the Unseen power is its efficient cause. An atom is indivisible, spherical
and imperceptible. A dyad (dvyanuka) is minute (anu), short (hrasva) and imperceptible.

From the standpoint of ancient Indian philosophy the world including physical nature is a moral
stage for the education and emancipation of individual souls. The Vaisesika atomic theory of the
world is guided by spiritual outlook of ancient Indian philosophy.

The atomic theory of the Vaisesika explains that part of the world which is non-eternal subject to
origin and destruction in time. The eternal constituents of the universe, namely, the four kinds of
atoms, and the five substances of akasa, space, time, mind, and soul, do not come within the
purview of their atomic theory, because these can neither be created nor destroyed. On the other
hand, all composite objects, beginning with a dyad or the first compound of only two atoms
(dvyanuka) are non-eternal. So the atomic theory explains the order of creation and destruction
of these non-eternal objects. All composite objects are constituted by the combination of atoms
and destroyed through their separation. The first combination of two atoms is called a dvyanuka
or dyad, and a combination of three dyads (dvyanukas) is called a tryanuka or triad. The
Tryanuka is also called the trasarenu and it is the minimum perceptible object according to the
Vaisesika. The paramanu or atom and the dvyanuka or dyad, being smaller than the tryanuka or
triad, cannot be perceived, but are known through inference.

All the finite objects of the physical world and the physical world itself are composed of the four
kinds of atoms in the form of dyads, triads and other larger compounds arise out of these. The
world or the universe is a system of physical things and living beings having bodies with senses
and possessing mind, intellect and egoism. All these exist and interact with one another, in time,
space and akasa. Living beings are souls who enjoy or suffer in this world according to their
character; wise or ignorant, good or bad, virtuous or vicious. The order of the world is, on the
whole, a moral order in which the life and destiny of all individual selves are governed, not only
by the physical laws of time and space, but also by the universal moral law of karma. In the
simplest form this law means ’as you sow, so you reap,’ just as the physical law of causation, in
its most abstract form, means that there can be no effect without a cause.

Vaisesika admits the reality of the spiritual substances, souls and God, and also admits the law of
karma. The atoms are the material cause of the world of which God, assisted by the Unseen
power, is the efficient cause. The physical world presupposes the moral order. Evolution is due
to the Unseen Power consisting of merits and demerits of the individual souls which want to bear
fruits as enjoyments or sufferings to be experienced by the souls. Keeping in view this moral
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order of the universe, the Vaisesika explains the process of creation and destruction of the world
as follows: The starting-point of the process of creation or destruction is the will of the supreme
Lord (Mahesvara) who is the ruler of the whole universe. The Lord conceives the will to create a
universe in which individual beings may get their proper share of the experience of pleasure and
pain according to their deserts. The world being beginningless (anadi), we cannot speak of a first
creation of the world. In truth, every creation is preceded by some order of creation. To create is
to destroy an existing order of things and usher in a new order. Hence it is that God’s creative
will has reference to the stock of merit and demerit act with souls, endowed with the creative
function of adrsta that first sets in motion the atoms acquired by individual souls in a previous
life lived in some other world. When God thus wills to create a world, the unseen forces of moral
deserts in the eternal individual souls begin to function in the direction of creation and the active
life of experiences. And it is the content of air. Out of the combination of air-atoms, in the form
of dyads and triads, arises the gross physical element of air, and it exists as an incessantly
vibrating medium in the eternal akasa. Then, in a similar way, there is motion in the atoms of
water and the creation of the gross element of water which exists in the air and is moved by it.
Next, the atoms of earth are set in motion in a similar way and compose the gross element of
earth which exists in the vast expanse of the gross elemental water. Then from the atoms of light
arises in a similar way, the gross element of light and exists with its luminosity in the gross
water. After this and by the mere thought of God, there appears the embryo of a world out of the
atoms of light and earth. God animates that great embryo with Brahma, the world-soul, who is
endowed with supreme wisdom, detachment and excellence. To Brahma God entrusts the work
of creation in its concrete details and with proper adjustment between merit and demerit on the
one hand, and happiness and misery on the other.
The created world runs its course for many years. But it cannot continue to exist and endure for
all time to come. Just as after the stress and strain of the day’s work God allows us rest at night,
so after the trials and tribulations of many lives in one created world. God provides a way of
escape from suffering for all living beings for some time. This is done by him through the
destruction of the world. So the period of creation is followed by a state of destruction. The
process of the world’s dissolution is as follows: When in the course of time Brahma, the world-
soul, gives up his body like other souls, there appears in Mahesvara or the supreme Lord a desire
to destroy the world. With this, the creative adrsta or unseen moral agency in living beings is
counteracted by the corresponding destructive adrsta and ceases to function for the active life of
experience. It is in contact with such souls, in which the destructive adrsta begins to operate, that
there is motion in the constituent atoms of their body and senses. On account of this motion there
is disjunction of the atoms and consequent disintegration of the body and the senses. The body
with the senses being thus destroyed, what remain are only the atoms in their isolation. So also,
there is motion in the constituent atoms of the elemental earth, and its consequent destruction
through the cessation of their conjunction. In this way there is the destruction of the physical
elements of earth, water, light and air, one after the other. Thus these four physical elements and
all bodies and sense organs are disintegrated and destroyed. What remain are the four kinds of
atoms of earth, water, light and air in their isolation, and the eternal substances of akasa, time,
apace, minds and souls with their stock of merit, demerit and past impressions. It will be
observed here that while in the order of destruction, earth compounds come first, then those of
water, light and air in succession, in the order of creation, air compounds come first, water
compounds next, and then those of the great earth and light appear in succession.
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Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What are the seven categories?
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1.10 VAISESIKA CONCEPT OF BONDAGE AND LIBERATION

The Vaisesika regards bondage as due to ignorance and liberation as due to knowledge. The soul,
due to ignorance, performs actions. Actions lead to merits or demerits. They are due to
attachment or aversion and aim at obtaining pleasure or avoiding pain. The merits and demerits
of the individual souls make up the unseen moral power, the adrsta. According to the law of
Karma, one has to reap the fruits of actions one has performed whether they are good or bad
according to the karmas one performed. This adrsta, guided by God, imparts motion to the atoms
and leads to creation for the sake of enjoyment or suffering of the individual souls. Liberation is
cessation of all life, all consciousness, all bliss, together with all pain and all qualities. It is
qualityless, indeterminate, pure nature of the individual soul as pure substance devoid of all
qualities.

1.11 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have tried to give central concepts of Nyaya and Vaisesesika. Nyaya is a system
of logical realism and atomistic pluralism. Nyaya develops logic and epistemology; Vaisesika
develops metaphysics and ontology. In this unit we have explained Nyaya theory of knowledge,
causation, physical world, God and the proofs for the existence of God. In this unit relating to the
orthodox system of Vaisesika, we have discussed Vaisesika categories, atoms, creation,
destruction, bondage and liberation. We conclude this unit with the Vaisesika conception that
liberation is the real state of the soul free from all qualities and it reduces the soul to a mere
nothing.

1.12 KEY WORDS

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Perception: Perception is a definite cognition which is produced by sense-object contact and is

true and unerring.
Inference: Inference is the cognition which presupposes some other cognition.
Comparison: Comparison is called upamana. Comparison is knowledge derived from
comparison and roughly corresponds to analogy.
Verbal Testimony: Verbal testimony is defined as the statement of trustworthy person and
consists in understanding its meaning.
Cause: Cause is defined as an unconditional and invariable antecedent of an effect and an
effect as an unconditional and invariable consequent of a cause.
Padartha: Padartha means an object which can be thought and named.
Dravya: Dravya is the substance. Substance signifies the self-subsistence, the absolute
and independent nature of things. Substance is the basis of qualities and actions, actual or
potential, present or future.

1.13 REFERENCE AND SOURCE BOOKS

Chatterjee, Satischandra & Dhirendramohan Datta. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy.

Calcutta: University of Calcutta, 1968.
Hiriyanna, M. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1951.
Hiriyanna, M. Essentials of Indian Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1952.
Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: George Allen & unwin publication, 1983.
Sharma, Chandradhar. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass
Publication, 1987.
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UNIT 2 SAMKHYA
Contents
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Theory of causation
2.3 Theory of knowledge
2.4 Prakrti
2.5 Purusa
2.6 Theory of Evolution
2.7 Bondage and Liberation
2.8 Let us Sum Up
2.9 Key Words
2.10 Further Readings and References

2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit, you should be able to:
• Understand the orthodox system of Samkhya
• Interpret the Samkhya theory of causation
• Explain the Samkhya concept of Prakrti
• Discuss the Samkhya concept of Purusa
• Know the Samkhya theory of knowledge
• Elucidate the Samkhya concept of bondage and liberation
• Comprehend the Conception of bondage and liberation

2.1 INTRODUCTION
The sage Kapila is the founder of the Samkhya system. The Samkhya must be a very old system
of thought. Its antiquity appears from the fact that the Samkhya tendency of thought pervades all
the literature of ancient India including the srutis, smrtis and puranas. According to tradition, the
first work of the Samkhya School is the Samkhya-sutra. Next to Kapila, his disciple Asuri, and
Asuri’s disciple Pancasikha wrote some books which aimed at a clear and elaborate exposition of
the Samkhya system. The Samkhya is a philosophy of dualistic realism. Samkhya admits two
ultimate realities namely, Purusa and Prakrti which are independent of each other in respect of
their existence. Purusa is an intelligent principle, of which consciousness (caitanya) is not an
attribute, but the very essence. It is the self which is quite distinct from the body, the senses and
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the mind (manas).It is beyond the whole world of objects, and is the eternal consciousness which
witnesses the changes and activities going on in the world, but does not itself act and change in
any way. Physical things like chairs, beds, etc, exist for the enjoyment of beings other than
themselves. Therefore, there must be the Purusa or the self which is distinct from Prakrti or
primary matter, but is the enjoyer of the products of Prakrti. There are many different selves
related to different bodies, for when some men are happy, others are unhappy, some die but
others live.
Prakrti is the ultimate cause of the world. It is an eternal unconscious principle which is always
changing and has no other end than the satisfaction of the selves. Sattva, rajas and tamas are
three constituents of Prakrti which holds them together in a state of rest or equilibrium. The
three are called gunas. But they are not qualities or attributes in any sense. Rather, they are three
substantial elements which constitute Prakrti like three cords making up a rope. The existence of
the gunas is referred from the qualities of pleasure, pain and indifference which we find in all
things of the world. The same sweet is liked or disliked or treated with indifference by the same
man in different conditions. The same salad is tasteful to one, distasteful to another and insipid to
a third. Now the cause and the effect are essentially identical. The effect is the manifested
condition of the cause, e.g. oil as an effect manifests what is already contained in the seeds. The
things of the world are effects which have the qualities of pleasure, pain and indifference.
Therefore, Prakrti which is their ultimate cause must have the three elements of Sattva, rajas and
tamas which respectively possess the natures of pleasure, pain and indifference, and cause
manifestation, activity and passivity.
The evolution of the world has its starting point in the association of the Purusa with Prakrti
which disturbs the original equilibrium of the latter and moves it to action. The Purusa or the self
is neither the cause nor the effect of anything. Prakrti is the uncaused cause of all objects. Once
we realize the distinction between the self and the non-self including the body and the senses, the
mind, the intellect and the ego, our self ceases to be affected by the joys and sorrows, the ups and
downs of life. It rests in itself as the dispassionate observer of the show of events in the world
without being implicated in them.

2.2 THEORY OF CAUSATION

The Samkhya metaphysics, especially its doctrine of Prakrti, rests mainly on its theory of
causation which is known as satkarya-vada. It is a theory as to the relation of an effect to its
material cause. The specific question discussed here is this: Does an effect originally exist in the
material cause prior to its production, i.e. appearance as an effect? The Buddhists and the Nyaya-
Vaisesikas answer this question in the negative. According to them, the effect cannot be said to
exist before it is produced by some cause. If the effect already existed in the material cause prior
to its production, there is no sense in our speaking of it as being caused or produced in any way.
Further, we cannot explain why the activity of any efficient cause is necessary for the production
of the effect. If the pot already existed in the clay, why should the potter exert himself and use
his implements to produce it? Moreover, if the effect were already in its material cause, it would
logically follow that the effect is indistinguishable from the cause, and that we should use the
same name for both the pot and the clay, and also that the same purpose would be served by a
pot and a lump of clay. It cannot be said that there is a distinction of form between the effect and
its material cause, for then we have to admit that there is something in the effect which is not to
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be found in its cause and, therefore the effect does not really exist in the cause. This theory that
the effect does not exist in the material cause prior to its production is known as asatkarya-vada
(i.e. the view that the karya or the effect is asat or non-existent before its production. It is also
called arambhavada, i.e. the theory of the beginning of the effect anew.
The Samkhyas repudiate this theory of causation and establish their view of satkarya-vada,
namely, that the effect exists in the material cause even before it is produced. This view is based
on the following grounds:
(1) if the affect were really non-existent in the material cause, then no amount of effort on the
part of any agent could bring it into existence. Can any man turn blue into red, or sugar into salt?
Hence, when an effect is produced from some material cause, we are to say that it pre-exists in
the cause and is only manifested by certain favorable conditions, as when oil is produced by
pressing seeds. The activity of efficient causes like the potter and his tools is necessary to
manifest the effect, pot, which exists implicitly in the clay.
(2) There is an invariable relation between a material cause and its effect. A material cause can
produce only that effect with which it is causally related. It cannot produce an effect which is in
no way related to it. But it cannot be related to what does not exist. Hence the effect must exist in
the material cause before it is actually produced.
(3) We see that only certain effects can be produced from certain causes. Curd can be got only
out of milk and a cloth only out of threads. This shows that the effect somehow exists in the
cause. Had it not been so, any effect could be produced from any cause; the potter would not
have taken clay to produce pots, instead of taking milk or threads or any other thing.
(4) The fact that only a potent cause can produce a desired effect goes to show that the effect
must be potentially contained in the cause. The potent cause of an effect is that which possesses
some power that is definitely related to the effect. But the power cannot be related to the effect, if
the latter does not exist in some form. This means that effect exists in the cause in an
unmanifested form before its production or manifestation.
(5) If the effect be really non-existent in the cause, then we have to say that, when it is produced,
the non-existent comes into existence, i.e. something comes out of nothing, which is absurd.
(6) We see that the effect is not different from, but essentially identical with, the material cause.
If, therefore, the cause exists, the effect also must exist. In fact, the effect and the cause are the
explicit and implicit states of the same substance. A cloth is not really different from the threads,
of which it is made; a statue is the same as its material cause, stone, with new shape and form;
the weight of a table is the same as that of the pieces of wood used in it. The conclusion drawn
by the Samkhya from all this is that the effect exists in the material cause even before its
production or appearance. This is the theory of satkarya-vada (i.e. the view that the effect is
existent before its appearance).
The theory of satkarya-vada has got two different forms, namely, parinama-vada and vivarta-
vada. According to the former, when an effect is produced, there is a real transformation
(parinama) of the cause into the effect, e.g. the production of a pot from clay, or of curd from
milk. The Samkhya is in favour of this view as a further specification of the theory of
satkaryavada. The vivarta-vada which is accepted by the Advaita Vedantins, holds that the
change of the cause into the effect is merely apparent. When we see a snake in a rope, it is not
the case that the rope is only transformed into a snake; what happens is that the rope only appears
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as, but is not really a snake. So also, God or Brahman does not become really transformed into
the world produced by him, but remains identically the same, while we may wrongly think that
He undergoes change and becomes the world.

2.3 THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE

The Samkhya theory of knowledge follows in the main its dualistic metaphysics. It accepts only
three independent sources of valid knowledge (pramana). These are perception, inference and
scriptural testimony (sabda). The other source of knowledge, like comparison, postulation
(arthapatti) and non-cognition (anupalabdhi), are included under these, and not recognized as
separate sources of knowledge.
Valid knowledge (Prama) is a definite and an unerring cognition of some object through the
modification of buddhi or the intellect which reflects the consciousness of the self in it. What we
call the mind or the intellect is an unconscious material entity in the Samkhya hilosophy.
Consciousness or intelligence (caitanya) really belongs to the self. But the self cannot
immediately apprehend the objects of the world. If it could, we should always know all objects,
since the self in us is not finite and limited, but all pervading. The self knows objects through the
intellect, the manas, and the senses. We have a true knowledge of objects when, through the
activity of the senses and the manas, their forms are impressed on the intellect which, in its turn,
reflects the light or consciousness of the self.
In all valid knowledge there are three factors, namely, the subject (pramata), the object
(prameya), and the ground or source of knowledge (pramana). The subject being a conscious
principle is no other than the self as pure consciousness (suddha cetana). The modification (vrtti)
of the intellect, through which the self knows an object, is called pramana. The object presented
to the self through this modification is prameya. Prama or valid knowledge is the reflection of
the self in the intellect as modified into the form of the object, because without the self’s
consciousness the unconscious intellect cannot cognize anything.
Perception is the direct cognition of an object through its contact with some sense. When an
object like the table comes within the range of your vision, there is contact between the table and
your eyes. The table produces certain impressions or modifications in the sense organ, which are
analyzed and synthesized by manas or the mind. Through the activity of the senses and the mind,
buddhi or the intellect becomes modified and transformed into the shape of the table. The
intellect, however, being an unconscious material principle, cannot by itself know the object,
although the form of the object is present in it. But as the intellect has an excess of Sattva, it
reflects, like transparent mirror, the consciousness of the self (Purusa).With the reflection of the
self’s consciousness in it, the unconscious modification of the intellect into the form of the table
becomes illumined into a conscious state of perception. Just as mirror reflects the light of a lamp
and thereby manifests other things, so the material principle of buddhi, being transparent and
bright (sattvika), reflects the consciousness of the self and illuminates or cognizes the objects of
knowledge.
There are two kinds of perception, namely, nirvikalpaka or the indeterminate and savikalpaka or
the determinate. The first arises at the first moment of contact between a sense and its object, and
is antecedent to all mental analysis and synthesis of the sense-data.. It is accordingly called
alocana or a mere sensing of the object. The second kind of perception is the result of the
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analysis, synthesis and interpretation of sense-data by manas or the mind. So it is called vivecana
or a judgement of the object it is the determinate cognition of an object as a particular kind of
thing having certain qualities and standing in certain relations to other things.
Inference is the knowledge of one term of a relation, which is not perceived, through the other
which is perceived and known to be invariably related to the first. In it what is perceived leads us
on to the knowledge of what is unperceived through the knowledge of a universal relation
between two. Inference is first divided into two kinds, namely, vita and avita. It is called vita or
affirmative when it is based on a universal affirmative proposition, and avita or negative when
based on a universal negative proposition. The third pramana is sabda or testimony. It is
constituted by authoritative statements (aptavacana), and gives the knowledge of objects which
cannot be known by perception and inference.
Check Your Progress I
Note: Use the space provided for your answer.
1) What is your understanding of theory of
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2) What is the difference between parinama-vada and vivartha-vada?
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3) Differentiate between valid knowledge and invalid knowledge.
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2.4 PRAKRTI
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The theory that causation means a real transformation of the material cause leads to the concept
of Prakrti as the root cause of the world of objects. All worldly effects are latent in this uncaused
cause, because infinite regress has to be avoided. It is the potentiality of nature, ‘the receptacle
and nurse of all generation’. As the uncaused root-cause it is called Prakrti. As the first principle
of this Universe, it is called Pradhana. As the unmanifested state of all effects, it is known as
Avyakta. As the extremely subtle and imperceptible thing which is only inferred from its
products, it is called Anumana. As the unintelligent and unconscious principle, it is called Jada.
As the ever-active unlimited power, it is called shakti. The products are cause-dependent,
relative, many and temporary as they are subject to birth and death or to production and
destruction; but Prakrti is uncaused, independent, absolute, one and eternal, being beyond
production and destruction. The entire world of objects is implicit in the bosom of Prakrti,
unintelligent, unmanifest, uncaused, ever-active, imperceptible and eternal. Prakrti alone is the
final source of this world of objects which is implicitly and potentially contained in its bosom.
Samkhya gives five proofs for the existence of Prakrti which are as follows:
1. All individual things in this world are limited, dependent, conditional and finite. The
finite cannot be the cause of the universe. Logically we have to proceed from the finite to
the infinite, from the limited to the unlimited, from the temporary to the permanent, from
the many to the one. And it is this infinite, unlimited, eternal and all-pervading Prakrti
which is the source of this universe.
2. All worldly things possess certain common characteristics by which they are capable of
producing pleasure, pain and indifference. Hence there must be a common source
composed of three Gunas, from which all worldly things arise.
3. All effects arise from the activity of the potent cause. Evolution means the manifestation
of the hitherto implicit as the explicit. The activity which generates evolution must be
inherent in the world-cause. And this cause is Prakrti.
4. The effect differs from the cause and hence the limited effect cannot be regarded as its
own cause. The effect is the explicit and the cause is the implicit state of the same process
The effects, therefore, point to a world cause where they are potentially contained.
5. The unity of the universe points to a single cause. And this cause is Prakrti.
Prakrti is said to be the unity of the three Gunas held in equilibrium. The three Gunas are Sattva,
Rajas and Tamas. They are the constituents of Prakrti and through it of the worldly objects.
Being subtle and imperceptible their existence is inferred from their effects - pleasure, pain and
indifference respectively. Sattva literally means real or existent and is responsible for the
manifestation of objects in consciousness. It is called goodness and produces pleasure. It is a
light and bright, buoyant and illumining. Rajas, which literally means foulness, is the principle of
motion. It produces pain. Restless activity, feverish effort and wild stimulation are its results. It
is mobile and stimulating. Its color is red. Tamas, which literally means darkness, is the principle
of inertia. It produces apathy and indifference. Ignorance, sloth, confusion, bewilderment,
passivity and negativity are its results.

2.5 PURUSA
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Purusa is the principle of pure consciousness. Purusa is the soul, the self, the spirit, the subject,
the knower the brain and not mind or ego or intellect. It is not a substance which possesses the
quality of consciousness. Consciousness is its essence. It is itself pure and transcendental
consciousness. It is the ultimate knower which is the foundation of all knowledge. It is the pure
subject and as such can never become an object of knowledge. It is the silent witness, the
emancipated alone, the neutral seer, the peaceful eternal. It is beyond time and space, beyond
change and activity. It is self-luminous and self-proved. It is uncaused, eternal and all pervading.
It is the indubitable real, the postulate of knowledge, and all doubts and denials pre-suppose its
existence.
Samkhya gives the following five proofs for the existence of Purusa;
1. All compound objects exist for the sake of the Purusa. The body, the senses, the mind
and the intellect are all means to realize the end of the Purusa. The three gunas, the
Prakrti, the subtle body - all are said to serve the purpose of the self. Evolution is
teleological or purposive. Prakrti evolves itself in order to serve the Purusa’s end This
proof is teleological.
2. All objects are composed of the three gunas and therefore logically presuppose the
existence of the Purusa who is the witness of these gunas and is himself beyond them.
The three gunas imply the conception of a nistraigunya - that which is beyond them. This
proof is logical.
3. There must be a transcendental synthetic unity of pure consciousness to co-ordinate all
experiences. All knowledge necessarily presupposes the existence of the self. The self is
the foundation, the fundamental postulate of all empirical knowledge. All affirmations
and all negations equally presuppose it. Without it, experience would not become
experience. This proof is ontological.
4. Non-intelligent Prakrti cannot experience its products. So there must be an intelligent
principle to experience the worldly products of Prakrti. Prakrti is the enjoyed and so
there must be an enjoyer. All objects of the world have the characteristics of producing
pleasure, pain and bewilderment. But pleasure, pain, bewilderment have meaning only
when there is a conscious principle to experience them. Hence Purusa must exist. This
argument is ethical.
5. There are persons who try to attain release from the sufferings of the world. The desire
for liberation and emancipation implies the existence of a person who can try for and
obtain liberation. Aspiration presupposes the aspirant. This proof is mystical or religious.

2.6 THE THEORY OF EVOLUTION

Prakrti is the fundamental substance out of which the world evolves. Prakrti is regarded as
essentially dynamic. It is always changing. Even in dissolution there is homogeneous change.
Evolution starts when there is heterogeneous change in the gunas and one predominates over the
other two. When rajas, the principle of activity vibrates and makes the other two vibrate, the
process of creation begins. There is neither creation nor destruction of gunas. Production is only
a manifestation or evolution and destruction is non-manifestation and concealment. Evolution is
cyclic – alternative periods of evolution(sarga) and dissolution (pralaya). Prakrti evolves the
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world of objects when it comes in contact with the purusa. Even though prakrti and purusa are
diametrically opposed to each other in their nature they come together just as a blind man and
lame man can co-operate in order to get out of a forest; so the non-intelligent prakrti and the
inactive purusa combine and co-operate to serve their respective interests. Prakrti needs the
presence of purusa in order to be known or appreciated by someone(darsanartham) and purusa
requires the help of prakrti in order to discriminate itself from the latter and thereby attain
liberation(kaivalyartham).
Purusa is reflected in the intellect (buddhi) and wrongly identifies himself with his own
reflection in the buddhi. It is the reflection of purusa which comes into contact with prakrti and
not the purusa himself. Samkhyakarika simply assumes from the beginning that purusa and
prakrti are together, and its analysis includes only a description of the mutual interaction of the
principles together with the description of the means to attain freedom. The Process of
Evolution: As evolution begins there is gradual differentiation and integration of the three gunas;
and as a result of their combination in different proportions the various objects of the world
originate: Mahat (the great) is the first product of the evolution of prakrti. It is the basis of
intelligence(buddhi) of the individual. Buddhi emerges when sattva predominates over rajas and
tamas. The special functions of Buddhi are ascertainment and
decision-making. Mahat produces ahamkara. It is the principle of individuation. It produces the
notion of ‘I’ and ‘mine’. Ahamkara is bifurcated into the subjective series and the objective
series. Ahamkara in its sattva aspect evolves into manas, the five sense organs(organs of
perception) and the five motor organs (senses of action). The 5 sense organs (jnanendriyas):
functions of sight, smell, taste, touch and sound. The 5 senses of action (karmendriyas):
functions of speech, apprehension, movement, excretion and reproduction. Ahamkara in its
tamas aspect evolves into the 5 subtle essences (tanmatras): the essences of sight, smell, taste,
touch and sound. Ahamkara in its rajasa aspect plays its part in both. The 5 subtle essences
evolve into the five gross elements of earth, water, light, air and ether by a predomination of
tamas (mahabhutas). Thus the process of evolution of the universe includes the operation of 24
principles, of which prakrti is the first, the 5 gross elements are the last and 10 organs and 5
tanmatras are the intermediate ones. All the same it is not complete in itself because it has a
necessary reference to the world of selves as the witness and enjoyers. The evolution is
purposive. The evolution of prakrti into the world of objects makes it possible for the selves to
enjoy or suffer the consequences of their good or bad actions (merits and demerits). The ultimate
end of evolution of prakrti, therefore, is the freedom (mukti) of purusa.

2.7 BONDAGE AND LIBERATION

The earthly life is full of three kinds of pain. The first kind, called adhyamika, is due to intra-
organic psychophysical causes and includes all mental, and bodily sufferings. The second
adhibhutika, is due to extra-organic natural causes like men, beasts, birds, thorns, etc. The third,
adhidaivika, is due to supernatural causes like the planets, elemental agencies, ghosts, demons
etc. Wherever there are gunas there are pains. Even the so-called pleasures lead to pain. Even the
life in heaven is subject to the gunas. The end of man is to get rid of these three kinds of pain and
sufferings. Liberation means complete cessation of all sufferings which is the summum bonum,
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the highest end of life. Purusa is free and pure consciousness. It is inactive, indifferent and
possesses no attributes. It is above time and space, merit and demerit, bondage and liberation. It
is only when it mistakes its reflection in the buddhi for itself and identifies itself wrongly with
the internal organ - the intellect, the ego and the mind, that it is said to be bound. It is the ego,
and not the Purusa, which is bound. When the Purusa realizes its own pure nature, it gets
liberated which in fact it always was. Hence bondage is due to ignorance or non-discrimination
between the self and the non-self. Liberation cannot obtain by means of actions. Karma, good or
bad or indifferent, is the function of the gunas and leads to bondage and not to liberation. Good
actions may lead to heaven and bad actions to hell but heaven and hell alike, like this worldly
life, are subject to pain. It is only knowledge which leads to liberation because bondage is due to
ignorance or ignorance can be removed only by knowledge. The jiva has to realize itself as the
pure Purusa through discrimination between Purusa and Prakrti. Actions and fruits, merits and
demerits, pleasure and pain all belong to the non-self. The knowledge that ‘I am not (the non-
self), that’ nothing is mine’, that ’ego is unreal’, when constantly meditated upon, becomes pure,
incontrovertible and absolute and leads to liberation. Samkhya believes that bondage and
liberation are only phenomenal. The bondage of the Purusa is a fiction. It is only the ego, the
product of Prakrti, which is bound. And consequently it is only the ego which is liberated.
Purusa, in its complete isolation, is untouched by bondage and liberation Ishvarakrsna says, that
Purusa is really neither bound nor is it liberated nor does it transmigrate; bondage, liberation and
transmigration belong to Prakrti in its manifold forms.
Check Your Progress II
Note: Use the space provided for your answer
1. What is Prakrti and what are the justifications given by Samkhya?
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2. What are the arguments for the proofs of Purusa?
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3. Explain the Samkhya concept of liberation.
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2.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have tried to give clear ideas about the central concepts of Samkhya. The
Samkhya metaphysics, especially its doctrine of prakrti, rests mainly on its theory of causation,
which is known as satkarya vada. It is a theory as to the relation of an effect to its material cause.
Prakrti is the ultimate cause of the world of objects. The Purusa is an indubitable reality.
Purusa or self is pure, eternal and all pervading consciousness. Samkhya accepts only three
independent sources of valid knowledge. These are perception, inference and scriptural
testimony. The other sources of knowledge like comparison, postulation and non-cognition are
included under these three, and not recognized as separate sources of knowledge. Finally we
conclude the unit with the expression that in the Samkhya system, Liberation is just the absolute
and complete cessation of all pain without a possibility of return.

2.9 KEYWORDS

Prakrti: Prakrti is the ultimate cause of the world of objects. Prakrti is constituted by
three gunas called Sattva, rajas and tamas.
Purusa: Purusa is an indubitable reality. Purusa is pure, eternal and all pervading
consciousness.
Bondage: Bondage is non-discrimination between self and non-self. Bondage is ignorance.
Liberation: Liberation is the absolute cessation of all pain.

2.10 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Chandradhar, Sharma. A Crtical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal banarsidass

Publishers, 1987.

Chatterjee, Satischandra and Dhirendramohan Data. An Introduction to Indian Philosophy.

Calcutta: University Press, 1968.

Hiriyanna, M. Outlines of Indian Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin. 1951.

Keith, B. The Samkhya System. Oxford: n.p., 1918.

 11

Majumdhar, A.K. The Samkhya Conception of Personality. Calcutta: Calcutta University, 1930.

Pandey, M.C. Origin of the Samkhya. Bombay: n.p., 1953.

Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. New Delhi: Blackie Son Publishers Pvt Ltd publication,
1983.

Suryanarayana Sastri, S.S. Samkhya Karika of Iswara Krishna. Madras: Madras University,
1933.
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UNIT 3 YOGA

Contents

3.0. Objectives
3.1. Introduction
3.2. Modifications of Chitta
3.3. Chitta Bhumi
3.4. Kinds of Klesas
3.5. Ashtanga Yoga
3.6. Place of God in Yoga
3.7. Eight Siddhis
3.8. Let Us Sum Up
3.9. Key Words
3.10. Further Readings and References

3.0 OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this unit is to give a description of Yoga as a philosophy associated with
the school of Samkhya as the practical method for achieving the understanding of the self. Its
importance lies in the fact that it is the discipline necessary for the pure subject to recognize
itself, and separate itself from the empirical reality with which it is confused. In this unit we shall
try to give you the meaning of the word ‘Yoga’. Since Yoga is defined as the cessation of the
modification of chitta, this unit also covers chitta and its vrittis. Again, Yoga also advocates
control over the body, the senses and the mind. This involves eight stages and the same is
explained in the unit as Ashtanga yoga. Finally, it gives a brief study on the theism or the place
of God in Yoga. Thus by the end of the unit you should be able :
• To have sufficient understanding of Yoga and its meaning;
• To know about the five kinds of modifications of the chitta;
• To interpret eight stages or Ashtanga marga of Yoga;
• To comprehend the place and nature of God in Yoga;

3.1. INTRODUCTION

The word ‘Yoga’ literally means ‘union’, i.e., spiritual union of the individual soul with the
Universal Soul and is used in this sense in the Vedanta. Bhagavad Gita defines Yoga as that state
than which there is nothing higher or worth realising and firmly rooted in which a person is free
 2

from all pains and misery. But according to Patanjali, who is the traditional founder of the Yoga
system, Yoga does not mean union but spiritual effort to attain perfection through the control of
the body, senses and mind and through right discrimination between Purusa and Prakrti. The
Yoga-sutra of Patanjali is divided into four parts. The first is called samadhi-pada which deals
with the nature and aim of concentration. The second, sadhanapada, explains the means to
realize this end. The third, vibhutipada, deals with the supra-normal powers which can be
acquired through Yoga. The fourth, kaivalyapada, describes the nature of liberation and the
reality of the transcendental self.

Yoga is the practical path of realisation of the theoretical ideals of Samkhya Philosophy. The
Samkhya Philosophy emphasises the attainment of knowledge by means of study, concentration
and meditation. The Yoga presents a practical path for the realisation of the self. It tells us the
way by following which the self can be realised. Yoga admits all the three pramanas accepted by
Samkhya, i.e, perception, inference and scripture. The Sadhana of Yoga is necessary for the
study of Samkhya Philosophy. Thus Yoga system of Patanjali, is a complement of Samkhya. Its
epistemological theories are based on the ground of Samkhya’s metaphysics. Hence, it is rightly
said that the Yoga system is the natural complement of practical discipline to achieve the
Samkhya ideal of kaivalya. Yoga includes moral restraints, and spiritual imperatives, as well as
the exercises (asanas) designed to withdraw consciousness from the senses, focus the mind and
ultimately achieve meditation in which the self is completely and transparently understood. The
total and absolute restraint of the mental functions constitutes the Yogic trance. With this
restraint the mind empties itself of all contents, it becomes still. The senses then do not receive
the messages coming from the external world. In the 21st century the philosophy and practice of
Yoga is becoming increasingly popular in the West also.

3.2. MODIFICATIONS OF CHITTA

As has been already pointed out the chitta, inspite of being material, seems to be like living due
to the reflection of self in it. It is these changes in the chitta which are known as its vrittis or
modifications. These modifications are due to ignorance and their result is the bondge. These
modifications are five types which are as follows. i) Pramana: By being outside, through the
sensation, the chitta attains the form of objects, this is known as pramana. ii) Viparyaya: The
false knowledge of any thing is known as Viparyaya like that of rope-snake. iii) Vikalpa:This is
the knowledge in which the object which is known does not exist like that of a hare’s horn. iv)
Nidra: The modification of the chitta which is the substractum of knowledge of absence of
anything is known as nidra. But this stage should not be conceived as the total absence of
knowledge because after arising from sleep the person has consciousness that he slept well.
Hence sleep is also a modification. v) Smriti: Smriti or memory is the recollection of past
experience through the impressions left behind.
3.3. CHITTA BHUMI
There are five levels of mental life (chitta bhumi). The difference in the levels are due to the
predominance of different gunas. i) Ksipta: The lowest level is called ksipta or restless, because
the mind here is restless due to the excess of rajas and is tossed about like a shuttle cock between
different sense-objects. ii) Mudha or torpid: The mind here has the predominance of tamas and
tends towards ignorance, sleep and lethargy. iii) Viksipta or distracted: Here sattva predominates,
 3

but rajas also asserts itself at times. This differs from ksipta stages because due to the
preponderence of sattva sometimes there is temporary ceasing of the modification of chitta in
this stage. iv) Ekagra or concentrated: The stages of chitta when it is fixed on one subject. The
mind here is entirely dominated by sattva and rajas and tamas are subsided. v) Niruddha or
restricted: The fifth and the highest level is called Niruddha. Here the mental modifications are
arrested, though their latent impressions remain. The first three levels are not at all conducive to
Yogic life. Only the last two are.
3.4. KINDS OF KLESAS

In fact the Purusa is the eternally pure and transcendental consciousness. It is the chitta with the
reflection of the Purusa in it or the Purusa as reflected in the chitta, which is the phenomenal
ego or jiva, which is subject to birth and death and to all painful or pleasurable experiences.
There are five kinds of sufferings (klesa) to which it is subject. These are: 3.ignorance (avidya)
2. egoism (asmita) 3.attachment (raga) 4.aversion (dvesa) 5.clinging to life and instinctive fear
of death (abhinivesa). The bondage of the self is due to its wrong identification with the mental
modifications and liberation. Therefore means to end this wrong identification is through proper
discrimination between Purusa and Prakrti and the consequent cessation of mental
modifications. It is the aim of Yoga to bring about this result.

3.5. ASHTANGA YOGA

Yoga advocates control over the body, the senses and the mind. It does not want to kill the body;
on the other hand, it recommends its perfection. A sound mind needs a sound body. Sensual
attachment and passions distract body as well as the mind. They must be conquered. To
overcome them, Yoga gives us the Eightfold Path of Discipline or the Ashtanga Yoga. The
prescribed eight sadhanas to control chitta are the following; 1.Yama, 2.Niyama, 3.Asana,
4.Pranayama, 5.Prathyahara, 6.Dharana, 7.Dhyana, 8.Samadhi.

1. Yama (Self-restrained)

Yama is the control of the body,speech and mind. It means abstention . The Yamas are five
which are as follows. i) Non-violence (ahimsa): It is abstention from injury through thoughts,
words and deeds. ii) Truth (satya): Truth is to be exact in mind and speech, ie; to speak things as
they are and to remember exactly as seen, heard and imagined. Thus it is abstention from
falsehood. iii) Non-stealing (asteya): It is abstention from stealing. It includes both not taking
or stealing another’s property and have even a desire for it. iv) Celibacy (brahmacarya): It is
abstention from passions and lust. Brahmacarya is the control of attachment in the enjoyment of
the senses. v) Non-possession (aparigraha): Aparigraha requires not to accept any unnecessary
things or collect it. It is abstention from avarice. All the above mentioned yamas are necessary
for the concentration of chitta.
2. Niyama (Positive rules of conduct)
Another important step in Yoga is Niyama or following the rules of good conduct. These
Niyamas are five which are as follows: i) Purity (sauca): Sauca includes external cleaning
through bath, pure diet etc. as well as internal purification through sympathy, friendliness,
 4

detachment etc. ii) Contentment (santosa): Santosa means satisfaction in whatever is attained by
sufficient and suitable efforts. iii) Right aspiration (tapas): Tapas includes the practice of
tolerance of cold and heat. It requires various types of hard practices. iv) Study of Philosophical
texts (svadhyaya): Svadhyaya means reading of religious scriptures. It is very much useful in the
spiritual advancement. Hence it is a necessary principle of good conduct in Yoga. v) Devotion to
God (Iswarapranidhana): The fifth niyama in Yoga is to remember God and to surrender
oneself to Him. This helps the aspirant in the practice of Yoga.
The Yoga ethics lays stress on a harmonious relationship between the individual and the society.
The positive and negative rules together constitute all that is necessary for a perfect moral life.
They are known as Ten Commandments of Yoga. Through them the moral foundation of Yogic
discipline is made. After the moral preparation comes the preliminary training of one’s body
frame. It consists of three steps- asana, pranayama, pratyahara.
3. Asana
The third step in the advancement of yoga is Asana or posture. It means steady and comfortable
posture. Asana emphasizes the importance of correct and comfortable bodily posture before one
begins meditation. Patanjali mentions that the posture must be firm,pleasant and easy. The idea is
that body must be disciplined to assume a posture which is helpful for concentration. This is the
discipline of the body.
4. Pranayama
It means control of breath and deals with regulation of inhalation, retention and exhalation of
breath. The regulating of breathing process helps considerably to bring the mind under control.
The Yogi who systematically practices pranayama is in a position to control the movements of
the lungs and also of the heart. For the Yogi, there is no involuntary organ in the body. The true
Yogi can even stop breathing and restart it at his will. It is highly conducive to the concentration
of mind. But it must be performed under expert guidance. Otherwise, it may have bad after-
effects.
5. Prathyahara
It is the control of the senses and consists in withdrawing the senses from their objects. Our
senses have a natural tendency to go to outward objects and they perceive the facts of Prakrti.
They can be compared to a mirror which is facing the other way reflecting everything except the
image of the person that holds it. They must be checked and directed towards the internal goal. It
is the process of introversion. The above five steps are called external aids to Yoga (bahiranga
sadhana) while the remaining three which follow are called internal aids (antaranga sadhana).
The last three steps are stages of mind control and therefore they constitute Yoga proper.
6. Dharana

It is fixing of the mind on the object of meditation. Here the mind is steadied by making all our
thoughts flow in single unbroken channel. Ordinarily the mind is easily disturbed. It passes from
objects to objects in a matter of seconds. The mind is to be tied to a particular object in order that
it may become steady and unmoving. Any object like the tip of the nose or the mid point of the
eye brows or the image of the deity may be chosen for meditating upon in this stage. The mind
must be steadfast like the unflickering flame of a lamp.
 5

7. Dhyana
It means meditation and consists in the undisturbed flow of thought round the object of
meditation. It is steadfast contemplation without any break. When the process of thought is
continuous, it is called dhyana. Meditation is always about something. That something gets fixed
in the mind through meditation. Dhyana culminates in Samadhi.

8. Samadhi
It is the final step in Yoga. It means concentration. Here the mind is completely absorbed in the
object of meditation. In dhyana the act of meditation and object of meditation remain separate.
But here they become one. It is the highest means to realize the cessation of mental
modifications which is the end. It is the ecstatic state in which the connection with the external
world is broken and through which one has to pass before liberation. Here the spirit is lifted
above the world process and is restored to its original stage. Samadhi is of two kinds: Conscious
or samaprajnata and supra conscious or asmaprajnata. In the former consciousness of the object
of meditation persists, in the latter it is transcended. The former is Ekagra and the latter is
Niruddha. In the former, the mind remains concentrated on the object of meditation. The
meditator and the object of meditation are fused together, yet the consciousness of the object of
meditation persists. This state is said to be of four kinds. i) Savitarka: When the chitta is
concentrated on a gross object of meditation like the tip of the nose or the mid-point of eyebrows
or the image of the deity. ii) Savichara: When the chitta is concentrated on a subtler object of
meditation like the tanmatras. iii) Sananda: When the chitta is concentrated on a still subtler
object of meditation which produces joy, like the senses. iv) Sasmita: When chitta is
concentrated on the ego-substance with which the self is generally identified. Here we have
conscious ecstasy where individuality persists.

Asamaprajnata samadhi is the supra-conscious concentration where the meditator and the object
of meditation are completely fused together and there is not even consciousness of the object of
meditation. Here no new mental modification arise .They are checked (niruddha), though the
latent impressions may continue. If the fire is restricted to a particular fuel, it burns that fuel
alone; but when the fuel has been completely burnt, the fire also lies down. Similarly in
conscious concentration, the mind is fixed on the object of meditation alone and modification
arises only in respect of this object of meditation. But in supra-conscious concentration, even this
modification ceases. It is the highest form of Yoga which is divine madness, perfect mystic
ecstasy difficult to describe and more difficult to attain. Even those who attain it cannot retain it
longer. Immediately or after very short time, the body breaks and they obtain complete
liberation. Asamprajnata or Nirbeeja (attributeless) samadhi is the highest form of samadhi in
which the distinction between the knower, knowledge and the known, disappears. In it there are
no klesas or attributes. Hence, it is known as nirbeeja or attributeless samadhi. This form of
samadhi is also divided into two subtypes, which are i) Bhava Pratyaya Samadhi: Samadhi is
disturbed due to ignorance. Bhava means ignorance. Ignorance means seeing the self as non-self.
In this form of samadhi only the samskaras of the passions remain. Thus the ignorance is not
absolutely destroyed at this stage due to which even after the attainment of this stage the beings
have to return to the world again. ii) Upaya Pratyaya: In this type of samadhi the ignorance is
absolutely destroyed due to arousal of prajna. In it all the klesas are annihilated and the chitta
becomes established in true knowledge. This is the samadhi of the Yogis. It breeds the pleasure
of the chitta, concentration, knowledge etc.
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Yoga is the steadiness of the mind, with the annihilation of the mental states, into a particular
type of graduated state leading to self realization. Yoga generates certain supra-normal powers.
But they should be avoided and attention should be fixed only on the liberation which is the end
of human life. The ideal is Kaivalya, the absolute independence and eternal and free life of the
Purusa, free from Prakrti.
Check your Progress – I
Note: Use the space for writing the answers.
1. Bring out the nature of the various levels of mental life as expounded by Yoga
Philosophy.
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2. Explain the eightfold path of the Yoga system. What is its goal?
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3.6. PLACE OF GOD IN YOGA

The Samkhya in its original form is atheistic. The difference between the Yoga and Samkhya is
that while the former asserts a place to God, the latter does not. The Yoga therefore is described
as the Samkhya with God. Yoga accepts the existence of God. Iswara is only one of the many
objects on which Yogis can concentrate their mind. The only purpose of Iswara is to do good to
his devotees. Thus God in Yoga has only practical importance. The meditation on God or
pranava helps in the concentration of chitta. According to Patanjali, Iswara pranidhana helps in
the attainment of samadhi. Thus in the old Yoga philosophy not much theoretical importance has
been attached to God. Dr. S. Radhakrishnan has also supported this view. According to him, the
God of Yoga is not the summum bonum of life. Patanjali himself did not consider God as
necessary to solve the problems of the world. But the later Yogis have taken also a theoretical
interest in Him and have tried to prove His existence as necessary philosophical speculation.
Patanjali defines God as a special kind of Purusa who is always free from pains, actions, affects
and impressions. He is eternally free and was never bound nor has any possibility of being
bound. He is above the law of karma. He is omniscient, omnipotent and omnipresent. He is
perfection incarnate. He is the purest knowledge.

Devotion to God is one of the surest means of obtaining concentration. Patanjali thus makes
devotion to God as one of the aids of Yoga. The proofs advanced for His existence are: (1) the
Veda tells us that God exists (2) the law of continuity tells us that there must be the highest limit
of knowledge and perfection which is God (3) God is responsible for the association and
 7

dissociation of Purusa and Prakrti (4) devotion to God is the surest way of obtaining
concentration and thereby liberation. By disinterested devotion the yogi becomes eligible for the
grace of God. Surrender to God is one of the important principles of Yoga. This conception of
God is certainly different from that of the Upanishads. In the Upanishads, God is the Saguna
Brahman, who is the very social of the entire Universe. But in Samkhya Yoga, God is only a
particular Self, Purusa Visesa.

God of Yoga is not the creator, preserver or destroyer of this world. He is only a special Purusa.
He does not reward or punish the souls. Innumerable Purusas and Prakrti, all eternals and
absolutes, are there to limit Him. He cannot grant liberation. He can only remove the obstacles in
the upward progress of the devotees. Directly He has nothing to do with the bondage and the
liberation of the Purusas. Ignorance binds and discrimination between Prakrti and Purusa
liberates. The end of human life is not the union with God, but only the separation of Purusa
from Prakrti. Devotion to God is only a step to this ultimate liberation. Though according to
Patanjali, Iswarapranidhana is a means to attain samadhi, the later yoga philosophers considered
it as the best means because God is not only an object of concentration but also he removes the
impediments from the path of aspirants and makes the path of yoga easy. By meditating on God
with one pointed mind, the intellect is purified and all the impediments are destroyed. The
aspirant realises his self through Iswarapranidhana.

3.7. EIGHT SIDDHIS

According to Yoga philosophy, the Yogis attain various siddhis by the practice of the path of
Yoga. These powers are mainly of eight types and hence called Ashta siddhi or Ashta Aisvarya:
(1) Anima- This is the power to become small like atom and so to disappear. (2) Laghima- This
is the power to become light cotton and so to fly away. (3) Mahima-This is the power to
become big like mountains. (4) Prapti-This is the power to secure whatever is desired. (5)
Prakamya-This is the power by which all the impediments in the will removed. (6) Vashitwa-
This is the power by which all the living beings can be conquered. (7) Eshitwa- This is the
power by which one attains absolute mastery on all physical objects. (8) Yatrakamavasayitwa-
This is the power by which all the desires are fulfilled. The above mentioned eight siddhis can be
used according to the wish of the Yogi. But in the Yoga philosophy the pursuance of the path of
the Yoga for the attainment of these powers has been vehemently decried because that results in
misleading the aspirant from the path of Yoga. The ultimate end of the Yoga is not the
attainment of these powers, but the realisation of Moksa. Thus, Yoga is a combination of
practical physical development and discipline with a mystical objective which is its ultimate
purpose. This co-ordination of a system of thought with a programme of daily life exercises is
based on physiological psychology as well as religious philosophy.

3.8. LET US SUM UP

In this Unit our attempt is to provide a clear idea of Patanjali’s Yoga system which enables
one to attain Kaivalya. Since it is the cessation of the modifications of chitta, chitta vrttis
are dealt in detail. The kinds of klesas to which Purusa is subjected to, are also given. The
eight limbs of Yoga or Ashtanga Yoga which leads to self-realization is discussed. As this
system is attaining more and more importance these days each step of Yoga is given with
 8

detailed explanation. In the concluding part of the unit, the theism of Yoga, i.e., the nature
and place of God is also discussed.

Check your Progress – II

Note: Use the space for your answers.
1. What is Samadhi according to Patanjali? How can it be attained.?
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2. What is the place and nature of God in Yoga philosophy?

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3.9. KEY WORDS

Kaivalya: Absolute independence and eternal and free life of Purusa, free from Prakrti.
Chitta vrttis: Modifications of chitta or manas
Chitta bhumi: Different levels of mental life due to predominance of different gunas.
Klesas: Sufferings to which soul is subjected to.
3.10. FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES
Legget, Trevor. Sankara on the Yoga Sutra: A full translation of the newly discovered text. Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass,2006.
Puligandla, Ramakrishna. Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: D.K.Printworld, 2008.
Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol. I & II. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1958.
Raju, P.T. Philosophical Traditions of India. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1973.
Sharma, Chandradhar. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1983.
The Yogasutras of Patanjali: On concentration of mind. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 2005.
Whicher, Ian. The integrity of the Yoga darshana: A reconsideration of Classical Yoga. Delhi:
D.K.Printworld, 2000.
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UNIT 4 MIMAMSA

Contents

4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Theory of Knowledge
4.3 Mimamsa Theory of Error
4.4 Theory of Reality
4.5 Theory of Soul
4.6 Bondage and Liberation
4.7 Let us Sum up
4.8 Key Words
4.9 Further Readings and References
4.0 OBJECTIVES
This chapter aims to highlight the contribution of Mimamsa to Indian philosophy. A major
interest of this school is interpretation. They can be considered to be the first in India to have
embarked on interpreting the Vedas (germ of hermeneutic analysis found). Hence this chapter
with varied sections on theory of knowledge and metaphysics aims to bring out this aspect. In
fact, the section on theory of knowledge contains such interpretative analysis. Some of the basic
features of this chapter are:
• interpreting the Vedas
• theory of validity of knowledge
• theory of error
• theory of reality (realism)
• theory of God

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Mimamsa is a philosophical school (advocating realism) in India which developed the ritualistic
aspect of the Vedas. It must be noted that the Vedas depict two different aspects – the ritualistic
aspect and speculative aspect. Of the 6 orthodox systems of philosophy (astika darsanas), -
Nyaya, Vaisesika, Samkhya and Yoga developed their philosophies independently though owing
allegiance to the Vedas. But Mimamsa and Vedanta are two schools which developed the two
different aspects of the Vedas. While Mimamsa developed from the ritualistic side, Vedanta
developed from the speculative side of the Vedas. In fact, it is because of this reason that
 2

philosophers are inclined to name them as purva Mimamsa (early Mimamsa) and uttara
Mimamsa (later Mimamsa). They were also known as karma Mimamsa and jnana Mimamsa
respectively.
There are two ways in which Mimamsa is useful to us today:
(a) Gives a methodology of interpretation with which the complicated vedic injunctions
regarding rituals can be understood.
(b) Provides a philosophical justification of the beliefs on which ritualism depends.
The faith underlying vedic ritualism is substantiated by Mimamsa in the following ways:
1. Belief in the existence of a soul which survives death and enjoys the fruits of the rituals in
heaven
2. Belief in some power or potency which preserves the effects of the rituals performed
3. Belief in the infallibility of the Vedas
4. Our life and actions are real and not dreams
Jaiminiya sutra is the work that laid down the principles of this school – purva Mimamsa.
Hence, Jaimini is thought to be the systematiser of this school of thought. Sabaraswami wrote the
major commentary (bhasya) for this work. There were many more commentators after him. But
the two most famous and important commentators are Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara Misra
who founded the two schools of philosophy named after them – Bhatta school of Mimamsa and
Prabhakara school of Mimamsa. The term ‘Mimamsa’ etymologically means ‘solution of some
problem by reflection and critical examination’.
4.2 THEORY OF KNOWLEDGE
As Mimamsa was interested in interpreting the Vedas, they prominently discussed the nature and
validity of knowledge, criterion of truth and falsity, sources of valid knowledge etc.
Nature and Sources of knowledge
That knowledge which gives some new information about something, and is not contradicted by
another knowledge and which is not generated by defective conditions (like defective sense
organ or fallacious argument) is valid knowledge. Mimamsa admits two kinds of valid
knowledge – immediate and mediate. Immediate knowledge arises in the soul when the object is
in direct contact with both the internal sense organ (mind) and the external 5 sense organs. This
perception arises in two stages – when we see an object, there is indeterminate perception of that
object – a bare awareness of it (knowing that it is an object but not knowing what object it is).
This is indeterminate, immediate knowledge (nirvikalpaka pratyaksa). When we come to
interpret that object on the basis of our previous knowledge we understand it as something. That
is determinate perception (savikalpaka pratyaksa) which is expressed in statements like ‘this is a
man’ or ‘this is table’ etc. These two stages of perception, no doubt, gives us valid knowledge.
However, the objects are not known explicitly in the first stage. Yet, what is known clearly in the
second stage is implicitly known in the first stage. This means that the mind only interprets what
it sees in the first stage with the help of past experience. It does not ascribe something
imaginarily. Hence perception results in valid knowledge.
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Now, what we just saw is perceptual knowledge. Are there non-perceptual sources of
knowledge? What are they? Mimamsa accepts five more nonperceptual sources of knowledge.
They are: inference (anumana), comparison (upamana), verbal testimony (sabda), postulation
(arthapatti) and nonperception (anupalabdhi). The last source of knowledge is accepted only by
Kumarila Bhatta’s school of Mimamsa and not by Prabhakara’s school of Mimamsa.
The Mimamsa understanding of inference is similar to that of Nyaya and hence we need not
discuss it here.

Mimamsa understanding of Comparison

After Nyaya, Mimamsa accepts comparison as an independent source of knowledge. According
to Nyaya, we get valid knowledge of an object by comparing it with what is already known. That
is, we understand the new object through comparing it with what is already known by us. Here,
Mimamsa differs from Nyaya school of philosophy. To the Mimamsa, we do not get knowledge
of the new object from the knowledge of similarity that exists between this object and the known
object but we get the knowledge of similarity that is there between the object that is seen and the
remembered object. For example, Nyaya would say that when we see a new object, namely a
gavaya (or wild ox), we are told that the wild ox is similar to the domestic cow and that the
difference is that the ox is wild. So we derive knowledge of a new object by comparing it with
what has already been known. But the same example will be understood by Mimamsa
differently. To them, when we compare the ox with the cow that is already known, we derive the
knowledge of similarity that exists between the two. This source of knowledge is independent
and cannot be classed under perception or inference as done by other schools of philosophy
(except Nyaya). The knowledge of similarity is the new cognition here and that is not derived
from any other source of knowledge, according to Mimamsa.

Mimamsa understanding of sabda

Sabda is knowledge obtained from verbal authority. This source of knowledge is very important
for the Mimamsakas. It is with this that they are going to justify the impersonal authority of the
Vedas. It was seen that sabda is of two kinds – personal and impersonal – that is, knowledge
derived from the words spoken or written by an individual or knowledge derived from the Vedas
which have not been written or spoken by any individual. Again, authority may either give
information on the existence of something or merely give directions for the performance of an
action. Mimamsa is interested only in the knowledge from the Vedas and that too, about the
injunctions laid down in it regarding the performance of certain actions. In fact, they are of the
view that any part of the Veda which does not give information on the performance of rituals but
is said to speak about the existence of something (immortality of the soul or existence of god etc)
is useless. They just wanted to highlight what is essential for the performance of rituals. Hence
their philosophy is referred to as ritualistic pragmatism.

According to most of the schools admitting the authority of the Vedas, it is god who is the author
of the Vedas. But for Mimamsa, Vedas are impersonal – not written or spoken by any person.
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They come forward with elaborate arguments to suggest the impersonal authority of the Vedas
by asking the following questions.
• If the Vedas had any author, then his name would have been known and remembered.
• Even those who say that Vedas are not eternal but produced are not in agreement with each
other on the origin of the Vedas. Some say that god is the author of the Vedas while some say
that it is PrajaPati or Hiranyagarbha and thus the argument goes on.
• Those people, who regard Vedas to have been written, think vaguely on the basis of the
analogy of ordinary books written by human beings and say that even the Veda should have an
author.
• The names of certain persons are cited in the Vedas. But they are only seers to whom the Vedas
were revealed or the founders of different vedic schools.
• Now, it may be asked that the Vedas are composed of words and that these words are produced
and non-eternal. Let us see the reply by the Mimamsakas here. To them, the words are not really
the perceived sounds. These sounds are produced by the speaker and heard by the listener, no
doubt. But words are really the letters which are partless and uncaused. A letter, like ‘k’ is
uttered and revealed by different persons at different places and times and in different ways.
Though these letter-sounds vary, we recognize that the same letter is pronounced. This identity
shows that the words are not produced at any time and place, but transcends them. (here, we find
a linguistic analysis by the Mimamsakas).

Hence, Mimamsa regards words as letters which are eternal, as having an uncaused existence.
• The Vedas enjoin certain ritual duties which bear fruits like attainment of heaven etc. Now, if
the Vedas have been written by anybody, then we have to ask who that person is who has the
capacity to know the past, present and future in order to declare the connection between the
action and its result.
• If we agree that the Vedas have an author then we might have to agree (with the Carvakas), that
this author is a cunning deceiver because of what is contained in the injunctions.
• The Vedas are not vitiated by any defects to which the works of imperfect beings are subject.
Thus, the Mimamsakas hold that the Vedas are impersonal and that they are not the works
produced by any person. The applicability of the Vedas to all times itself shows that they are not
the products of a particular time, place and individual. The Mimamsakas very clearly state that
this knowledge cannot be classified under perception or inference. They assert that the validity of
every knowledge is assured by the conditions which generate that knowledge, so the knowledge
derived from authority carries with itself such assurance of its own truth.

Mimamsa understanding of postulation (arthapatti)

Datta and Chattejee (see An Introduction to Indian Philosophy, p. 325) state that “postulation
(arthapatti) is the necessary supposition of an unperceived fact which alone can explain a
phenomenon that demands explanation”. When a given fact cannot be explained without
supposing another fact, then this other fact is postulated in order for us to obtain knowledge of
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that given fact. For example, when we see a man growing fat but fasting during the day, we
cannot explain how this is happening. The two facts of fatness and fasting cannot be reconciled.
In order to clarify this we need to postulate that this may be due to heredity or because he eats
during night. Unless we postulate this, we cannot explain the fatness of the person. This is
postulation. This knowledge cannot be brought under perception or inference. The person eating
in the night is not perceived by us; nor is there any inseparable (vyapti) relation between eating
in the night and becoming fat. Hence this source of knowledge cannot be brought under
perception or inference.

Another example that can be given here explains that this source of knowledge is used by us in
daily life. When, for example, we go to a friend’s house and we see that he is not at home, we
postulate that he must be somewhere outside. This is postulation. This postulation alone can help
us explain how a person who is alive is not to be found in the place where he is supposed to be
found. Hence this kind of knowledge cannot be grouped under perception, inference or
testimony. We also say that ‘industry is the key to success’. Here, the term ‘key’ does not denote
the real key but suggests its secondary meaning. This is postulation.

Mimamsa understanding of non-perception (anupalabdhi)

This source of knowledge is accepted by one of the schools of Mimamsa – namely, Bhatta
school of Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta. To them, nonperception is the source of our
immediate knowledge of non-existence of a thing. I say that a jar does not exist here only
because I do not perceive it. This is non-perception. That is, we should not conclude that all non-
perception leads to the conclusion of non-existence of what is not perceived. We do not perceive
a table in the dark; nor do we perceive such supersensible entities as atoms, ether, virtue, vice
etc. yet, we do not judge them to be non-existent. Why? This is because, if a thing should have
been perceived under certain circumstances, only then its non-perception under those
circumstances would give us the knowledge of non-existence of that entity. The supersensible
entities are those that are beyond our senses. So we cannot say that they are non-existent when
we do not see them.

Validity of Knowledge
Validity of knowledge according to Mimamsa is called svatah pramanyavada. Let us see what it
is. How is knowledge valid? What are the conditions of a valid knowledge? For example, if I
have to see a thing, my eye should be free of defect. If there is defect in my eye, then, I cannot
see the thing clearly. Hence, the condition that generates knowledge should be free of defect.
Only this will result in valid knowledge. Moreover, this knowledge should be beyond doubt.
Mimamsa draws two conclusions from this: (a) the validity of knowledge arises from the very
conditions that give rise to that knowledge, and not from any extra conditions (pramanyam
svatah utpadyate). (b) the validity of knowledge is also believed in or known as soon as the
knowledge arises; this belief does not wait for any verification by something else. This Mimamsa
view is known as the theory of intrinsic validity (svatah pramanyavada).
 6

This means that truth is self-evident. It is not verified by any other conditions. That is, the
validity of any knowledge is evident in the conditions that generate that knowledge. Now, what
if this knowledge is contradicted by any other knowledge? In such a case, we infer the falsity of
knowledge. Thus, while validity of knowledge arises from the conditions from which that
knowledge arises, falsity of that knowledge arises due to extraneous conditions. Dr
S.Radhakrishnan (Indian Philosophy, Vol 2) quotes, “jñanasya pramanyam svatah, apramanyam
paratah”

Check Your Progress I

Note: Use the space for your answers.

1. How Mimamsa interpret the Vedas? Explain with their theory of knowledge.
………………….
…………………………..
……………………………

2. Explain svatah pramanyavada.

……………………………..
………………………………..
……………………………….

4.3 MIMAMSA THEORY OF ERROR

If truth is self-evident and every knowledge is true, then, how does error arise? For example,
when we mistake a rope to be a snake we are afraid of the rope as long as we think it to be a
snake. Only when we realize that it is not a snake and that it is a rope, we come out of that fear.
Now, knowledge of rope as a snake is an error. How does this error arise when all knowledge is
valid? There are two answers for this question in the two schools of Mimamsa – Bhatta school
and Misra school. Let us look into them now.

According to the Prabhakara Misra school, every knowledge is true, and that nothing false ever
appears in error. Their theory of error is known as akhyativada or denial of illusory appearance.
Let us see that view now with the rope-snake example. When I perceive a rope as a snake, there
 7

is a mixture of two types of knowledge – the perception of a long thing (perceived thing) and our
memory of a snake perceived in the past (remembered thing). Here, the distinction between the
perceived thing and the remembered thing is not perceived by us. Hence we are afraid of a rope
as though it is a snake. Now, our behaviour towards rope is faulty and not our knowledge
(because there are two kinds of knowledge here, namely knowledge of a long thing and our
memory of a snake without the knowledge of distinction between them). Therefore, we do not
erroneously perceive a rope to be a snake but that there is only a cognitive defect coupled with
non-discrimination. This is negative, according to the Prabhakara Misra school of Mimamsa but
not the same as error. Error is not merely want of knowledge but a positive mental state.

The Bhatta school of Mimamsa does not accept this view. To them, mere nondiscrimination
cannot explain error. We cannot deny that sometimes the illusory object appears positively
before us. If my eye-ball is pressed while looking at the moon, two moons positively appear
before us. The snake illusion is also similar to this. Now, the Bhatta school argues that when we
perceive a snake in a rope and judge that it is a snake, both the subject and the predicate are real.
The rope is brought under the class of snakes which also exists. Then how does error arise? It is
simple. Error consists, however, in relating these two really existing but separate things in the
subject-predicate way. Thus error is always wrong relation and is not to be found in the object.
The Bhatta theory of error is known as viparitakyativada. Thus the Prabhakaras exempt all
knowledge from error while the Bhattas admit that error may affect some cognitive relations of
objects, though the objects themselves are always correctly perceived. One thing common to
both schools is that error affects activity rather than knowledge. Thus error becomes an
exceptional case of the falsification of the normal claim that every knowledge makes for truth.

4.4. THEORY OF REALITY

Mimamsa theory of reality is based on their theory of perception. When we perceive, we

perceive objects. Moreover, the theory of svatahpramanvada (theory of intrinsic validity of
knowledge) enables us to understand the reality of objects. Mimamsakas are realists and
pluralists. The universe is real and is independent of the mind which perceives it. Thus, the world
is eternally there for them (it is neither created nor destroyed). However, they also seem to
believe in souls, heaven, hell, deities to whom sacrifice is to be performed in addition to the
world that is accepted as real by them. The Mimamsakas too, like the Vaisesikas, believe in the
reality of atoms. However, they do not postulate an efficient cause for the arrangement of atoms
in order for the emergence of the world. Instead, they believe in the law of karma to have
regulated the order or arrangement of atoms. Being realists, they categorise the reality.
Prabhakara admits of 8 such categories – substance (dravya), quality (guna), action (karma),
generality (samanya), inherence (paratantrata), force (sakti), similarity (sadrsya) and number
(samkhya). Kumarila divides all categories into positive (bhava) and negative (abhava). Prior,
posterior, absolute and mutual are the four kinds of abhava. The positive categories (bhava) are
also four. They are substance, quality, action and generality. He brings force and similarity under
substance.
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4.5 THEORY OF SOULS

Jaimini does not offer any detailed proof of the reality of soul. However, he seems to accept the
arguments of the Vedanta. He distinguishes the self from the understanding and the senses. The
self is neither the body, nor the senses nor even the intellect. It is the cogniser. Sabara accepts the
reality of a permanent cogniser which is “known by itself and incapable of being seen or shown
by others”, says S.Radhakrishnan (Ibid., p. 408). Their interest in interpreting the vedic
injunctions as bringing fruits either in this life or in the afterlife has forced them to accept a soul
which survives even when the body is destroyed at the time of death. The Mimamsakas accept
plurality of selves in order to account for variety of experiences.

4.6 BONDAGE AND LIBERATION

According to Prabhakara, liberation consists in the total disappearance of dharma and adharma,
whose operation is the cause of rebirth. Another important term that needs mention here is
apurva (or unseen force or imperceptible antecedent of the fruit of our actions. All acts bear
fruits. Of course, not all acts can result in its fructification immediately. Some may effect a result
later. Jaimini assumes the existence of such unseen force as apurva. It can be considered as the
metaphysical link between the action and its result. Now, it is this unseen force that determines
whether the soul is in bondage or liberated. Hence Mimamsa prescribes that certain duties as
enjoined in the Vedas are to be performed. These duties help man in the right path and thus are
responsible for delivering good results. The highest good, according to early Mimamsa, appeared
to have been the attainment of heaven or a state of bliss.

However, the later Mimamsa thinkers fall in line with other Indian philosophical schools in
holding that the highest good is liberation or freedom from bondage to the body. To them,
liberation is an unconscious state, which is free from pleasure and pain. Is Mimamsa atheistic?
Mimamsa, we have seen, interprets the ritualistic side of the Vedas. Thus, this school emphasizes
the idea of dharma – that is, the criteria of discussion here is how man ought to live. Whatever
has been said about knowledge, its validity or about error is in relation to this idea of dharma.
Now, what is their conception of God? Do they believe in the existence of God? It must be
mentioned that the Mimamsakas believe in the authority of the Vedas. But the traditional
conception of Mimamsa is atheistic – non-belief in the existence of God. However, authors like
Max Mueller finds it difficult to believe that the Mimamsakas, who believe in the authority of
the Vedas do not believe in the existence of God (accepted by the Vedas). The Mimamsakas
argue that if a creator-God is accepted then He is liable to the charges of cruelty, partiality etc.
Therefore, they deny any such creator-God. However, Max Mueller contends that this need not
be construed as a case of atheism because, even Advaita Vedanta in India and Spinoza in the
West do not accept a creator-God.
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However, it must be mentioned that there is no reference to God by the early Mimamsakas while
the later Mimamsakas reject the proofs for the existence of God. Thus Mimamsa seems to be
atheistic. It might be pointed out that Mimamsa accepts Vedas which talk of a variety of gods –
sun, moon, fire etc. These are, at best, deities who are not objects of worship. They are not
referred to as existing somewhere bound by space-time continuum; nor are they imaginary
entities. Instead, they are eternal and self-manifesting entities described by the eternal, self-
revealing Vedas. The Mimamsa was interested mainly in the performance of rituals and these
gods were spoken of only in so far as they help man perform the rituals with piety. Thus, we see
that “in its great anxiety to maintain the supremacy of the Vedas, the Mimamsa even relegated
God to an ambiguous position.

Check Your Progress II

Note: Use the space for your answers.

1. Give the account of Mimamsa understanding of soul.

………………….
…………………………..
……………………………

2. What is Liberation according to Mimamsa?

……………………………..
………………………………..
……………………………….

4.7 LET US SUM UP

Mimamsa is an orthodox school of Indian philosophy. It believes in the authority of the Vedas.
Realistic (and pluralistic) school of philosophy. However, they are considered to be non-
believers in god. Concept of apurva is unseen force that delivers the results of our actions.
Concept of liberation is attainment of heaven (by earlier thinkers) and freedom from bondage (by
later thinkers).
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4.8 KEY WORDS

Apurva: unseen force that delivers the results of our actions.

Svatahpramanyavada: theory of intrinsic validity of knowledge.

Viparitakyativada: Bhatta theory of error - Error consists in relating two really existing but
separate things in the subject-predicate way. Error is always wrong
relation and is not to be found in the object.

4.9 FURTHER READINGS AND REFERENCES

Puligandla, Ramakrishna. Fundamentals of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: D.K.Printworld, 2008.

Radhakrishnan, S. Indian Philosophy. Vol. I & II. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1958.
Raju, P.T. Philosophical Traditions of India. London: George Allen & Unwin, 1973.
Sharma, Chandradhar. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1983.