MODULE 1: WHAT IS ETHICS?

Definition of Ethics

● Ethics (or moral philosophy) is the empirical study of moral decisions.

● It is a discipline concerned with what is morally good and evil, right
and wrong.
● It often refers to a scheme or philosophy of universal ideals or
beliefs.
● The word comes from the Greek word "ethos", meaning tradition,
habit, character, or attitude.
● It goes beyond specific actions—it is also about the goodness of
people and what it means to lead a decent life (Leandro Jr. & Gubia-
on, 2018).
● Ethics is a systematic analysis of human actions—whether they are
right or wrong, based on the intent, circumstances, or character of
the act.
● As a philosophy, ethics is a higher level of human discipline because
it involves critical thinking and examines fundamental beliefs,
standards, ideals, and traditions.

Branches of Ethics

Ethics has two main branches:

1. Normative Ethics

○ Concerns human behavior in general.

○ Asks whether or not a certain act should or should not be
carried out.
○ Two fields under normative ethics:
■ Moral Philosophy – talks about what humans must do
or should do, moral obligation, meaning and purpose
of actions.
■ Applied/Practical Ethics – deals with strong and basic
moral issues like abortion.
2. Meta-Ethics

○ A discipline that relies on meaning.

 ○ Focuses on non-moral questions about morality, such as:
■ What are moral statements?
■ What is their purpose and significance?
■ How are they interpreted and justified?
● While meta-ethics deals with meaning, normative ethics asks how
humans respond to moral questions and seeks to clarify and prescribe
what humans should do to interact meaningfully in society. (Maboloc,
2012)

Importance of Ethics

● Ethics is a set of rules that helps us decide what is right or wrong,

good or bad.
● It gives guidance to our decisions.
● Principles like fairness, trustworthiness, and responsibility help us
deal with ethical dilemmas.
● Choices we make affect both ourselves and others, and we are
responsible for them.
● People often fail to do the right thing due to internal and external
blind spots (Bazerman & Tenbrunsel, 2011).
● Virtues like intelligence, bravery, patience, and justice help in making
ethical decisions.
● Ethics defines who we are as people and as a society.
Key Benefits of Studying Ethics

According to various authors (Leano Jr. & Gubia-on, 2018; Silverstone, 2011):

1. Helps people tell right from wrong, good from bad.

2. Eliminates actions that go against what is right.
3. Encourages careful decision-making.
4. Counters external/internal obstacles to doing good.
5. Builds good character habits.
6. Encourages rational decision-making.
7. Helps a person become responsible in family, school, and society.
8. Makes people more sensitive to others’ needs.
9. Strengthens conscience in making decisions.

How Moral Standards are formed:

MODULE 2: WHAT ARE MORAL DILEMMAS

Definition of Moral Dilemmas

A moral dilemma is a situation where a person must choose between two or

more moral values that are in conflict. Different scholars define it as:

1. A moral dilemma is when you must give preference to one moral

principle over another. It occurs when values clash, and whatever you
do, you’ll end up offending one important value.Kvalnes (2019)

○ Sometimes caused by a past personal mistake → called a

self-inflicted dilemma.
○ In strict sense: values are equally important.
○ In broader sense: one value is stronger, but others are still
morally significant.
 2. It’s when a person feels they should morally do multiple things, but
cannot do them all at once.Kurie & Albin (2007)

3. It’s a situation where someone must choose which is the right or

ethical option among competing alternatives.Figar & Dordevic (2016)

Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas

1. Organizational Moral Dilemma

○ Affects staff, leaders, customers, and society.

○ Common ethical issues include:
■ Unethical leadership – leaders abuse power or accept
bribes.
■ Toxic workplace culture – poor work-life balance, lack
of motivation.
■ Discrimination and harassment – unfair treatment,
favoritism.
■ Unrealistic/conflicting goals – unclear or impossible
goals.
■ Misuse of tech/social media – not using work
resources properly.
■ Business travel abuse – improper use of company
funds.
2. (Sources: Michigan State University Online, Small Business Chron)

3. Individual Moral Dilemma

○ Occurs when a person faces pressure from:

■ Peer influence
■ Personal financial status
■ Social/economic expectations
○ Example: A student who used to be responsible changes
behavior due to new friends encouraging drug use.
○ Lesson: One must stay true to their values despite external
pressures.
4. Structural Moral Dilemma
 ○ Involves systems of responsibility and relationships within an
organization.
○ Five key tensions:
■ Differentiation vs. Integration – Too many separate
roles vs. difficulty coordinating.
■ Gap vs. Overlap – Tasks either missed or duplicated.
■ Lack of clarity vs. lack of creativity – Tasks unclear vs.
too rigid.
■ Excessive autonomy vs. interdependence – Teams too
isolated or too reliant.
○ To avoid these:
■ Have clear, balanced roles.
■ Maintain defined tasks and reasonable coordination.

MODULE 3: FREEDOM AS FOUNDATION FOR MORAL

ACTS

1. Kant’s Philosophy on Freedom

● Freedom means the right to choose one's actions based on reason,

not desire.
● Comes from the term autonomy (Greek: "self-legislator").
● A person should live by laws they set for themselves, not just by
instinct or external rules.
● For Kant, true freedom is not doing anything you want—but doing
what you rationally know is right.

Kant’s key points:

1. Right to choose conduct based on reason.

2. Follow self-imposed rules.
3. Be independent from others’ choices, as long as freedoms coexist
under a universal law.
4. Equality is essential, and freedom is the only inherent power.
5. People have an autonomous right to define happiness.
6. Forcing others to follow your idea of happiness is a violation of
freedom.
2. Kant’s Philosophy on Morality

1. Good Will and Duty

○ Good will is the only virtue that is always good.

○ It remains morally valuable even if it fails to achieve its
purpose.
○ Acting from duty (not just by following rules) gives actions
moral worth.
○ Duty must come from voluntary will, where a person chooses
to obey moral law.
2. Perfect and Imperfect Duties

○ Perfect Duty: Always true (e.g., never lie). Must always be

followed.
○ Imperfect Duty: Can be flexible (e.g., helping others—you’re
not required to help everyone at all times).
○ If there's conflict, perfect duties take priority.
3. Categorical vs. Hypothetical Imperative

○ Categorical Imperative: Must follow, no matter what. Based

on reason. E.g., “Do not lie”—applies to all people at all times.
○ Hypothetical Imperative: Conditional. Based on what you
want. E.g., “If you want to pass, then study.”
4. Universalizability
 ○ A moral action must be one that can be universalized
(everyone could do it without contradiction).
○ If your action causes a contradiction when applied to all, then
it is immoral.
5. Humanity as an End in Itself

○ Always treat others as ends, not means.

○ Don’t use people just to achieve your goals—they have their
own rational worth.

3. Kant’s Philosophy on Justice and Fairness

● Justice is about external actions that impact others.

● It does not depend on feelings, desires, or needs.
● It focuses on the fair structure of relationships, not personal interests.
● Justice means allowing people to live their lives freely, without unfair
interference.
● The nature of the relationship (e.g., voluntary transactions) matters
more than personal gain.

4. Taxation in the Philippines (Justice and Fairness in Action)

Taxation is governed by:

1. 1987 Constitution – Taxes must be uniform and equal.

2. Republic Acts:
○ R.A. No. 8424 (Tax Reform Act of 1997)
○ R.A. No. 10963 (TRAIN Law)
○ R.A. No. 7160 (Local Government Code of 1991)

MODULE 4: WHAT IS CULTURE? HOW DOES IT DEFINE

OUR MORAL BEHAVIOR?

4.0 What is Culture?

 ● According to Kohak (1984):

○ Culture is at the root of human alienation from the

environment.
○ Not just about artifacts or aesthetic taste.
○ Comes from the Latin word “cultus”, meaning respect for
sacredness.
○ Originally, culture coexisted with nature and expressed
human responsibility within it.
● According to Cole (2019):

○ Culture includes ideals, beliefs, language, behaviors, and

communication systems.
○ Also includes material objects special to a group.
○ Culture is separate from—but connected to—social structure
and economy.
● According to Lederach (1995):

○ Culture is the collective knowledge and shared frameworks

used by people to perceive, understand, and respond to
reality.
● Zimmerman (2017) adds:

○ Culture includes language, religion, food, social behavior,

etiquette, fashion, music, and arts.

Key Characteristics of Culture:

1. A collection of meaningful artifacts or traditions.

2. Reflects people's preferences and values.
3. Harmonious with the environment.
4. Made of shared beliefs and behaviors within a group.
5. Includes physical and symbolic objects.
6. Is linked with social and economic systems.
7. Helps people understand and respond to life.
8. Seen in how people live: their speech, food, clothes, and customs.

4.1 The Influence of Culture on Moral Development

According to Leano & Gubia-on (2018) and Baring, culture shapes morals in
five ways:

1. Culture is Social and Communal

○ Culture grows from relationships and shared experiences.

○ Through values, norms, and laws, people learn what’s right or
wrong.
○ These elements are passed down but also adjusted by
societal change.
2. Culture Defines Norms and Behaviors

○ Communities create and pass on values that help people

understand what’s acceptable.
○ These values guide moral growth.
3. Culture Sets Boundaries

○ Restrictions and limitations protect the safety and order of

society.
○ Moral awareness is shaped by laws, rules, and customs.
4. Culture Shapes Character and Identity

○ Our behavior, moral values, and identity are molded by the

culture we grow up in.
○ Not all traits are good—but they still affect how we think and
act.
5. Culture Identifies Moral Authorities

○ Parents, leaders, teachers, and elders help teach and enforce

moral standards.
○ Their influence is key in shaping people’s moral decisions.

MODULE 5: CULTURAL RELATIVISM

5.0 Definition of Cultural Relativism

● Cultural relativism is the idea that we should not judge other

societies using our own standards of what is right or wrong, odd or
natural.
 ● Instead, we should understand other cultural traditions within their
own context.

Definitions from various sources:

● Khan Academy: We must make an effort to understand cultural

traditions in their own cultural context, not by our own ideas of
normal or moral.

● Philosophy Home (2009): It is the desire to view a culture on its own

terms, not based on one's community norms.

● Lumen Learning: Cultural relativism promotes understanding of

practices unfamiliar to one’s own culture (e.g., eating insects,
genocide, genital cutting).

● Cultural relativism claims that:

○ No universal moral rules exist that apply to all cultures.

○ Each culture’s moral rules are valid within that culture alone.
○ It's an attitude of openness toward values and behaviors in
different societies.

5.1 Summary of Key Ideas

1. One cannot judge another culture using personal or societal

standards of morality.
2. Instead, one must understand each culture from its own perspective.
3. CR aims to broaden awareness and interpretation of cultural
traditions not common in one’s own culture.
4. The moral standards differ from one society to another.

5.2 Example Comparison

● In Islam, a man may marry up to five wives if he can support them.

● In Christianity (and Philippine law), this is bigamy, punishable by law:
○ Article 349 of the Revised Penal Code: Prohibits multiple
marriages.
 ○ Article 35 of the Family Code: Declares second marriage void
if the first is valid.

5.3 Pros (Advantages) of Cultural Relativism

1. Promotes learning and openness – People become stronger by

understanding others.
2. Breaks the idea of “separate but equal” – Encourages real equality
and justice.
3. Encourages specialization – Individuals focus on their strengths, not
weaknesses.
4. Builds respect – Different views support mutual growth and
coexistence.

5.4 Cons (Disadvantages) of Cultural Relativism

1. Morally harmful actions may be justified – e.g., murder or child

abuse could be seen as okay if "normal" in a culture.
2. Assumes people are perfect – Assumes society will always do what’s
right.
3. Can increase personal bias – May promote individual morality over
shared values.
4. Rejects reform – Stops people from changing harmful practices.
○ Even great reformers would be “wrong” under CR.
○ Could justify bad workplace conditions or slavery if culturally
“acceptable.”

5.5 Final Thought

● Cultural relativism teaches acceptance and understanding, but it must

be balanced.
● Differences in cultures don’t mean one is better than the other.
● By embracing each culture’s strengths and learning from
weaknesses, we can grow as individuals and as a society.
MODULE 6: UNIVERSAL VALUES

6.0 What is Universal Value?

● The word “value” refers to something that a person or group believes

is worth seeking, promoting, or prioritizing.

● This may be:

○ A thing (e.g., money, food, art)

○ A state of mind (e.g., peace, certainty, protection)
○ A behavior resulting from those things (e.g., telling the truth,
being creative)
● Universal values can be understood in two ways:

○ Something that has universal value because everyone finds it

important.
○ Something that has universal value because everyone has
reason to believe it has value.
● According to the Didactic Encyclopedia (2015):

○ Universal value is hard to define.

○ It involves morality and ethics, and needs to be socially
expressed, not just held personally.

6.1 Schwartz’s Concept of Universal Values

● S.H. Schwartz, a psychologist, did research with over 25,000 people

in 44 countries to find out if there are shared values.
● He defined values as "conceptions of what is important that influence
action and evaluation" (Sen, 1999).

🧾 Schwartz found ten types of universal values, each with specific related
values:

1. Power – authority, social power, leadership, dominance, wealth

2. Achievement – success, ambition, intelligence, self-respect, capability
3. Hedonism – pleasure, enjoying life
4. Stimulation – daring, variety, excitement
 5. Self-direction – creativity, freedom, independence, curiosity, setting
your own goals
6. Universalism – broad-mindedness, wisdom, social justice, peace,
equality, harmony with nature
7. Benevolence – helpfulness, honesty, forgiveness, loyalty,
responsibility, friendship
8. Tradition – humility, devoutness, respect for tradition, moderation
9. Conformity – self-discipline, obedience
10. Security – family and national security, social order, health, stability,
sense of belonging

6.2 Universal Values in the UN Charter

● According to Kofi Annan, former UN Secretary-General:

○ Universal values are the foundation of the UN Charter and

Universal Declaration of Human Rights.
○ These include:
■ Peace,
■ Freedom,
■ Social progress,
■ Equal rights,
■ Human dignity.
● In the Millennium Declaration, world leaders affirmed these
fundamental values:

○ Freedom, equality, solidarity, tolerance, respect for nature,

and shared responsibility.
● All countries—rich or poor, developed or not—should apply these
values to:

○ Promote peace
○ Ensure justice
○ Build mutual understanding and cooperation globally

6.3 Basic Universal Human Values

Here are some examples of basic universal human values:

1. Happiness – contentment, pleasure, joy; as Aristotle said in

Nicomachean Ethics, it is a “complete and sufficient good.”
2. Peace – freedom from disturbance or war; harmony in relationships
3. Freedom – liberty to act, think, speak, or live without unjust restrictions
4. Safety – protection from harm, danger, or loss
5. Intelligence – capacity to learn, reason, understand, and think critically

MODULE 7: THE FILIPINO WAY

Filipino Moral Characters: Strengths and Weaknesses

Filipino cultural morality, especially in social ethics, focuses on achieving

“smooth interpersonal relationships (SIR)”, which are supported by the
following:

FILIPINO VALUES
-
● Pakikisama (togetherness):
- Doing good without expecting anything in return (e.g., helping
a neighbor build a house).
- Practiced in communities, work, and school.
- Promotes good public relations and avoids confrontation.
- Weakness: May lead to blind conformity, avoiding necessary
conflict or criticism.

● Utang na Loob (debt of gratitude):

- Returning the favor to someone who helped during difficult
times.
- Common in personal, educational, and work-related support.
- Weakness: Can result in unjust loyalty or being exploited by
others.

● Close Family Ties:

- Living with extended family, strong support system.
 - Family is the central social unit.
- Weakness: May lead to overdependence, even when adults
should be independent.

● Respect for Elders:

- Shown through po/opo, pagmamano, and following elder
advice.
- Children are taught to avoid interrupting or contradicting
elders.
- Weakness: May encourage irrational obedience and lack of
critical thinking.

WEAKNESSES OF FILIPINO CHARACTER

1. Extreme Personalism – Taking things personally, even in public matters.

2. Extreme Family-Centeredness – Prioritizing family even when harmful to
others.
3. Lack of Discipline – Seen in poor time management and a desire for
shortcuts.
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative – Complacency, lack of planning, and “Bahala
na” attitude.
5. Colonial Mentality – Preference for foreign goods and ideas over local ones.
6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome – Selfishness, crab mentality, unhealthy
competition.
7. Lack of Self-Analysis and Reflection – Avoiding self-evaluation, being
superficial and dreamy.

MODULE 8: HOW IS MORAL CHARACTER DEVELOPED?

Moral Character and Its Development

● Moral character is defined as the presence (or absence) of virtues

such as:

○ Integrity
○ Courage
 ○ Fortitude
○ Honesty
○ Loyalty
● A person with good moral character is someone with a sound moral
compass.

● It reflects how a person thinks, feels, and behaves in an ethical or

unethical way.

APPROACHES TO MORAL CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT

1. Virtue Ethics Approach

● “Character” (from Greek charaktêr) originally referred to a mark on a

coin; later, any distinguishing trait.
● In philosophy, it refers to a person’s moral dimension.
● Aristotle is the key figure here.
○ In Nicomachean Ethics, he identifies two types of excellence:
■ Excellence of thought
■ Excellence of character
○ Virtues are tendencies to act, feel, and judge that are
developed through training and repetition.
○ Virtue is the mean between two extremes (Doctrine of the
Mean):
■ e.g., between cowardice and recklessness is courage
■ between stinginess and wastefulness is generosity
● Virtue is a habit formed by constant practice and intelligent judgment.

2. Dispositions Approach

● Dispositions are stable traits or properties, like how:

○ Sugar dissolves in water

○ Glass is fragile
○ Rubber is elastic
● Moral character traits are dispositions worthy of praise or blame:

○ Virtues = Deserve praise (e.g., justice, kindness)

 ○ Vices = Deserve blame (e.g., cruelty, selfishness)
● Traits are:

○ Stable
○ Rational
○ Often form the basis of moral responsibility
● Moral character traits also include emotional dispositions—like the
appropriate amount of fear (courage) or fairness (justice).

3. Circular Relation of Acts and Character

● Our actions shape our character, and our character shapes our
actions.

● Three key factors in this relation:

○ Repetition of actions → forms habits

■ e.g., Helping regularly → becomes second
nature
○ Type of actions (good/bad)
○ Intent and moral responsibility behind actions
● According to Mitchell (2015):

○ Actions may become automatic due to:

■ Habit (e.g., always helping others)
■ Education (learned skills like empathy)
■ Habitus (an inner disposition to act in a certain way)
● Example: Giving your coat to someone who is cold—not because you
think about it, but because it has become part of who you are.

MODULE 9: STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Lawrence Kohlberg

● American psychologist
● Developed a cognitive-stage theory of moral reasoning in 1958
● Theory emphasizes how people decide what is morally right or wrong
 ● Known for the use of moral dilemmas, especially the Heinz Dilemma,
where a man steals medicine to save his dying wife

Kohlberg’s Three Levels and Six Stages of Moral Development

LEVEL 1: Preconventional Morality

● Morality is externally controlled.

● Actions are judged by their consequences—punishment or
reward.
- Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation
● Right = obeying rules to avoid punishment
● Focus is on consequences, not intentions
- Stage 2: Instrumental Purpose Orientation
● Right = what benefits oneself
● Actions are done to gain rewards or fulfill personal needs

LEVEL 2: Conventional Morality

● Focus on social expectations and maintaining relationships.

- Stage 3: “Good Boy / Good Girl” Orientation
● Right = being approved by others
● Moral behavior means being “nice” or liked
- Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation
● Right = obeying laws and fulfilling duties to keep social order
● Focus shifts to larger society, not just relationships

LEVEL 3: Postconventional Morality

● Morality is based on abstract values and universal principles.

- Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation
● Right = respecting individual rights and values of the majority
● Laws are flexible; they should serve the common good
- Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation
● Right = following self-chosen principles of conscience
 ● Justice, equality, and dignity for all—even if laws oppose it
● Not everyone reaches this stage

Summary of the Stages

Level Stage Description

Preconventional 1 Obey rules to avoid

punishment

2 Do what's best for self

(reward-based)

Conventional 3 Be good to gain

approval

4 Follow laws and rules

to maintain order

Postconventional 5 Follow social contract;

laws can change if
unjust

6 Act on universal ethical

principles, even if
against law or norms

Criticism of Kohlberg’s Theory

● Carol Gilligan: Criticized Kohlberg for ignoring moral development in

women.
○ She argued women focus more on care and relationships,
while Kohlberg’s model emphasizes justice and rules.