RVS AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE

(Affiliated to Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore-3)

Thanjavur – 613 402

Theory study material

HOR 212 - PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR ORNAMENTAL

CROPS, MAPS AND LANDSCAPING (1+1)

Student Name :

ID No :

COURSE TEACHERS : Mrs. S. Harini, Assistant Professor (Hort)

 HOR 212 - PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY FOR ORNAMENTAL CROPS, MAPS AND
LANDSCAPING (1+1)
Theory
Unit I: Landscaping

Importance and scope of ornamental crops landscaping. Principles of landscaping. Landscape uses of
trees, shrubs and climbers.

Unit II: Production technology of cut flower crops under protected conditions

Production technology of important cut flowers like rose, gerbera, carnation, lilium and orchids under
protected conditions

Unit III: Production technology of flowers under open conditions and value addition in ornamental
crops

Production technology of important cut flowers like gladiolus, tuberose, chrysanthemum under open
conditions. Package of practices for loose flowers like marigold and jasmine under open conditions.
Processing and value addition in ornamental crops.

Unit IV: Production technology of medicinal crops

Medicinal crops- importance and scope – current status - soil and climate – varieties – propagation–
planting methods – nutrient, irrigation and organic practices – harvest – post-harvest handling – storage,
packaging of Periwinkle, Asparagus, Aloe, Costus, Isabgol, Glory lily, extraction and value addition of
medicinal crops.

Unit V: Production technology of aromatic crops

Aromatic crops - importance and scope – current status -- soil and climate – varieties – propagation–
planting methods – nutrient, irrigation and organic practices – harvest – post-harvest handling – storage,
packaging of Ocimum, Mint, Geranium, Citronella, Lemon grass, Palmarosa and Vetiver – Distillation of
oil and value addition.

Practical

Identification of Ornamental plants. Nursery bed preparation and seed sowing. Training and pruning of
Ornamental plants. Planning and layout of garden. Protected structures – care and maintenance.
Intercultural operations in flowers. Harvesting and post harvest handling of cut and loose flowers. Visit
to commercial flower unit.

Medicinal and Aromatic Plants

Identification of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants- varieties-propagation-special practices - nutrient

management, extraction and distillation of essential oil - Periwinkle, Asparagus, Aloe, Costus, Isabgol,
Glory lily, Ocimum, Mint, Geranium, Citronella, Lemon grass, ,Palmarosa and Vetiver – visit to
commercial medicinal and aromatic plants fields and processing units

Theory lecture schedule

1. Importance and scope of ornamental crops and landscaping.
2. Principles of landscaping
3. Landscape uses of trees, shrubs and climbers.
4. Production technology of cut rose under protected conditions
5. Production technology of gerbera and carnation under protected conditions
6. Production technology of lilium and orchids under protected conditions
7. Production technology of gladiolus and tuberose under open conditions
8. Production technology of chrysanthemum and marigold under open conditions
9. Mid Semester Examination.
10. Production technology of jasmine under open conditions.
11. Processing and value addition in ornamental crops.
12. Scope and Importance of medicinal & aromatic crops– current status - conservation methods
13. Periwinkle, Asparagus and Aloe - varieties –- soil and climate – propagation- sowing and planting,
nutrient, water management – harvest and processing
14. Costus, Isabgol and Glory lily - Propagation- soil and climate – propagation and planting- standards
- pollination-nutrient, irrigation management – harvest, yield and processing
15. Ocimum, Mint, Geranium - varieties – soil and climate- propagation - planting - nutrient, water
management – harvest - distillation of essential oil
16. Citronella, Lemon grass, Palmarosa and Vetiver - varieties – soil and climate- propagation - planting
– nutrient- water and weed management – harvest- distillation of essential oil.
17. Processing and value addition in medicinal and aromatic plants.

Practical schedule
1. Identification, planting, care and maintenance of trees, shrubs and climbers used in garden
2. Identification of varieties in cut flowers under protected conditions.
3. Identification of varieties in flowers under open conditions.
4. Practices of nursery bed preparation, seed sowing in ornamental plants.
5. Training and pruning and intercultural operations in Ornamental plants
6. Planning and layout of garden.
7. Protected structures – care and maintenance.
8. Harvesting and post harvest handling of cut and loose flowers.
9. Identification of medicinal and aromatic plants –economic parts
10. Propagation techniques, planting, cultural operations in Periwinkle, Asparagus and Aloe.
11. Propagation techniques, planting, cultural operations in Costus, Isabgol and poppy.
12. Propagation techniques, planting, cultural operations in Ocimum, Mint, Geranium
13. Propagation techniques, planting, cultural operations in lemon grass, palmarosa, vetiver and
citronella
14. Extraction and distillation of medicinal & Aromatic crops.
15. Visit to commercial floriculture and floral oil extraction units
16. Visit to commercial medicinal and aromatic crops field and extraction unit.
References

1. Bhattacharjee, S.K and De L.C (2003) Advanced Commercial Floriculture Vol. (1) Aavishkar
publishers, Distributors, Jaipur.
2. Bhattacharjee, S.K and De L.C (2005) Medicinal Herbs & Flowers, Aarishkar, Jaipur.
3. Bhattacharjee, S.K., 2004. Hand book of medicinal plants, Pointer publications, Jaipur.
4. Bose, T.K., Yadav, L.P., Pal. P., Parthasarathy, V.A., Das. P., 2003. Commercial flowers. Vol. I and
II. Naya udyog, Kolkata-6.
5. Ravindrasharma (2004) Agro techniques of Medicinal plants. Daya publishing, New Delhi.
6. Trivedi, P.C. (2004) Medicinal Plants: Utilization and Conservation, Aavishkar Publisher,
Distributors, Jaipur.
7. Allan M. Armitage and Judy M. Laushman “Speciality Cut Flowers” , Second Edition, Published by
Timber press 2003, ISBN - 0881925799
 Lecture 1 : Importance and Scope of Ornamental Crops, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants and
Landscaping
Important Definitions:

Ornament: A thing that add to grace or beauty.

Ornamental: A plant grown for ornament or beauty.
Floriculture: It is an art and science of growing flowers to perfection. It can be defined as a specialized branch
of horticulture which deals not only with the cultivation of flowers, foliage, climbers, trees, shrubs, cacti,
succulents,etc., but also with their marketing and production of value-added products from them.

Ornamental Horticulture:
It is a branch of horticulture that deals not only with the cultivation of flowers but also the decorative
foliage plants, trees, shrubs, climbers, creepers, lawn, cacti, succulents, palms, ferns, bonsai and also with their
marketing and production of value-added products from them.

Commercial Floriculture:

The floriculture which is based on flower production, which is high value added flowers. When export is
done, it is known as commercial floriculture.

Cut Flower:

The flower along with stalk is called as cut flowers. eg. Rose, gerbera, chrysanthemum, gladiolus,
tuberose, carnation, anthurium, heliconia, bird of paradise, etc. They generally fetch high market price and are
exported in other countries. They are used for flower arrangements, preparation of bouquets, bookies, baskets, on
table for show purpose, etc.

Loose Flower:
The flower without stalk is called as loose flowers. eg. Marigold, jasmine, gallardia, spider lily, China
aster, etc. They generally fetch less market price and are sold in local market.They are used for preparation of
floral gardens, gajaras, venis, floral ornaments & worshiping god.

Foliage plants/trees:

These are those plants/trees whose foliage particularly leaves or branches are so attractive and can also be
used as a house plant for indoor decoration as well as for outdoor gardening. Eg.

Shrubs: Asparagus, arelea, croton, difenbekia, eranthemum, pothos/money plant, ferns, etc. Trees: Christmas
tree, ashopalav, ashoka, casurina, peltophorum, etc.

Garden:

A garden is an area adjunct to the house or any building especially made for the purpose of refreshment
and recreation.
Landscape:
A landscape may be defined as any area, either big or small, on which it is possible to mould a view or
design with the help of plant material, changing landform, water, stones, etc.

Landscape Gardening:
The application of garden forms, different styles, methods & materials with a view to improving the
landscape.

Medicinal plants:
Medicinal plants are those plants rich in secondary metabolites and are potential sources of drugs. These
secondary metabolites include alkaloids, glycosides, coumarins, flavanoids, steroids etc. eg. Ashwagandha,
guggal, senna, safed musli, etc.

Aromatic Plants:
These plants possess essential oil in them. These essential oils are the odoriferous steam volatile
constituents of the aromatic plants. eg. Rose, jasmine, lemongrass, citronella, palmarosa, mint, etc.

Importance of Ornamental Crops:

Besides food and nutritional security, the aesthetic value is also equally important for our daily lively
hood as well as for environmental purity. Floriculture is important from the following point of view;

1. Economic point of view

2. Aesthetic point of view
3. Social point of view
1. Economic point of view:

 Floriculture is a fast emerging major venture in the world, especially as a potential moneyspinner for many
countries in world.
 Many flowers and ornamental plants are being grown for domestic as well as for export market will
provide more return/unit area
 Gestation period of flower crop is very less compared to other crops.
 Now days, flower arrangements/decorations for bouquets preparation and for floral baskets, have
increased substantially and its share of the total trade has also improved.
 The present trend in floriculture is for making dry flowers, extraction of natural colours and essential oils.
 There is lot of demand for good quality flower seeds and ornamental planting materials.
 Floriculture generates self employment opportunities round the year. The employment opportunities in
the field are varied such as
i. One can join the floriculture field as farm/estate managers, plantation experts, supervisors and
project coordinators and so on.
 ii. Teaching, Research and Extension scientists/ teachers are some other avenues of employment in all
SAUs. iii. Marketing of Floriculture products for different ventures is emerging as a potential
segment of this field.
iv. Besides, one can also work as consultant, landscape architect etc with proper training. v. One
can also work as entrepreneur and offer employment to others.

vi. In addition to these careers which involve research and actual growing of crops.
vii. Floriculture also provides service career opportunities which include such jobs like floral designers,
grounds keepers, landscape designers, architects and horticultural therapists.
2. Aesthetic point of view:
 The wealth of any nation is linked with the health of its people. Unless we can ensure the healthy
development of our citizens, especially for the younger generation, by providing them for open breathing
places through bio-aesthetic planning like in Chandigarh city and landscape gardening, we cannot expect
to build up a healthy society and prosperous nation.
 Horticultural therapy is the new dimension of horticultural sciences to heal the psychic debility and the
science is to use garden, landscape plants, as a new occupational therapeutic tool to restore the lost rhythm
and harmony back to human
 It is being utilized in psychiatric hospitals, general hospitals and physical rehabilitation centres, homes for
elderly, prisons and schools.
 The patients can achieve higher level of personal development and satisfaction.
3. Social point of view:
 Flowers symbolize the purity, beauty, peace, love, adoration, innocence and passion etc. Hence, many
flowers are used to express the most sensitive, delicate and loving feelings where our words fail to express.
 In our society no social function is complete without the use of flowers, floral ornaments, bouquets or
flower arrangements they are invariably used in all social functions.
 Used in social gatherings, birthday parties, welcoming friends or relatives and honoring dignitaries. The
concept of Valentinesday is fast catching up in India also.
 The arrival of new born is rejoiced with flowers.
 To an Indian, especially for Hindus, flowers have a much greater significance in religions offerings.
 Floral garlands, gajras and venis are required in marriage ceremonies for adornment of hairs by women of
all ages, especially in the south India.
 In the present modern era sicks are wished for speedy recovery by offering beautiful cut flowers, while
the dead are bidden farewell with flowers along with tear of sorrow.
 Flowers are very closely associated with mankind from the dawn of human civilization. There is increasing
habit of saying with flowers.
  ‟ Any Indians born with flowers live with flowers and finally dies with flowers".
Bio-aesthetic Planning
The term bio-aesthetic planning, a concept of Prof. Lancelot Hogben, means the proper utilization of the
available flora and fauna inthe beautification of the surroundings.

Air Pollution
Air pollution, one of the most-talked-about problems in the present age, has reached disturbing
proportions in some of the largest cities of the world and also in some of the metropolitan cities in India.

The role of open spaces such as parks and of living plants in checking air pollution is well known. The
parks are considered as the lungs of a city. The barrier of trees checks noise pollution, dust pollution, and air
pollution.

Human Welfare
The role oflandscape gardening in human welfarecannot be overlooked. Even in an underdeveloped
country as India, people do not live by bread alone. They also need some finer things of life. It is a great tragedy
that most of our children in big cities do not have any open space to play and to see colourful flowers, birds, and
butterflies. It is the moral duty of our government, through the municipalities, corporations, and such other bodies,
to provide the citizens with spacious parks having beautiful trees and flowers where they can relax, find peace of
mind, and breathe fresh air after a day's hard work. The children will also be able to play freely in such parks.

Scope of Ornamental Crops in India:

 India is blessed with varied and dynamic agro-climatic condition, good quality soil and water made
suitable for floriculture.
 Geographically India is well located between two major markets i.e., Europe and East Asia.
 Winter is being very mild and hence there is lot of scope to export Indian flowers to temperate countries
during the winter season, when the demand is in peak because of important winter festivals like Christmas,
New Year Day and Valentine’s Day.
 Labour cost is very low in India, nearly 10-15 times cheaper than that of similar employees in the
Netherlands, Israel and Japan.
 The Government of India has identified floriculture as "Extreme Focus Thrust Area" for export during IX
plan.
 With the implementation of GATT agreement European nations has brought down the import duty on
floricultural products, which at present is 15 %.
 The International market is growing @ 8-10 % annually. The International demand is around Rs. 90,000
crore/ year and domestic market at 20-25 %. Hence, the scope to enter floriculture industry in India is
unlimited.
  The Govt. of India has setup the infrastructure for floriculture industry in major cities like New Delhi,
Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bengaluru, Pune etc.
 APEDA is giving financial assistance to some extent for various activities connected with export of
floriculture products.
 Easy bank financing for hi-tech floriculture.
 For 100 % EOUs the government has allowed to sale 50 per cent of produce in domestic markets.
 100 per cent tax exemption has given on implements / raw materials used in greenhouses.
 The rules and regulations related to import and exports have been minimized.
 Singapore is the nearest International standard flower auction centre, helpful for Indian exports.
 Floriculture products posses 25-30 time more foreign exchange earning ability than cereals or any other
agricultural/horticultural products.
 Floriculture is capable of attracting and retaining large number of progressive farmers / entrepreneurs.
 Due to ample sunlight and optimum temperature during winter, it does not require artificial lighting or
heating for green house production of cut flowers.
 The Government of India has identified product specific zones for selective research and development of
floriculture.
 APEDA and GOK have established four flower auction centers including one in Bengaluru, Noida (UP),
Mumbai and New Delhi.
 APEDA also has setup a marketing center at Aalsmeer (The Netherlands) to promote Indian produce.
Importance & Scope of Medicinal Plants in India:
 India is one of the few countries where, almost all the known medicinal plants can be cultivated in some
part of the country or the other. Among the various plants from the country and abroad opium poppy,
sapogenin bearing yams, senna, psyllium husk and seeds, cinchona are in great demand.
 The ancient Indian system of medicine (ISM) is predominantly a plant based material medica making use
of most of our native plants. It caters to almost the entire rural population of our country mainly because
of the scarcity of modern allopathic health care in our villages.
 ISM offers most appropriate or first line therapy against many diseases like Jaundice, bronchial asthma,
rheumatoid arthritis, diabetes etc. For which allopathic medicines have as yet no cure. It is well known
that most allopathic medicines produce many morbid side effects. For this reason more and more people
in the western societies are showing increasing interest and preference for organic drugs and their
preparations.
 India has about 2000 species of medicinal plants and a vast geographical area with high production
potential and varied agro-climatic conditions. Most of these plants can subsist under stress conditions and
are thus suited even for rain fed agriculture. Cultivation of medicinal plants offers considerable scope for
rural employment and export for foreign exchange earnings.
  India is already a major exporter of medicinal plants. It is estimated that Rs. 1060 crore worth of raw
materials and drugs from medicinal plants are exported from India. It holds monopoly in the production
and export of psyllium and senna and is second largest exporter of opium latex.
 Many medicinal plants required by the trade are gathered mainly from the wild growth, thus depleting the
vegetation of its valuable medicinal plant wealth (e.g. Rauvolfia, Dioscorea). On account of this practice,
many species of medicinal plants in our country have become extinct or endangered. This should be
prevented and herbal gardens and gene-banks covering important medicinal plants should be established
to conserve them.

Importance & Scope of Aromatic Plants in India:

1. Aromatic plants are from a numerically large group of economically important plants. These are in
increasing demand for essential oils, aroma chemicals drugs and pharmaceuticals in the world market
since two decades. Aromatic compounds are present in plants i.e. in root, wood, bark, foliage, flower,
fruit, seed etc.
2. Aromatic plants produce essential oils, perfumes and flavours are in use with our civilization since several
thousand years.
3. Due to vast area and varied agro-climatic condition, they can be commercial cultivated in different part of
India successfully.
4. Essential oils and aroma chemicals are indispensable in various human activities.
5. They are adjuncts of cosmetics, soaps, pharmaceutical preparation, perfumer confectionery, ice-cream,
aerated waters, disinfectants, agarbatti etc.
6. Some of the important aromatic plants like Lemon grass, Citronella, Palmarose, Vetiver, Geranium,
Lavender, Dawana etc. have great demand in our country.
7. Historically, India has enjoyed a pre dominant position as the supplier of natural perfumes in the world.
This is true in case of sandalwood oil, lemon grass oil, palmarosa oil, vetiver oil and cedar oil.
Importance & Scope of Landscaping:
1. The prime importance of landscape gardening lies in aesthetic developments and modernization of cities,
town, countryside, roadways, airports, railway stations, railway lines, bus terminus, city parks, and
educational institutions against industrial fast growing pollution. In recent years, bio-aesthetic planning has
wider scope in landscape and gardening.
2. Landscape gardening increases the awareness towards nature developed eco-friendly concept and provide
feeling of responsibility towards plants, birds and animals.
3. It also serves as a source of live medicines and herbal taste in prepared food and tea.
4. It also helps in soil-moisture retention; prevent erosion, modifying air temperature, creating microclimate and
removal of noise and dust pollution.
5. It also provide habitat for birds and animals.
6. One fully developed large tree in a landscape can change the microclimate and brings down the temperature
by 2 to 5oC.
7. The average temperature of concrete urban area devoid of vegetation/green belt is higher compile to a thickly
vegetated area.
8. Well planned landscape around building or residence adjoins aesthetic value to it as well as affix real estate
value of about 30%.
9. The landscaping profession conveys and directs to make human life more elegant, more satisfying, more eco-
friendly and more productive.
10. There is unbound scope in the field of landscape gardening with the increase in demand for attractive parks,
landscaped ground of schools and institution, pleasant residential backyards, eco-friendly housing society
and towns.
11. Landscape flora industry employs thousands of people through various activities like nursery and rental plant
services, besides landscape designing.
12. Landscape gardening also plays a vital role in giving emphasis to the tourist business by improving aesthetic
and functional uses of historical places, sea beaches, rivers and dams, hill stations and other tourist places.
 Lecture 2: Principles of Landscaping

Principles of Landscape Gardening:

There are some principles keep in mind when landscaping the garden. They are mentioned here.

1) Axis: - This is an imaginary line in any garden round which the garden created striking balance.
2) Unity:- Unity in a garden is very important and will improve the artistic look of thegarden.

Unity has to be achieved from various angles .It can be achieved by using mass planting and repetition.

3). Mass effect:-The use of single plant species in large numbers in one place is done to have mass effect. One
should see that such mass arrangements do not become monotonous; the sizes of masses should be varied

4) Repetition:- It refers to repeated use of features like plants with identical shape, in form, texture and colour.
Eg Hedge, Avenue planting

5) Focal point:-A focal point in every garden is a centre of attraction which is generally an architectural feature
focused as a point of interest such as statue, fountain, rockery etc. It involves the leading visual observation towards
a feature by placement of the feature e.g. center of the garden, corner of the garden.
6) Space:-The aim of garden design should be such that the garden should appear larger than it actual size. The
aim of every garden design should be such that the garden should appear larger than its actual size. One way of
achieving this is to keep vast open spaces, preferably under lawn and restrict the plantings in the periphery, normally
avoiding any planting in the centre
7) Balance:- It refers to equilibrium or quality of usual attraction, • Correct positioning of plants and features
create well balanced design . It is used to maintain optimum symmetry in garden.
8) Rhythm:- Repetition of the same object at equal distance is called rhythm.
9) Divisional Lines:- a landscape design there should not be such hard and fast divisional lines,the necessity
of dividing or rather screening a compost pit or mail's quarter or a vegetable garden from the rest of the
garden
10) Proportion and Scale:-
• Proportion refers to the size of parts of the design in relation to each other and the design as a whole.Scale
refers to the size of an object or objects in relation to the surroundings.

11) Texture:- Texture describes the surface quality of an object than can be seen or left, surface in the
landscape includes buildings, walks, ground covers and plants
12) Time and Light:- A good planner must roughly take in to account the seasonal movement of the sun shade
and light area likely to fall during different parts of the season
13) Colour:-
 Colour can be used to direct attraction in the land scape. Three basic colour schemes are i)
Monochromatic ii) Analogous iii) Complementary

14) Mobility:-
• Mobility means gradual changes or sudden change. Garden should be mobile.
• It can be obtained by the arrangement of objects with varying texture, forms or sizes in logical
order.
15) Garden style:-
• Garden styles have been changed from time to time with the new ideas and necessities.
Styles of garden are Formal, Informal, and Free style or Wild style.

Selection and finalizing the style of the garden is the first step after seeing site, for planning design on
paper. Style should be selected on the basis of purpose, types, landform, interest of owner, maintenance capacity,
region (urban or rural area), building structure, etc. One has to be creative to evolve one’s own style of gardening
according to his budget, taste and the nature of the site. There are three basic garden styles given as under:
Difference between formal and informal garden:

Formal garden Informal garden

1. More stress on geometrical balance, each 1. Stress on natural balance by other principle
thing use very proportionate. rather than geometrically.
2. The figure is more important than idea. 2. The idea is more important than figure.
3. Even /leveled land. 3. Un leveled land is preferred.
4. More importance on straightness. 4. More importance on curved and round mass.

5. Balance is symmetrical. 5. Balance is asymmetrical.

6. Annual and perennials both have equal 6. Perennials have more importance.
importance.
7. Design is prepared according to the plan to be 7. Plan is made fit to the landscape.
used.
8. Highly dominated by rules. 8. Less dominated by rules.
9. It is creation of artificial scenery. 9. Creation of natural scenery.
10. Small area is required. 10. Large area is required.
11 Types: Mughal, Persian, Italian & French 11 Types: Japanese & English garden.
garden.
General Principles of Garden Design:
1. Simplicity:
Garden design should be simple. It should not have scope for under complexity.
Visitors should catch entire effect. Visitors should know purpose of garden design/plan.
2. Ideal garden should have space i.e. overcrowding of plants should be avoided.
3. Judicious uses of more number of varieties/species of plants, instead of going for few plants go for more
number of plants because it serves two purposes.
a. Increases aesthetic beauty. b) Serves the scientific purpose.

4. Garden path/ drive should not too straight and long.

5. Garden should layout for owners comfort and convenience.
6. Natural grade of greens taken in to consideration.
7. All garden features should be accommodated in proper place in a proportionate manner, careful selection
of plant and also increase beauty of garden.
8. It should comfortable to living (Private garden).
9. It should serve perfect place for passing leisure time.
10. Easy to maintain to carry out all intercultural operations.
11. When we say garden is complete garden should look beautiful and should give pleasant look to the garden.
 Lecture 3 : Use of Trees, Shrubs and Climber in the landscape/Garden
1.Trees:
Trees are big, tall perennial plants having very thick and hard distinct stems called as trunk and
crown at the top. This single main stem i.e, trunk give rises to many branches bearing leaves and fruits.
• Trees are essential feature of a landscape garden, roadside planting, public parks, along railway
line, in school and colleges and in private garden also.
• It provides shade, shelter and makes summer pleasant.
• Bears beautiful flowers and foliage.
• Some trees provide fruits.
• Trees plays important role in controlling pollution in cities and town.
• Some species of trees are used for beautification.
• Delight and refresh the eye with their green foliage.
• Trees are used as avenue e.g .Amaltas, Cassia, Gulmohar, Ashok, Rain tree etc
e.g. flowering trees: Gulmohar (Delonix regia), Bottle brush (Callistemon lanceolatus) Ashoka (Saraca
india), Pride of India (Lagerstroemia), Spathodea campanulata, Bahunia, Begonia, Palash (Butea
monosperma,) Casia fistula (garmalo), etc.
e.g. foliage trees: Ashopalav (Polyalthia longifolia), Silver oak, Peltophorum inerme, Sharu (Casuriana
equisetifplia), Siris (Albezia lebbek), Rain tree (Samane saman), Eucalyptus, Vad (Ficus bengalensis),
Pipal (Ficus relegiosa), Rubber tree (Ficus elastic), etc.

2.Shrubs:
 Shrubs are plants with many woody branches arising from the base of the plant and are smaller (1 to
4 m in height) than trees but bigger than herbaceous plants.
• Shrubs are the chief attraction of ornamental garden with their handsome foliage, colorful
flowers and attractive berries.
• They are perennial habit and need little care.
• Shrubs are ideally suited for topiary work, formal garden, landscape designing.
• It can be planted as single specimen in lawns or as tub plants.
• Shrubs can also be planted to secure privacy in the garden.
• Shrubs are use as Shrubbery border which is a source of perennial pleaser.
• Some shrubs can be grown along the paths.
• Shrubs can effectively break the monotony of a large open space in the garden
e.g. flowering shrubs: Rose, jasmine, hibiscus, ixora, hemelia, lantana, narium, Tecoma stens, etc.
e.g. foliage shrubs: Croton, duranta, acalypha, aralia, eranthemum, thuja, etc.

Climbers and Creepers:

 Climbers: Climbers are defined as a plant which possesses special structures to climb over a support.
These special structures may be hook-hike thorns.
 Creepers are those plants which are unable to climb vertically on their own because of their weak
stems.
Uses of climbers in garden:
1. Certain climbers are grown in gardens for their attractive foliage. e. g. Asparagus spregeri, Ficus
repens, Hedera helix, Scindapsus aureus.
2. Some light climbers can be trained as ‘screens’ in gardens. e. g. Bignonia venusta, Jacquemontia
violaceae, Passiflora edulis.
3. Climbers like Allamanda, Antigonon, Aristolochia elegans, Solanum seaforthianum can be used
on arches, bowers and pergolas.
4. Heavy climbers like Bougainvillea, Quisqualis indica, Petrea volubilis, Adenocalymma allicea,
Allamanda cathartica, Scindapsus, Petrea volubilis can be trained over strong pergolas or on
trees which look very attractive.
• The bare wall of building or boundary wall can be covered beautifully by a colorful climbers or
a foliage type of climbers.
• Climbers can be used for the purpose of screening to maintain privacy from the adjacent houses.
• The climbers are also grown to be trained on trellis, pergolas, arches, arbours and against pillars
or similar structures.
• Use for climb over net house or conservatories.
• Climbers are also suitable for roof gardens, where vertical growth is preferred because of lack of
space.
• All over climber if properly used, they serve to brighten and cheer up a place.
 Climbers are very important ornamental plants and are commonly used on walls, arches and pergolas
but in cities their utility is increased for the purpose of screening the premises from adjacent houses
and maintaining privacy. Bare walls can be most effectively decorated by growing colorful climbers.
 Climbers and Creepers are important group of plants which add beauty, color in striking way of
fragrance in gardens and artificial structures like wall, arches, pergola, pillars; topiary, etc. are well
decorated with the help of climbers.
SN Climbers Vs Creepers
1 They tend to grow vertically. They tends to spread horizontally along the
soil and.
2 They climb on their own . They required support for climbing.
3 They possess special structures to climb Do not posses special structures.
over a support like hook-hike, thorns,
tendrils, etc.
4 Main stem is weak. Main stem is soft & very weak.
5 eg. Bignonia, Ficus repens, eg. Morning glory, Railway creeper etc.
Bougainvillea, etc.
 Lecture 4 : Production technology of cut rose under protected conditions
CUT ROSE Family : Rosaceae
Importance and uses
 Rose has been a symbol of love, adoration and innocence
 Used as loose flowers for worship, garland making, decorating hair, etc.
 Used in garden display – widely used for edging and pot cultivation
 Cosmetics, perfumes, flavours : Damask rose, Red rose, Edward rose – used in preparation of rose water,
rose attar, rose oil (Otto of rose).
 Rose oil is commercially used for the preparation of cosmetics, perfumes and flavors which are exported.
 R. hybrida flowers which are attractive and have long stems are used as cut flowers – in flower
arrangements, bouquets.
 Miniature roses / button roses - indoor display, pot culture
Varieties
Group Varieties Source

Hybrid Tea Mother Teresa, Priyadharshini, Jawahar, Arjun, Anurag, IARI, New Delhi
Mirnalini

Dr.G.S. Randhawa, Kiran, IIHR, Bangalore

Mirnalini Stripe, NBRI, Lucknow

Mirnalini Light pink mutant

First Red, Saffire, Grand Gala The Netherlands

Floribunda Manasi, Kavitha, Mohini, Deepika, Dr.S.S. Bhatnagar IARI, New Delhi

Sharada, Sukumari, Yellow Contempo NBRI, Lucknow

YCD-1, YCD-2, YCD-3 TNAU, Yercaud

Miniature Windy City mutant NBRI, Lucknow

Climbers Climbing Sadabahar IARI, New Delhi

Climbing Cri-Cri NBRI, Lucknow

Scented Rose Edward Rose, Damask or Bulgarian Rose, Andhra Red -

Soil: Well-drained, fertile, porous, loamy soil at least two feet deep and with a pH of 6-7.
Climate ; Bright sunshine for minimum of 6 hrs is essential for the cultivation of roses. The optimum day
temperature of 26 0 C,and night temperature of 150 C is ideal. An RH of 75 % is necessary for proper growth.
Propagation :
Commercial method of propagation is by cutting and budding.
a) Cutting
 Scented roses are mainly propagated through cuttings.
 Hard wood Cuttings in case of polyanthas, climbers, ramblers and soft or semihard wood cuttings for
miniatures are used.
 Cuttings are collected from healthy plants
 Cuttings are prepared with 15-20 cm length and 3-4 nodes.
 Cuttings are treated with IAA, BA 100ppm and planted in mist chamber for easy and quicker rooting.
b) Budding
 Hybrid roses are mainly propagated through budding.
 ‘T’ budding is the common method.
 R.multiflora, R.indica, R.bourboniana. R. Canina and R. Noisettiana are the commonly used rootstocks.
Planting
 Planting can be avoided during hot summer and heavy rains.
 In plains roses can be best planted during Sep-Oct after the cessation of the rains.
 In hills, planting fan be done during Oct-Nov or Feb-Mar.
Spacing
Vigorously growing cultivars : 60 x 75 cm / 75 x 75 cm
Miniatures : 30 cm
Climbing types :3m
Points to remember during planting:
 The plant along with the earth ball is planted
 The bud-union point where the scion joins the stock is kept just above the ground level.
 Suckers originating from the root stock must be removed frequently.
Irrigation :
The newly planted roses require frequent watering in the beginning. After that they may be watered once
in five days during summer, and once in ten days during winter. Care should be taken to avoid ‘wet feet’, i.e. to
avoid stagnation of water near the base of the plants as it is harmful to the roots.
Manuring:
Edward Rose and Red Rose : 6:6:12 g NPK/plant
Hybrid Teas / Polyanthas / Floribundas : 8:8:16 g NPK/plant
Dose/plant – FYM 10 kg, Urea 65 g, Super phosphate 25 g, MOP 50 g
Application : in 3 splits
  15 DAP
 After first flush of bloom
 After second flush of bloom
 Foliar spray of the micronutrients MnSO4 (20g) + MgSO4 (15g) + FeSO4 (10g) + Boron (5g) @ 2g/l of
water results in bright coloured flowers.
 Organic manures such as oil cakes and bone meal may be applied after pruning.
Plant growth regulators :
 GA 3 @ 250 ppm sprayed during the flushing results in :
 Increase in the length of the stem/shoot
 Increase in the no. of shoots/plant
 Early flowering
 Prolonged flowering period
 Higher flower yield
 CCC 3% results in :
 More no. of flower buds
 Higher flower yield
 Larger flowers

Pruning
Pruning is done to :
 Remove unproductive shoots
 Give the bush a desirable shape and size
 Open up the bush to receive more solar energy
 Rejuvenate the old plants
 Facilitate cultural operations
 Improve the quality of blooms
Time of pruning :
Exactly 45 days prior to the date of requirement of flowers. Generally done during OctoberDecember.
Method of pruning
1st Year : Cut back the shoots retaining to four developed buds to develop into lateral shoots
2nd Year : Retain all strong shoots and remove weak and diseased shoots. Cut back the strong
shoots retaining 4-5 buds
3rd Year : Cut back vigorous shoots to half of the length
Rejuvenation pruning :
After 5-6 years the plants are to be rejuvenated. Cut back all the main branches at 15-20 cm from the base.
Apply Bordeaux paste over cut ends to prevent diseases.
Harvesting
 Flowering starts from 1st year onwards.
 Economic yield is obtained from 2nd to 10th years.
 Flowers are harvested when the flower buds are in half open stage.
 For cut flowers, they are harvested at tight bud stage with long stalks.
Post-harvest handling
 As soon as the flowers are harvested, the stems are kept dipped in clean water with preservative.
 The flowers are then cooled down to 2-4 0 C for 5-6 hours.
 The flowers are graded according to the length of the flower stalk. It varies from 40-110cm depending on
the variety.
 Packing is done with 20 stems per bunch.
Yield
Loose flowers : 7.5 t/ha
Cut flowers : 1st year : 100-120 flowers/m2
2nd year: 200-240 flowers/m2
3rd year: 300-360 flowers/m2
 Lecture 5 : Production technology of gerbera and carnation under protected conditions
GERBERA
Introduction:
Gerbera (Gerbera jamesonii Bolus ex Hooker F.) commonly known as Transvaal Daisy, Barberton Daisy
or African Daisy is an important commercial flower among the top ten cut flowers. It is grown successfully
throughout the world under a wide range of climatic conditions for its very attractive flowers. The genus Gerbera
was named after the German botanist/naturalist, Traugott Gerber, who travelled to Russia in 1743. Gerbera was
discovered in 1884 near Barberton, South Africa, by Scotsman Robert Jameson. The first official description of
the South African species, Gerbera jamesonii was made by J.D.Hooker in 1889, in Curts Botanical Magazine.
Importance and Uses:
 Ranks fifth in cutflower ( Rose, carnation, Chrysanthemum, Tulip )
 It is ideal for beds, borders, pots ad rock gardens
 The flowers available in a wide range of colors and lend themselves beautifully to different floral
arrangements.
 Used as cut flowers and the cut blooms have long vase life and suitable for floral arrangements  Mostly
inhabits the temperate and mountain region
Origin and Distribution:
Native – South African and Asiatic region
The market requirement for cut flowers is very specific and it can be met consistently, only when
the crop is grown under protected conditions. In places where the natural weather conditions remain considerably
cooler for most parts of the year as in parts of USA, UK, Australia, the crop is being grown under fully protected
climate controlled greenhouses. In places, near equator, which enjoys warmer sunny climate, semi protected
conditions are successfully employed to cultivate the crop.
At present in India, it is cultivated commercially in and around cities like Pune, Ooty and in the parts
of Punjab, Kashmir, Sikkim and West Bengal. In Karnataka, it is grown in a few pockets around Bangalore,
Dharwad and Belgaum districts
Botany:
Gerbera belongs to family Asteraceae, which consists of many other important flower crops namely, aster,
chrysanthemum, dahlia, marigold etc. It consists of about forty species of semi hardy and perennial flowering plants.
Out of all the recorded species, only Gerbera jamesonii is under cultivation. The plants are stem less and tender
perennial herbs. Flower heads are solitary, based on flower heads they may be grouped into single, semi double and
double. The genotypes are available in various unicoloured flowers as well as in bicolour types. Often the same
flower can have petals of several different colours.
Floral Biology:
 The flower head is called capitulum consists of ray florets in one or two outer whorls and tubular (disc
florets) in inner rows. The head contains outer ray florets which are functionally female and in these
flowers, stamens are no more than staminodes made up of thin sterile filaments.
 The florets in the centre are called disc florets, which are tubular and functionally male. In between disc
and ray florets hermaphrodite or bisexual flowers are present which are transflorets.
 In these ray florets, three of the five petals are joined to form a broad ligula, the remaining two form
a smaller lip.
 Flower stalks are thin, long slender and leaf less. Gerbera produces attractive flowers known as‗head‘or
capitulum. The plant is dwarf herbaceous perennial and grows in clump with solitary flower heads on
a long slender stalk, which grows well above the foliage. The leaves are petioled, entire or pinnatilobed,
coarse or some times tubular and two lipped. Achenes are beaked; pappus or rough bristles in two or
more rows. The daisy like flowers are available in wide range of colours including yellow, red, orange,
cream, white, pink, brickred, scarlet, salmon peach, maroon and variouss other intermediate shades
Species:
The genus Gerbera consists of about 40 species of half hardy perennial flowering plants.
Gerbera asplenifolia :
 Leaves narrow,10-15cm long, leathery gloss above
 Lobes roundish, concave margins
 Revolute flower heads purple on a hairy scape
Gerbera aurantiaca (Hilton Daisy)
 Leaves are lanceolate to oblong, acute 12.5-15 cm long, entire or toothed
 The flowers are not single flowers but a head made up of many tiny florets massed together.
 The 'petals' (ray florets) are usually a striking crimson, but may be orange, pink or yellow on the upper
surface and are coppery below
Gerbera jamesonii (Barbeton Daisy):
Single or double flowered cultivars and hybrids in attractive pastel colours
Gerbera kunzeana: a Himalayan species
Gerbera viridifolia:
 Leaves elliptical or oblong, obtuse, green on both sides and smooth or nearly so  Flowers stalks short.
 Flower heads are dirty white and small
Gerbera hintonii: endemic to Mexico has floral characters that indicate affinities to the genus Gerbera and a new
nomenclature.
Gerbera maxima: a rare plant rediscovered after a century from Pauri Garhwal
  Gerbera is a diploid (2n= 50) and basic chromosome number is n= 25. Chromosome phenotypes are
influenced by changes in chromosome number.
 Based on the fertility it can be divided into three types, namely, (1) completely self sterile plants, (2)
plants with distinct differences in seed set with self or cross pollination, and (3) plants in which these
differences were less pronounced. Productivity and other major flower characters are determined by
additive gene action. Flower colour is controlled by two pairs of genes
 Gerbera species of Indian origin are Gerbera anandria, Gerbera kunzeana, Gerbera languinosa, Gerbera
macrophylla, Gerbera nivea, Gerbera ovalifolia and Gerbera piloselloides. The cultivated speices, however,
is Gerbera jamesonii
Various Forms of Gerbera
Single Flowers: Single row of non-overlapping petals (ray florets) with a green center (disc florets).
Double or duplex: Double row of overlapping petals with a green, black, or dark red eye.
Crested doubles: These doubles contain two rows of overlapping petals with one or more inner rows of shorter
petals with a green, black, or dark red eye.
Full crested doubles: These have solid overlapping rows of petals with an inner row diminishing in size, covering
the eye entirely.
Varieties:
 Red : Ruby Red, Sangria, Dusty, Fredorella, Vesta
 Yellow : Doni,Supernova, Mammut, Talasa, Uranus
 Rose : Rosalin, Salvadore, Flemingo
 Pink : Pink Elegance, Marmara, Esmara, Terraqueen, Valentine
 Orange : Carrera, Goliath,Marasol
 Cream : Farida, Dalma, Snow Flake, Winter Queen
Thallasa, Tara, Sangria, Sunset, Ornella, Lyonella, Diablo, Whitsun, Twiggy, Nevada, Lynx, Macho,
Vino, Venturi
Clonal selection:
Two varieties from TNAU released under clonal selection YCD-1
 Selection from OP seeds of germplasm maintained at HRS, YCD.
 Dwarf, herbaceous, perennial, height 39 cm
 Flowers large, double, cherry red
 Petals dense in concentric whorls
 Free from bent neck, petal wilting
 Suitable for cut flower, borders, pot cultivation YCD-2
 Selection from germplasm collection at HRS, YCD
  Blooming throughout the year, peak flowering May- June
 Flowers attractive rosy pink, on long stalk without bend
 Vase life 15 days
 Yield about 80 flowers/ clump/ years
Soil and Climate
 Well drained, rich, light, neutral or slightly alkaline soil is most suitable
 Presence of an impervious layer with in 50cm from surface in any type of soil, affects growth of the crop.
The soil pH – 5.5 -6.5
 Day temperature 22-250C and night temperature 12 to 160C is ideal for growth and flower production,
flower initiation 23⁰C
 The flowering of Gerbera is harmed below 12⁰C and above 35⁰C
 Humidity – 75- 80%
 Light - 450 - 600 foot candles
 CO2 - 700 ppm
Bed preparation:
 Land ploughed deep 2 to 3 times and brought to a fine tilth.
 Raised beds of 30cm height, 1 m width 30cm passage between beds.
 Media mixture FYM : Sand : Cocopeat / Paddy husk (2:1:1).
 Sterilize the bed with Formaldehyde (100ml in 5L/m2) or Methyl bromide (30g/m2) covered with plastic
sheet for 7 -10 days.
 To control soil borne phytophthora, fusarium and pythium
Spacing : 30 to 40cm between rows & 25 to 30 cm between plants
Accommodates : 6-7 plants per m2
Planting Season:
(a) Open field cultivation
1. Spring (January-February and March)
2. Summer (June, July and August)
(b) Protected cultivation Throughout year
 Planting in raised beds improve drainage and aeration
 Plants are to be planted at shallow depth - crown of plant at the level with soil or just above
 Plant density : 6-7 plants/m2
 Spacing :40X30 cm, 30X30 cm
 Maintain RH 80-90 % to avoid desiccation
 First 3 weeks – overhead irrigation
  Drip Irrigation – 1 drip / plant
 Water requirement – 300 -700 ml/ plant/day
 Never use Excess water . Moderate moisture is enough
Bench System
 A pot size of 3.5 / 4.5 litres and 18-20 cm deep is recommended.
 Between walking path : 75-80 cm.
 Between rows : 75-80 cm.
 Between the plants : 20 cm.
 Distance between the plants is measured from heart to heart of the pot centre
Advantages of Bench system
 A gutter has to be installed under the pots
 Ground under the system stays dry and the chance on Botrytis is therefore reduced  The leaves can be
bent, thus allowing the crop to become more open.
 Improve ventilation between the plants.
 Easy picking of flowers and crop maintenance.
 Efficient crop protection
Propagation:
Commercially propagated through division, suckers or tissue culture plants
 Vegetative – clumps / suckers
 Micro propagation (shoot tips, inflorescence buds, flower heads) popular for rapid, large scale and
uniform.
 Division
 Tuber division by separating tuber each with a piece of stem
 Need tuber division
 By placing the tuberous root in a warm moist place for a short time before dividing the tuberous root
Manures and fertilizers:
 Requires plenty of organic matter, macro and micro nutrients
 Organic manure @ 7.5kg/m2
 Ammonium nitrate + Superphosphate + Potassium sulphate @ 4g/lit for better flower yield.
 Above nutrients @ 2g/lit for vegetable growth.
 NPK @ 10:15:20g/m2/month for first three months and 15:10:30g NPK/m2/month  after three months
resulted in good production of flowers.
 Application of Boran, Calcium Megnesium and copper @ 0.15% (1.5 ml/lit) Growth Regulators:
 Nitrogen ,GA3 – Different concentrations
  30 g N/ sq.m / month + spraying GA3 150 ppm at monthly interval – maximum vegetative growth.
Effect on flowering:
 6-15 days delay flowering
 SADH 1000-5000 ppm, TIBA 500-2000 ppm and etheral 2000 ppm
Increased flower production
Ethrel 50-100 ppm, CCC, MH, SADH (large flowers)
Special practices Leaf pruning:
 The old leaves from a gerbera plant should be removed well in time.
 This practice allows the plant to produce new leaves.
 It also helps in keeping good sanitation in the green house
Harvesting:
 Flowering Starts 3 months after planting.
 Harvesting is done when Outer 2-3 rows of disc florets are perpendicular to the stalk
 Plants with 14-16 leaves
 Harvest 2-3 times / week
 The heel of the stalk is cut about 2-3cm above the base and kept in fresh chlorinated water
 Average yield in polyhouse around 200 flowers/m2/year and 40 flowers/plant/year
Economic life : 2 years
Harvest Index :
 2- 3 whorls of stamens are visible
 2 rows of ray florets perpendicular to stalk
 Pick flower instead of cutting it off
Grading:
Based on stem length and diameter - A, B, C and D grades A good flower is:
Stalk length: 45 – 55 cm. Diameter of flower: 10 – 12 cm. Minimum vase life of 8-10 days.
Post harvest handling
Packaging
Cover with polythene sleeves 10 flowers/bunch
CFB box (98 x 30 x 12 cm of LWH) Accomodates – 500 flowers/box
Advantage of gerbera cups
 No more damaged gerberas
 Ideal packaging for online sales.
 Reducing transport loss by up to 50%.
 Easy to transport in water.
  The cost of the sleeves are low.
 Easy to remove from the gerbera flower.
 Reduce botrytis or mould in the transport period because the flower stays open
 Gerbera cup-machine to put the cups on, which saves labour.
 Visually more attractive
 Gerberas are phototropic in nature
A tendency to turn to the light To keep the stems straight
 Suspend their heads in a grid wire mesh
 Wrap the stems in damp newspaper
 Stand them upright in a vase of water.
Physiological disorders Preharvest stem break
 Bright sunny weather
 High temperature
 During rehydration – stem elongation due to high water accumulation & breaks
 High root pressure and high humidity in the air. Premature flower wilt
 Cloudy days with low light intensities followed by a clear sunny day
 Lack of stored carbohydrates
Flower bent
 Due to loss of cell turgidity & under nutrition (lack of Calcium)
 Double-faced Gerbera flower
 Due to imbalance of nutrients. Too much growth, too little flower buds.
 Non-uniform flower blooming
 Physical injury to flower stem/pest damage/phytotoxicity
 Short stem length
 High salinity level, moisture stress, low soil temp
Scape bending
 Bending of flower stalk
 premature senescence
 Indication of loss of vase life
 Due to low water potential
 Changes in physiological and biochemical components of the flower
Micronutrient deficiency:
Fe: young leaves – interveinal chlorosis, Maintain pH 5.5 – 6, Foliar spray of 0.5% FeSO4 with 0.5% urea
Manganese : Leaves – yellowish, veins – green, Apply manganese chelates
Pest and Diseases
Whitefly, Leaf minor, Thrips, Aphid, Red spider mite, Bud caterpillar
Diseases
Foot and root rot, Bud rot, Powdery mildew, Leaf spot, Anthracnose
Control measures
Aphids: Apply Imidacloprid 200SL @ 25 g ai/ha or dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/l of water before the
opening of flower
Whitefly: Apply Imidacloprid 200SL @ 25 g ai/ha or dimethoate 30 EC @ 2 ml/l of water before the opening of
flower
Thrips: Spraying Methyl Demeton 25EC or fenitrothion 50 EC @ 3.5 ml/l Dimethoate 30EC @ 250ml/ha at 10
days interval
Red spider mite: Dicofol@1.5ml/lt or Abamectin @ 0.4 ml or Propargite @ 1 ml/lt.
Flower bud rot: Apply Actimycin 200 ppm / ha
Root and foot rot (Phytophthora):
Soil drenching with copper oxy chloride; Soil application of Thiophanate at 250g/ha
Powdery mildew: Sulphur or Karathane 500g/ha

Carnation - Dianthus caryophyllus L.

Importance and uses-origin and distribution-area and production- botany, species and varieties –
propagation-media and planting-environmental factors- netting – inter culture - pinching-production
constraints-plant protection-harvesting and yield.
Introduction:
Carnation (Dianthus caryophyllus L.) is one among the most popular commercial cut flowers of the
world, ranking second in commercial importance next only to rose an account of its excellent keeping quality,
wide range of forms and colours and ability to withstand long distance transportation. Cut carnations, roses and
chrysanthemums contribute close to 50% of the world cut flower trade. As well as remarkable ability to rehydrate
after continuous shipping. It is commonly called as Carnation, Divine flower, Clove pink, Gilly Flower.
Importance and Uses
Carnations are excellent for cut flowers, bedding, pots, borders, edging, indoors and rock gardens. They
give a unique softness to the rock gardens. Though cut carnations are traded in the world market year round, they
are in particular demand for the Valentine‘s Day, Easter, Mother‘s Day and Christmas. Miniature carnations
are now gaining popularity for their potential use in floral arrangement.
Carnations are associated with some sentiments and symbolisms. In Korea, red and pink carnations are used
in expressing love and gratitude towards parents on Parents‘Day. Pink carnations are symbol of mother‘s undying
love. Red carnations are worn on Mother‘s Day if one‘s mother is alive and a white one if she is not. Carnations are
also used on Teachers‘ Day to express admiration and gratitude to teachers. Light red carnations represent
admiration, while dark red ones denote deep love and affection. White carnations represent pure love and good
luck; striped carnations symbolize regret that a love cannot be shared. Green carnations are used as a secret gay
code, while purple carnations indicate capriciousness.
Origin and Distribution
It is native to the Mediterranean region but its exact range is unknown due to extensive cultivation for the
last 2000 years. Carnation belongs to the family Caryophyllaceae. The genus name Dianthus‘ is derived from the
Greek words dios‘ meaning God‘ or divine‘ and anthos‘ meaning flower‘ and hence known as 'Flower of Zeus' or
Divine Flower‘. The species name caryophyllus‘ is derived from the Greek word caryan ‘meaning nut‘ and phylon
‘meaning leaf‘. The name caryophyllus has been chosen by Linnaeus after the genus name of clove, due to the
clove-like fragrance of carnation. The common name carnation‘ probably must have come from the Greek word
coronation‘ because these flowers were used in decorating the crown of Greek athletes. Carnation is the national
flower of Spain.
Carnation growing countries are Spain, Kenya, Columbia, Israel, Ceylon, Poland, the Netherlands, France,
Germany, Italy, Canary Islands, Australia, Valparaiso, Chile, USA and South Africa. An altitude of 2000-2500m
is ideal for carnation cultivation. In India, carnation is grown in Nasik, Pune, Kodaikanal, Nilgiris, Kalimpong,
Darjeeling, Bangalore, Solan, Palampur, Shimla, Srinagar, Nainital and Chaubattia. The most suitable climate
for commercial carnation flower production in India prevails in the Nilgiris and Kodaikanal of Tamil Nadu and
parts of Himachal Pradesh.
Botany:
Carnation is a semi hardy herbaceous perennial with thick, narrow, linear and succulent leaves. Leaf
blades are simple, entire, linear, glaucous, arranged in pairs, keeled and five nerved and their colour varies
from green to grey blue or purple. The stems are hardy, shiny and have one to three angles with tumid joints.
Flowers are bisexual and occasionally unisexual. The flower colour varies from white to pink or purple in colour.
Species:
The basic chromosome number in Dianthus is 15. Carnations are generally diploids (2n=30), though
tetraploid forms (4n= 60) have also been identified. Triploid carnations were produced for commercial purpose, but
the resulting plants were mostly aneuploid. The majority of cultivable carnations are diploid.
The family Caryophyllaceae consists of 80 genera and 2000 species which are either annual or
perennial and most of them occur in the northern hemisphere. The genus Dianthus has about 300 species of which
only a few are cultivated viz., D. caryophyllus, D. barbatus and D. chinensis.
Modern day perpetual flowering carnation is a cross between D. caryophyllus and D. chinensis.
The species barbatus is commonly known as Sweet Williams‘, which grows readily from seeds. The stem
in this species is glabrous, four angled and branched at the top. The leaves are opposite, broad and flat. The flowers
are solitary, the petals are broad with frilled margins and the calyx is cylindrical with bracts at the base. The
species chinensis is commonly known as Indian Pink‘ or Japanese Pink‘. The plants are glabrous more or less
creeping at the base. The stems are pubescent and grooved. The leaves are flat and broad. The individual petals are
hairy towards base. This species is excellent for beds, borders, edging, rock gardens, pots and cut flowers. The two
most commonly grown varieties of this species are the Japanese Pink (D. chinensis var. heddewigii) and the
Fringed Pink (D. chinensis var. lacinatus).

Several other species including D. arenarius, D. plumarius, D. gratianopolitanus, D. winteri, D.

heddewigii, D. laciniatus, D. nobilis, D. superbus, etc. were utilized for the development of modern carnation
cultivars. The other Dianthus species are D. attenuatus, D. caesius, D. callizonus, D. capitatus, D.
carthusianorum, D. cinnabarinus, D. cruentus, D. deltoids, D. diadematus, D. frimbriatus,
D. giganteus, D. glacialis, D. grandiflorus, D. hybridus, D. latifolius, D. monspessulanus, D. pancicii,
D. petraeus, D. squarrosus, D. sylvestris, D. versicolor and D. viscidus

Types of Carnation
Based on the availability of large number of varieties and diversified cultural requirements, carnations are
classified as Chabaud or Marguerite, Border and Picotee, Malmaison and Perpetuals.
1. Chabaud or Marguerite
These are annual carnations developed by crossing of D. chinensis with D. caryophyllus. Flowers are single or
double, propagated by seeds. Flowers are large with fringed petals and have shorter post harvest life. The various
kinds of Chabaud are Giant Chabaud, Compact Dwarf Chabaud, Entant de Nice, Fleur de Camelia and Margarita.
2. Border and Picotee
The flowers of border type carnations are symmetrical and are the easiest to grow. The flower colour varies
from single to blended colour with irregular markings. The petals are broad and smooth edged. The flowers are
generally frilled with open centers. In Picotee type ground colour is without spot or bars. The edges are regular and
of bright colour. Border carnations are further subdivided according to colour of flowers as Selfs, Flakes, Bizarres
and Fancies as indicated below.
a) Selfs : The flowers are of a single colour
b) Flakes : The flowers have a ground colour striped with another shade
c) Bizarres : The flowers have a ground colour marked and flaked with two or three other tints
d) Fancies : The flowers which do not come into the above subdivisions
3. Malmaison
These are strong, sturdy and stiff plants with broad leaves. Flowers are large, double with well filled centres
and are mainly pink coloured with good fragrance
4. Perpetuals
 They are hybrids involving many Dianthus species.
 Plants are not hardy and flower all round the year.
  Flower stalks are long and hence suitable for cut flowers.
 They produce better quality flowers and withstand long transportation.
They are grouped into standards or Sim and sprays.
a) Standard carnations
Standard carnations produce larger blooms with longer stems, usually a single large flower on an individual
stem
b) Spray carnations
Spray or miniature carnations produce smaller sized blooms with shorter stems in bunches. The flowers are
borne on short branches of a single stalk. Better adapted to warm climate than standard types.

Varieties:

Soil/Growing Media and Preparation of Beds:

Sandy loam soils rich in organic matter content with pH of 5.5-6.5 are most ideal for carnation cultivation.
Clay and silt soil can be improved by incorporating organic matter or compost. A soil EC of 0.8 - 1.2 dSm-1 during
the vegetative stage and 1.2 - 1.5 dSm-1 during the generative stage is most ideal for carnation cultivation. The
soil must be well drained because the crop is highly susceptible to fusarium wilt. Soil should be ploughed
upto 80-100 cm deep. Addition of calcium carbonate or dolomite limestone to corrects severe acid condition and
also supplies calcium and magnesium for plant nutrition. Addition of sulphur or use of acid forming fertilizers will
inturn reduces the soil pH if it is on the higher side. A rich sandy loam or loamy soil is considered to be the most
ideal for successful production of carnation. Media have to be sterilized with methyl bromide@ 25-30g /
formaldehyde @ 3-7% (7.5 to 10.0 l/100/sq.mt or Basamid (Dazomet) @30-40g/m2.
 Generally, the basal fertilizer dose of single super phosphate @ 200 g/m2, potassium sulphate @
150 g/m2, magnesium sulphate @ 50 g/m2 and borax @ 2 g/m2 should be evenly spread and thoroughly mixed
with the media before bed preparation. Apart from the above fertilizers, bio-fertilizers and bio-control agents
for the control of pest and diseases can be incorporated to soil at the time of bed preparation. Azospirillum,
Phosphobcteria, Trichoderma viridi, Pseudomonas fluorescens, VAM each 1 kg can be added for 500m2 area for
enriching the soil. The ideal bed width and height are 75 -100 cm and 30 - 45 cm respectively. The bed length
should not exceed 25 m. A path width of 45 - 50 cm is ideal.
Climate:
 Light is the most important factor, which influences growth of the plant. About 21.51 lux is considered to
be the minimum natural light intensity required for adequate photosynthesis of carnations.
 Mild climate with a temperature ranging from 5-180C is considered to be the ideal for the crop.
 Day temperature : 28oC (20 -25 0C)
 Night temperature : 16-18oC (10 -15 0C)
 Quantitative Long Day plant (long days promote flowering)
Critical photoperiod : 13 hours and light intensity is10 – 15 foot candle.
 Co2 enrichment in greenhouse: upto 500-1000 ppm improves the flower quality.
 RH : 50 -60 %; (Beginning: 80-85%; at full growth: 60-65 %)
 High day & night temperature during flowering leads to abnormal flower opening and calyx splitting
 Growth behaviour of carnation plants is influenced by duration and intensity of light.
Genetically carnation is a quantitative long day plant. Long photoperiod usually promotes flowering while short
days tend to delay it. Flower quality can be improved by providing long days only for a short period (4-6 weeks)
when the shoots have 4-7 pairs of leaves. Many of the carnation cultivars respond to 15-21 days of lighting.
Depending on the cultivars there are differences in requirement of photoperiod. The critical photoperiod for most
standard and spray carnations is about 13 hours.
Humidity
The plants must be protected from rain and dew during flowering. Wet buds and flowers are susceptible to
fungal diseases. For commercial cultivation, the humidity of greenhouse should be maintained at 80-85% during
beginning of vegetative growth and 60-65% during full growth stage.
Ventilation
Free circulation of air inside the greenhouse is essential. In uncooled greenhouses, vents have to be provided
on the sides or roofs, whereas in cooled greenhouses, a fan-pad cooling system will cater to the needs of air
circulation. A ventilation of 25-30% of the polyhouse ground area is ideal
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide level affects both plant growth and flower quality in greenhouse carnation. The
effectiveness of the carbon dioxide treatment greatly depends on the temperature and light conditions. CO2 feeding
encourages more uniform production of flowers coupled with increased yield and reduced time between harvests.
The best quality flowers can be produced when CO2 concentration in the greenhouse is maintained at 500 - 750
ppm during day time under high light intensity and in a temperature range of 14-15°C. Under favourable
conditions, additional carbon dioxide increases the flower production by 10-30%
Propagation:
Carnation may be propagated by both sexual and asexual methods.
Vegetative Propagation
Using soft terminal cuttings is the common method of multiplication used by commercial growers
throughout the world.
 Cuttings of 10-15 cm with 3-4 nodes weighing around 10g are ideal for multiplication.
 Rooting hormone such as IBA at 500ppm is used prior to planting of cuttings for rooting.
 Terminal cuttings give rise to good plants. Cuttings can be stored at 0oC before planting for several weeks.
 Cuttings are spaced at 5 cm apart and intermittent misting should be used for good rooting.
 Cuttings normally develop good root system within 21 days.
Planting and Aftercare:
 Carnation plants are planted in different spacing normally, 30-45 plants per sqm is considered to be
ideal.
 Different spacings 15x8cm, 15x15cm, 15x20cm and 15x10cm, are followed. Alternate  normal method
of transplanting wherein the plants are planted firmly to soil, carnation,  Care should be taken to maintain
the humidity to prevent plants from drying.
 Planting should be done preferably in the evening. A spacing of 15 x 15cm is followed. This will
accommodate 30 - 33 plants/m2 considering 75% as the net cropping area. In general four row or six row
system of planting is adopted. The plants should be removed from the poly bags or rooting trays carefully
without damaging the roots.
Special Cultural Practices: a)
Training
Training is a very important and continuous operation in carnation cultivation. This operation helps in
keeping the plants within the specified area in the net to grow straight without bending at the bottom. b) Pinching
Pinching is an important operation which helps to ensure maximum number as well as quality of flowers.
It refers to breaking out tip of budding and encouraging growth of side shoots. Some cultivars do not require
pinching but sim cultivars require this operation to encourage branching. 4- 6 well grown laterals are allowed.
At six pairs of leaf first pinching has to be done. First pinching done 3 - 4 weeks after planting. Three types
of pinching are being adopted in carnation are Single, One and half and Double pinches
Single pinch
 In this method, the top of the main or leader shoot is removed leaving 5 pairs of leaves from which 4-5
lateral shoots develop and when the plant attains 6 nodes, the first pinch is given 5 -7 cm of apical portion
has to be pinched off. These lateral shoots will produce flowers at the same time. This method is particularly
applicable to cultivars which produce higher proportion of quality blooms like the hybrid standard carnations.
Pinch and-a-half
This method is followed to regulate the supply of flowers throughout the year. It involves the
removal of main stem tip to induce 4-5 lateral shoots. When these lateral shoots develop 56 pairs of leaves, only
half the number of the lateral shoots are pinched. This method provides steady supply of flowers but reduces the
quantity of the first crop.
Double pinch
In this method the main shoot is pinched once followed by pinching of all the lateral shoots arising from
the first pinch when they are about 6-8 cm long or develop 5-6 pairs of leaves or 3 - 4 weeks after first pinch. This
method produces larger number of flower bearing shoots but produce weak shoots and poor quality flowers. So this
method is not commonly followed.
Deshooting
Unwanted secondary shoots on the flowering stems are removed when they are about 2-3 cm long.
Disbudding
Disbudding is practiced in standard and spray or miniature carnations. In standard carnations, disbudding
is practiced for getting good quality flowers. The axillary/lateral buds are removed just after appearance, without
damaging the leaves and stems. Usually those axillary buds about six nodes below the terminal flower buds are
removed to encourage the development of the main flower bud. In spray or miniature carnations, the main flower
bud (terminal bud) is removed to encourage the lateral flower buds to develop.
Calyx banding
Calyx splitting is a physiological disorder in carnation affecting the flower quality. This disorder can be
minimized by calyx banding. Calyx banding is the practice of placing a rubber band or plastic tape around the calyx
of the flower bud when it just begins to open.
Application of growth regulators
Growth regulators have been reported to significantly influence flower production and regulation in
carnation. Two sprays of GA3 @ 100 ppm each at first pinch and when axillary shoots are 8-10 cm long will
produce early flowering and long stems. Growth retardants like chlormequat (CCC @ 0.25%) and diaminozide
(SADH @ 0.4%) have been reported to promote flower initiation and increase flower yield. They also cause earlier
flowering and improve flower quality by reducing calyx splitting. Application of Malic Hydrazide @500-1000 ppm
also increases the number of flowers but delays flowering.
Support Material:
Carnation crop has the tendency to bend unless supported properly. Hence the crop needs support while
growing. Good support material is metallic wire woven with nylon mesh. At every two meters the wire should be
supported with poles. The poles at both the ends of bed should be strong. Metallic wire is tied around the bed along
the length with the support from supporting poles. Across the bed, nylon wires are woven like net. For an optimum
support, an increasing width of the meshes can be used bottom net can be of 7.5x7.5cm /10x10cm, then two nets
of 12.5x12.5cm and the upper most can be 15x15cm. 4 – 5 layers of nets are to be laid before planting. For every
2.5 to 3.0 m wires to be supported with poles. First net should be fixed at 12 cm above soil. Place remaining nets
over first net 15 cm apart.
Manuring:
No inorganic fertilizers in first 3 weeks after planting. Fertilizer application of 40g N, 20g P and 10g K, in
addition to 5kg of well decomposed FYM /m2 will increase the yield of flowers. or 250:
80:200:125: 400 g/m2/ yr N, P2O5, K2O, Ca, Mg application in 24 splits once in 15 days.
Irrigation:
Over watering and poor drainage causes root death and stunted growth. The growing medium should be
evenly moist. Drip irrigation can be followed after 3-4 weeks of planting.
Physiological Disorders
a) Calyx splitting
Calyx splitting is an important disorder in carnation, which has been associated with many factors like
genetic environmental, nutritional and other cultural practices. The cultivars with short and broad calyx are
more susceptible than the ones with long and narrow calyx. Irregular or fluctuating temperature during
flowering also induces calyx splitting. Low temperature below 10°C leads to the development of an extra whorl of
petals inside the calyx. The calyx unable to hold these extra growing petals splits up.
Nutritional make up of plants also influence calyx splitting. Low nitrogen, high ammonical nitrogen or low
boron levels enhance calyx splitting. Closer spacing has also been reported to encourage calyx splitting.
Selection of cultivars that are less prone to calyx splitting, regulation of day (20-25°C) and night (12.5-
15.5°C) temperatures and maintenance of optimal levels of nitrogen (25-40 ppm) and boron (20-25 ppm) in
the growing medium can minimize this disorder. Spraying of borax @ 0.1% at fortnightly intervals will reduce
the disorder. Calyx splitting can be reduced by placing a rubber band around the calyx of the flower which has
started opening. This operation is referred as Calyx banding.
b) Sleepiness
Sleepiness causes huge post harvest losses in cut carnation. It occurs due to exposure of flowers to ethylene
or water stress. Also, the incidence of sleepiness has been found to be higher when the flowers are stored for
a longer period or when they are exposed to high temperature. Spraying of STS
0.4 mM before harvesting the flowers will correct this disorder.
c) Grassiness
Grassiness refers to failure of plants to produce flowers. This is a genetic disorder which varies from variety
to variety. Removal and destruction of affected plants is the only way of correcting this disorder.
d) Slabside
This disorder refers to uneven opening of flower buds resulting in the petals protruding on one side
only, giving an asymmetrical and lopsided shape to the flower. It is common during cooler periods.
This can be overcome by gradually increasing the temperature to optimum level.
e) Calyx tip die back
Potassium deficiency and water stress cause tip die back. The disorder commences with browning of the
calyx tip and it progresses downwards damaging a major part of the calyx. This disorder is often followed by
occurrence of secondary fungal infection which makes the flower unmarketable.
Spraying of potassium chloride @ 5g/l two times at 10 days intervals and providing adequate water
@ 4.5 l/m2 can minimize this malady.
f) Internode splitting
 Splitting of internodes affects the quality of cut flowers. Splitting is due to boron deficiency.
 Application of borax @ 2g/m2 will correct internode splitting.
Harvesting
Most of the carnation varieties will be ready for harvesting in about 105 to 120 days after planting. There
are different stages of harvesting according the market demand. The harvesting stage is fixed depending on the
type of carnation and market demand. Bud size and petal growth are used to judge the stage of harvesting.
Harvesting stages based on market demand
S.No Harvest stage Target market
1 Tight bud stage This is for long distance markets. However, it is not practiced in commercial
cultivation, since some of the flowers may not open at all after harvest.

2 Paint brush This stage is ideal for long distance markets or for use after a couple of days.
stage
3 Semi-open stage This is ideal for short distance market. The flowers can be used in a day or two
days after harvest.
4 Open stage This is ready-to-use harvest stage and not suitable for travel

Harvesting stages based on type of carnation

Type Harvesting stage
Standard carnations Carnation flowers mature in 4-5 months period. Paint brush stage, when petals
have started to elongate outside the calyx
Spray carnations With two flowers open and rest of them showing colour
Yield:
 On an average 10-20 flowers / plant/year
 Yearly production of 300-400 flower/m2 is ideal and economical.
 After planting normally it takes 110-120 days to come to peak flowering.
 In general 200-350 flowers/m2 can be obtained from standard carnation, while 250 flowers/ m2 can be
obtain from spray carnation.
Plant protection
Maintenance of adequate aeration inside the polyhouse and proper hygiene of the beds, implements and
workers would help in preventing most of the pest and diseases.
a) Pest management Red spider mite
The red spider mite (Tetranychus urticae) is the most serious pest in carnation. The affected leaves turns
pale and withered and shows severe webbing. The affected plant becomes stunted and distorted. Mites usually cause
severe damage in hot dry conditions. Spraying Dicofol @ 2 ml/l or Wettable sulphur @ 5g/l or Propargite @ 2
ml/l during initial stages and Abamectin 1.9 EC @ 0.5ml/l of water with sufficient amount of surfactants
during severe infestation stages will bring desired results. Biological control by releasing the predatory mite
Phytoseiulus persimilis has also been reported to be effective against mites.
Thrips
Thrips (Thrips tabaci) suck the sap from the leaves, causing them to turn yellow and then patchy white,
often with black specks and slight wrinkling. They also cause streaks on the flowers making them unmarketable.
Spraying Dimethoate 30 EC @ 1 ml/l or Fenitrothion 50 EC @ 3.5 ml/l or Malathion 50 EC @ 2 ml/l of water
or application of Aldicarb 10G @ 5 g/m2 will control thrips.
Disease management
Carnations are attacked by a number of diseases which are caused by fungi, bacteria and viruses.
Fusarium wilt
Fusarium wilt (caused by Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. dianthi) is one of the most serious diseases in
carnation. Poorly drained soil and abnormally high temperature are conducive for the development of this disease.
The affected plants show foliage wilting, often only on a few branches, followed by death. Rotting of the stem
below ground level with internal brown streaking occurs. If the plants are pulled, they break off easily while the
firm roots remain in the soil. The best control measures are soil sterilization or chemical fumigation of the
soil, soil solarization using clear transparent polyethylene film (0.1 mm thick) for 30 days , use of pathogen
free planting materials and general greenhouse sanitation. Drenching the soil with Benomyl (0.1%) or Ridomil
(0.2%) at three month intervals starting from two weeks after planting and spraying with Bavistin @ 0.1% will
reduce the malady. Biological control with Bacillus subtilis, Streptomyces sp, Trichoderma viride and
Pseudomonas fluorescens has also been reported to be effective.
Alternaria leaf spot
Alternaria leaf spot (Alternaria dianthi) is a very common foliage disease in carnation. The pathogen causes
spots on the leaves and stems and the affected leaves wither and die prematurely. The pathogen is present in
the dead plant material and spreads by splashing water. Temperature above 23.8°C promotes growth of the
pathogen. Foliar application of Dithane M-45 @ 0.2% or Carbendazim @ 0.1% controls the disease.
Bacterial wilt
Bacterial wilt (Pseudomonas caryophylli) occurs in places where the night temperature is below 23.8°C. It
is more common in older plants. The prominent symptom is wilting of one or more branches or the entire plant.
Leaves of the affected plants look dull and greyish green and then turn yellow and finally die.
Viral diseases
The most common ones are streak, mosaic, mottle, ring spot, etched ring and vein mottle. Use of virus free
planting material raised through shoot tip culture can eliminate viruses. Vectors can be controlled by spraying
Thiomethoxan @ 0.1%.
Post Harvest Operations:
 For a good post harvest life, flower stems have to be trimmed at the base and should be immediately placed
in a bucket of preservative solution (Acidic pH 4.5) with 2-5 % sucrose and biocides for 2 to 4 hours.
 Carnation flowers can be stored for 2-4 weeks before marketing.
 Flowers have to be packed in cartons lined with polyethylene be pre-cooled without lid.
 The plastic is then loosely folded on top of the stems and the lid is closed.
 These cartons are stored in cool chambers designed to maintain 0oC with good air circulation and a constant
RH of 90-95 %.
 Floral preservatives like, 8-HQS or 8-HQC @ 200-600 ppm; STS (Silver Thio-sulphate) @ 0.2- 4mM;
Cytokinin @ 10-100 ppm; Sugar @ 0.5-2% and Citric acid @50-100 ppm.
 Lecture 6 : Production technology of lilium and orchids under protected conditions

LILLIUM - Lilium spp

Liliaceae
Introduction
 The five main groups of lilies are Asiatic, Oriental, OT, LO and LA hybrid
 Tamil Nadu ranks first among the flower producing states of India, contributing 25% of the country‘s flower
production with an area of 31, 970 ha under flowers.
 Of this area, around 700 ha are under protected cut flower cultivation.
 In Nilgiri district alone, it has an area of around 70 ha under protected cut flower production which is
inclusive of around 11.2 ha of lilium
Order : Liliales
Genus : Lilium ( 7 subgenera) Family : Liliaceae
Native : Northern Hemisphere Chromosome Number : 2n = 24
Diploids are cross fertile , heterozygosity nature
L. lancifolium – Triploid 2n=36 Native sps – not cultivated
Importance
 Lily (Lilium spp.) is the most traditional and beloved ornamental flowers worldwide.
 One among the top five cut flowers & important bulbous crop of the world  Lilies symbolise purity and
innocence & complete life.
 Used as cut flowers, potted plants and in beds or borders.
 Lilies are dominated in markets of Netherlands.
 Asiatic and Oriental lilies are leading cut flower group in the international market.
 Popularity of Oriental lily is increasing over Asiatic lily
Origin
 Assyrian mountain – 1000 BC – 1st authentic record.
 West Coast of North America and Mediterranean region.
 The Far East is the home of lilies.
 Northern Hemisphere up to South Canada
 Siberia and their southern limit of Florida
 The Nilgiri mountains & North East India. Distribution
 The Northern Hemisphere
 70 species in Middle and East Asia,
 10 species in Europe, and
 30 species in Northern America and Canada.
 The only exception L. zairii which has been discovered in Central Africa.
 Grown in hilly regions of Himachal Pradesh (Kulu/ Dehradun), North Eastern Himalayan region and mid -
hill/hilly regions of Tamil Nadu (Kothagiri / Ooty / Coonoor in Nilgiris)
Floral Biology
 Terminal, solitary and recemose.
 The large flowers have perfect & 6 tepals.
 6 Stamens,
 Ovary bears a style with 3 lobed stigma.
 Honey Bearing gland at the base.
 Often fragrant.
 White, Yellow, Orange, Pink, Red & Purple.
 Markings include spots and brush strokes.
Species of the Lilium
Family : Liliaceae Genus : Lilium
About 300 – 400 species have been described. Only less than 100 species are entitled to rank.
L. aurantum
 Bulb spherical or nearly globular, 8 – 12 cm diameter.
 90 – 180 cm height.
 Flower dia 15 – 25 cm.
 White spotted crimson with yellow band.
 Late flowering (July - August)
L.martagon
 Bulb oval, 8cm l and 5cm w, bright yellow.
 Stem 180 cm height.
 Flowers dull claret purple, spotted purplish black, 8 cm dia.
 Flowering June – July
L.candidum
 Bulb globular, 10 cm dia,
 60 – 120 cm Stem hight,
 Flowers 10 cm dia,  Fragrant,
Pure waxy white
Flowering June - July
L.nepalense
 Bulb globular, 8 – 10 cm dia
 60 – 80 cm Stem,
  Greenish dark yellow flowers, red inside.
 Fragrant, pendulous, 4-5/plant, 10 – 12 cm long.
 Flowering June – July Profuse fruiting.
 L.elegans L.polyphyllum
 Bulb oblong, 6 – 8 cm long.
 Stem 60 – 100 cm high.
 Flowers pale creamy yellow, tinged and dotted purple,  Fragrant, 4 – 5 flowers/plant.
 Flowering June - July
L.formosum
 Bulb spherical with red tinge and 3-5 cm dia.
 30 – 45 cm Stem height,
 2 – 4 flowers/Plant,
 10 – 15 cm dia,
 Orange red, slightly black,
 Flowering June – July
L.henryi
 Bulb globular, large, deep reddish purple, 8 – 10 cm dia.
 80 – 150 cm Stem length,
 Bright orange yellow flowers, 8 – 10 flowers/raceme.
 Flowering July – August.
 Profuse fruiting
Lilium pardalinum
 Bulb scaly rhizome.
 Stem 90 – 180 cm high.
 Bright yellow flowers with spotted brownish purple, 10 cm dia.
 Flowering late June – early august.
Lilium philippinense
Bulb globular, 4 – 5 cm dia.
Flowers solitary, pure waxy white,
Fragrant, 4 – 5 flowers/plant, 15 – 20 cm long.
 Flowering late June to July.
 Profuse fruiting.

In commercial cut flower growing there are three main types of lilies, with following characterization
Asiatic Oriental Longiflorum
 Smaller plants with small Larger plants with large saucer- shaped Large plants with trumpet
saucer-shaped flowers flowers and large leaves shaped flowers
and short narrow leaves
Flowers in 10 – 13 Flowers in 14 – 19 weeks Flowers in 14-17 weeks
weeks
Generally fetch lower Generally fetch good prices Generally fetch higher prices
prices
Easy to grow More difficult and expensive to grow Easy to grow but more difficult and
expensive to handle
Popular varieties Popular varieties Popular varieties
Dream land (white) Stargazer (Pink) White Europe

Navona (white) Mero star Snow Queen

Brunello (Orange) Siberia
Connecticut King Casablanca (White)

Cultivars
 Asiatic lilies : Early flowering, 12 fragrant flowers/stem
 Oriental lilies : Flower july – september, spotted or striped , strong frangrance
 Tiger lilies : 1.4 m height
 Trumpet lilies : Aurelian lilies,large trumpet shaped blooms, 1.6 m height
 Turk cap lilies : Turban shaped,short stature,only 30 inches
Types & Varieties:
1. Asiatic (Bulb size 10-16 cm) : Dream land (Yellow), Brunello(Orange), Novona
(White)
Pollyanna (Yellow)
2. Oriental (Bulb size 16-22 cm) : Stargazer, Acapulco, Siberia
3. Longiflorum (Bulb size 16-22 cm) : White Heaven, Snow queen
4. LA Hybrids (Bulb size 12-20 cm) : Royal Trinity, Red planet, Best sellar, Indian Diamond
Asiatic hybrids
Derived from species originated in Asia
Bloom early summer
Flowering for over a month
10-15cm blooms face up, out or down
Comes in shades of red, orange, yellow, pink, lavender and white
Plants grows to height from 30-150cm
Suitable for growing in containers & for cuttings
Quite disease resistant
Oriental hybrids
 Derived from L.auratum & L.speciosum
 Plant height from 60-240cm
 Produce huge flowers up to 30cm across
 Flowers in late summer
 Flowers are pleasantly scented
 Flowers are bowl shaped with recurving petals
 Come in white, pink, deep red and bicolours
 Suitable for growing in containers
 Need staking because of their size
Longiflorum hybrids
 Derived form popular L.longiflorum (Easter lily)
 Produce aromatic, white, trumpet-shaped flowers
 Grow about 90cm high
 Loom in mid summer
 Can be forced ot bloom indoors for Easter

Top ten varieties of lily grown in Netherlands

Variety Colour Type
Star Gazer Red white Oriental
Snow Queen White Longiflorum
Pollyanna Yellow Asiatic
Vivaldi Pink Asiatic
Casa Blanca White Oriental
Elite Orange Asiatic
Acapulco White Oriental
Marco Polo White / pink Oriental
Le Reve Pink Oriental
Montreux Pink Asiatic
Asiatic cultivars
 White: Alaska, Lucyda, Marbelle, Pulsar, Sancerre
 Red: Avignon, Grand Paradiso, Monte Negro, Nerone
Pink: Asurra, Chianti, Geneve, la Toya, Minstreel, Monte Rosa, Montreux, Renee, Sorbet, Vivaldi
 Orange: Apledoom, Bangalope, Elite, Loreto, Prato
 Yellow: Adelina, Grand Cru, London, Mona, Nove Cento, Parma, Polyanna Bulb:
 The lily bulb is composed of firm, fleshy scales that store food for the following season‘s growth.The bulb
consists of a short stem/ axis to which the scales are attached.
  The axis is also called as the basal plate which produce roots, scales and buds for new growth. The scales
are modified leaves. They provide nourishment to the developing plant until it has enough leaf area and
root system to take up this task. The color of the scales is one feature by which a lily species is
identified. The color of the scale changes on exposure to light.

Soil Preparation:
Lilies prefer slightly acidic, humus-rich soil. If drainage is poor, then plant in raised beds. Turn over the soil
to a depth of 12-18 inches. Work humus and Lilies prefer slightly acidic, humus-rich soil. If drainage is poor, then
plant in raised beds. Turn over the soil to a depth of 12-18 inches. Work humus and fertilizer into the soil, but avoid
the use of fresh manure or other fertilizers high in nitrogen which encourages rot problems Light:
Lilies thrive best in sunny conditions. When the light is restricted they lean towards the light. Very few
lilies can survive where the shade is dense.
Planting time:
Most lilies do best when planted in early fall. But L.candidum must be replanted in late July or August a few
weeks after it flowered.

Planting depth:
Cover the bulbs with soil to a to depth equal to 3-4 times of their length. Stem rooting lilies with large
bulbs (trumpet hybrids) may be covered with 25 cm (10‖) of soil. Madonna lily can be planted shallow as the roots are
produced from the base of the bulb only. Deeper planting keeps the bulb cool during summer
Climate:
Temperature:
It is essential to provide an initial temperature of 12 to13°C until stem roots have developed. During the
cultivation stage the optimum daily temperature requirement is between 15 to 22ºC Temperature below 15°C
can result in bud drop and yellowing of the foliage in oriental hybrids.

Humidity:
Optimum level of Relative Humidity inside the greenhouse should be 80 to 85 %. It is important to avoid large
fluctuation in humidity levels which will cause stress and leaf scorch in susceptible varieties.
CO2:
It has a positive effect on the growth and flowering of lilies. Try to achieve a concentration of 800 to 1000
ppm. A higher concentration (±2000ppm) is needed for the Longiflorum hybrids as this group needed high levels of
CO2.
Light Intensity:
Light affect the growth of lilium and their development. Depending on the time of year, the location
of production, amount of light penetrating in greenhouse and the variety, lighting may even be essential. The
insufficient minimum light intensity in the greenhouse for Asiatic hybrids is 190 Joules/cm2. Insufficient light
results in inadequate growth bud drop. Asiatic hybrids are most susceptible to bud drop as compared to oriental and
longiflorum.
Shading Net:
To achieve these temperatures shading net is a must. Not only to reduce temperatures; but also to avoid leaf
scorching on the plant, one should not compromise on installing proper shading net. The percentage of shading depends
on the light conditions at the site and time of the year. Ideal is a movable shading net, one that opens or closes depending
on the light conditions (summer/ monsoon). A cheaper option is to go for a 50% agro white shade net, which
should be fixed on top of the polyfilm. During the monsoon the same can be removed depending on the light conditions
at that time.
Ventilation:
The disadvantage of polyfilm is that underneath poly a lot of heat is building up. Temperature can rise to record
high if no provision is made for proper ventilation. It is advisable to build a structure with a top ventilation gap of
minimum 3 feet to have proper ventilation inside the greenhouse. Depending on design and size of the greenhouse one
can have a provision for side ventilation as well. If the distance from side to center of the greenhouse is less than 30
feet, side ventilation in combination with top ventilation can be recommended. Never close the sides completely,
as to keep the natural airstreams flowing.
Water Quality
Ec of irrigation water should be 0.5 mS/cm or lower. The maximum acceptable Chlorine level of irrigation
water used for greenhouse irrigation is 200 ppm.

Bedding Media
Soil:
The soil; used for cultivation of lilies, has good structure particularly the top layers and is also kept
well drained during the entire growing period. Maintaining the correct pH of the soil plays a major role in the
root development and uptake of nutrients. It is advisable to maintain a pH of 6 to 7 for the Asiatic and longiflorum
hybrid groups and a pH of 5.5 to 6.5 for the oriental hybrids.
The Chlorine in the soil should not exceed 1.5 mmol/lit.

Bed composition: Red soil : 60% FYM : 30% Sand : 10% Rice husk : As per requirement
Planting Depth:
Lilium bulbs should initially be planted at a depth of 6 inches. After planting and irrigation the soil will decline
about an inch. Height of the bulb is approx one inch, which leaves four inches of soil on top of the bulb. This
is sufficient soil in which the stem roots can develop. Shallow planting will result in poor stem root development
and hence one compromise on the quality of the flower. Planting depth varies according to the size of the bulb.
Generally bulb should be planted to the depth of three times more than the diameter of the bulb
 Planting Density: Bulb Size Bulbs/m2 Planting Distance (cm)
8 -10 cm 49 15Х15

10 - 12 cm 42 16Х15

12 - 14 cm 36 16Х 18

14 - 16 cm 36 16Х18

Fertigation:
Soil:
Since lilium is a bulbous crop, most of its nutrients are already present in the bulb itself. Lilium is a very
salt sensitive crop and therefore one should take care with applying fertilizers. Especially in the first three
weeks when the rooting takes place, no additional fertilizers are required. Good root development is important
at this stage. It is however advisable to apply 12:61:00@ 2kg/100m2 at least one week before plantation. - Three
weeks after plantation: - Calcium Nitrate @ 1 kg/100m2 - Six week after plantation : - Potassium nitrate @ 1
kg/100m2 If plants are not strong enough during growing period due to Nitrogen deficiency then a top
dressing of Ammonium Nitrate@ 1 kg/100 m2 can be applied up to three weeks before harvesting Fertilizers:
The kind and amount of fertilizer depend on the soil fertility. A complete well balanced fertilizer with NPK
(15 –15 –15) is more suitable. Apply garden lime if the soil is too acidic. Excessive fertilizer is too harmful to lilies.
Fertilizer is best applied when lily shoots are at the spear stage just before the leaves unfurl. A suitable six month
slow release fertilizer like osmocote (20- 20-20) will keep the lilies happy for the entire season. An old practice
is to scrape away a couple of centimeters of soil just as the lilies emerge and replace it with a mulch of well decayed
cow/horse manure.
Harvesting & Packaging
The spikes were harvested when the lower first bud turns from green to original colour of the variety,
but has not yet opened. The spikes were cut 8 -10 cm above the ground level. After harvesting, cut stems were
graded as per the number of buds per stem, length and firmness of the stem. After grading, the foliage was
removed upto 10 cm from the bottom of stem before bunching and subsequently sleeved with 10 stems per
bunch. It was packed in perforated cardboard box (100 x 60 x 40 cm) for transportation
Harvesting and Post Harvest Treatment for flowers:
 Always harvest the lilies at the cutting stage, i.e. 8 to 10 cm above the ground when lower first bud shows
the colour of flower.
 Prevent the stems drying out during and after harvesting.
 After harvesting, stems are graded according to number of flower buds per stem, length and firmness
of stem
 During bunching, remove 10 cm of foliage from the end of the stems and subsequently sleeve the flowers.
 Immediately after bunching, the cut flowers should be placed in cold water in cold storage room at
2ºC to 3ºC. Add 2% sucrose and 100ppm GA3 as a preservative agent to water to improve vase life of
flower.
 When dispatching lily flowers use only perforated boxes to maintain a proper temperature during transport.
Procedure for post harvest treatment of the bulbs:
 Reduce the frequency of irrigation water. Maintain soil moisture level in such a way that bulb scales
should not dry out. Excessive moisture may lead to rotting of bulbs.
 Allow bulbs to remain in the beds for 4 to 5 weeks (above ground stem portion should dry out and can be
pulled out from bulb easily).
 After 5 weeks remove the bulbs from soil along with dried stem.
 Remove dried stem carefully without damaging the bulb.
 Wash bulbs with clean water and treat with 2% Bavistin solution for 10 minutes.
 Remove the bulb from solution and air dry in shade. Too much drying may lead to loosen root skin.
Such bulbs; after planting may develop root rot.
 Immediately after air drying pack the bulbs in plastic crates with moist coco peat wrapped with
perforated plastic sleeves.

 Coco peat used for packing must be sterilized.

 Keep the crates in cold storage at 20C for 2 weeks and then at -10C for 6 weeks.
 Keep crates open for one day in cold storage and then close with plastic sleeves
Diseases Symptoms Control Measure
Penicillium During storage; rotting spots covered Store the bulbs at the lowest
first with white and later on with fluffy recommended temp. Keep soil
bluish green fungus are visible on the scales. moist. Remove infected scales.
Affected bulbs produce plants with
retarded growth.
Bulbs and Scale rot Underground brown spots on top and side of Soil disinfection. Maintain lowest
bulb. Later on start to rot. possible soil and greenhouse temp.
Retarded growth. Pale foliage. Remove infected scales.

Fusarium stem disease Premature yellowing of the lower Soil disinfection. Maintain
leaves which turn brown and then drops to lowest possible soil and green
orange to dark brown spots on stem. house temp

Abnormalities:
1.Leaf Scorch:
Cause: Leaf scorch occurs when there is a disturbance in the balance between absorption and evaporation of water.
This is the result of inadequate absorption or evaporation which causes a calcium deficiency in the cells of
the youngest leaves. Cells are destroyed and die. A sudden change in the relative humidity inside the greenhouse
can affect this process related to poor root system and high salt level in the soil. Large bulbs are more susceptible
than smaller one.
Control:
 Disease and pest which could damage the roots should be controlled effectively.
 Soil should be moistened before planting.
 It is better not to use susceptible varieties but if this cannot be avoided do not use a larger Bulbs as these
are extra sensitive.
 Plant bulbs with a good root system.
 Plant to an adequate depth i.e. allow 6 to 10cm of soil on top of the bulb.
 Prevent large differences in greenhouse temperature and air humidity levels during period of increased
susceptibility. Try to maintain RH level of approx. 75%.
 Rapid growth must be prevented.
 Ensure that plants maintain even transpiration and avoid excess transpiration by shading.
2.Bud drop and bud desiccation:-
Cause: Bud drop occurs when plants receive insufficient light. In light deficient conditions the stamens in the bud
produce ethylene causing the bud to abort. There is an increased risk of bud desiccation if rooting conditions are
poor, e.g. too dry soil.
Control:
 Do not allow; varieties susceptible to bud drop to grow in poor light conditions.
 To prevent bud desiccation bulbs should be allowed to dry out during planting. Ensure that the bulbs root
well and grow in the most favorable conditions possible particularly as far as lighting and transpiration are
concerned.
 ORCHIDS
Introduction
Orchidaceae is the largest family of angiosperms with 800 genera and 35,000 species. In India 1300 species
and 140 genera are reported. More than 80,000 hybrids are available. Orchids get their name from the Greek
Orchis meaning ―testicle. The word ―Orchis was first used by Theophrastus (372/371– 287/286 B.C.) in
his book ―De historia plan tarun (The natural history of plants) is considered the father of botany and
ecology. Swedish botanist Carl Linneaous considered as Fathers of orchidology
 Al Orchid species are protected for the purposes of International commerce under CITES (Convention on
International Trade in Endangered Species) as potentially threatened or endangered in their natural
habitat except hybrids
 Orchid exhibit an incredible range of diversity in Size, Shape and Colour.
 Occupy top position among all the flowering plant.
 Valued for cut flower production and as potted plants.

Most African Orchids are white, while Asian Orchids are often multi colored. Dendrobiums, cymbidiums and
vandas have played a major role in the development of modern Orchid industry in the world.
Importance
Orchids are the most fascinating and beautiful of all flowers. They exhibit a wide range of diversity of
flowers. It constitutes immense horticultural importance and plays a very useful role to balance the forest ecosystem.
Cultivation of orchids has become a very profitable occupation. New hybrids and commercial cut flowers expanded
tremendously in Europe, USA, South America, Thailand, Singapore, Malaysia, Japan and Srilanka. In spite of their
commercial value, the orchids in India have not get gained the attention and popularity they deserve. As compared
to the above countries, the export and sale of orchids in India is negligible.
Only few nursery men based at Kalimpong in Darjeeling district of West Bengal and in Sikkim export
some orchids but the trade is unorganized like other important orchid growing countries, India is blessed with
a wealth of orchid flora, and about 1600 species are estimated to occur in this country. There is tremendous
scope for orchid improvement and development of industry based on these wonderful plants.

Many orchids native to this country are important parent plants for the production of several outstanding
hybrids in the world. Hybrids of certain Indian orchids like Vanda coerula (Blue vanda or Blue moon vanda)
and species of Cymbidium, Dendrobium and Paphiopedilum are considered the monarchs in the orchid world.
Due to the diversity of environmental condition in India, it is possible to grow all types of orchids in suitable
places without the control of environment.
Export potential of orchids consists of:
- Cut flowers
- Potted plants
- Tissue culture orchid plants
- Medicinal orchids
- Vanillin
- Pressed orchids
- Hybrids
Uses of Orchids
In addition to the pleasure they provide for the eyes of the beholder, several orchid species have other uses.
Food
 Many orchids have been used as food in different parts of the world.
 Anoectochilus leaves are eaten as vegetable in Indonesia and Malaysia.
 Pseudobulbs of Cymbidium and Dendrobium speciosum used as food.
 Dried leaves of D.salaccense imparts a delicate flavour when cooked with rice
 From the dried tubes of Orchids anatolica, a drink is made by villagers in the island of Cyprus.
 Natives of South Australia eat the tubers of Caladenia carnea, Microtis uniflora and Eriochilus cucullatus.
Medicinal Uses
Disease Orchids
 Hysteria - Vanda spathulata (Flowers)
 Clot blood in wounds - Cymbidium giganteum (Leaves)
 Dysentery - C.canaliculatum, C.madidum (Fruits and Pseudobulbs)
 Antidote for poisoning and - Vanda tessellata (Roots) for rheumatic pains
 Liver upsets - Dendrobium fimbriatum
 Head aches - D.terratifolium
 Healing of wounds - Cymbidium aloifolium
 Oral contraceptives - Cymbidium madidum
Orchids have been used in ayurvedic medicines because over 3000 types of glycosides and alkaloids
are produced by orchids.
Orchids Alkaloids
 Loroglossum sp. Loroglossin glycosides
 Angraceum fragrans Coumarin glycosides
 Paphiopedilum javanicum Saponine glycosides
 Vanilla spp. Vanillin glycosides
  Dendrobium nobile - Dendrobine and Nobilonine
 Liparis bicallosa - Laburnine
 Malaxis congesta - Malaxine
 Phalaenopsis manni - Phalaenopsine

Vanilla is commercially important used as a foodstuff flavoring. (The Coca-Cola company is the word‘s
largest user of vanilla).The underground tubers of terrestrial Orchids are ground to a powder and used for cooking,
such as in the hot beverage salep or ―fox-testicle ice cream salepi dondurma. The scent of Orchids is
frequently used by perfumists to identify potential fragrance chemicals. Other than this Orchids have virtually
no commercial value other than for enjoyment of the flowers
Origin :
Tropical Forests of Amazon & Indo - Malayan region The basic orchid flower is composed of
 Three sepals in the outer whorl
 Three petals in the inner whorl
 However one of the petal, the medial petal is different from the others and is cal ed label um or
lip
Most advanced Orchids have five basic features
1. The presence of a column : call gynostemium.
2. The flower is bilaterally symmetric
3. The pollen are glued together into the pollinica, a mass of waxy pollen on filament.
4. The seeds are microscopically small (exception Disa & Vanilla)
5. The seeds can, under natural circumstances, only germinate in symbiosis with specialized fungi.
Distribution
Tropical America : 300 – 350 Genera
Tropical Asia : 210 – 300 Genera
Oceania : 10 – 70 Genera
Eurasia : 40 – 60 Genera
North America : 20 – 30 Genera
 In the world, it is cultivated in Central America, Mexico, India, Srilanka, China, Thailand, Phillippines,
Australia
 In this, Thailand, Singapore and Malaysia occupy a prime position in orchid production
 America, Japan, England, Germany, Italy, Netherland, Newzealand and Denmark import orchid flowers
in a large numbers.
 Orchids are cosmopolitan in distribution. Occurring in every habitat, except Antarctica and deserts.
  The great majority are to be found in the tropics, most Asia, South America and Central America. They are
found above the Artic Circle in Southern Patagonia and even on Macquarie Island, close to Antarctica,
 About 800 to 1000 new species are added each year.
 In India, Darjeling, kalimpong, Shillong, Bangalore, Ooty, Yercaud, Cochin, Chennai, orchids are
cultivated. In india, more than 1300 species have been found, out of which 600 sp. in NE, 320 sp. in
SI. 180 sp. WB, Orissa and Bihar and 200 sp in NW.
Global Orchid Production Production in Asian Countries Tropical
Orchids:
Country Units (Million) % Production
Thailand 31.6 83.0
Singapore 1.7 4.5
Others 4.7 12.5
------- -------
38.0 100.0

Temperate Orchids:

Country Units (Million) % Production

Japan 2.0 33.0
Korea 2.0 33.0
Taiwan 1.5 26.0
Others 0.5 8.0
------- -------
6.0 100.0
Major contributors to the Export trade
India : Rs.10 Crores
Thailand (to Europe & Germany) : US $ 40 mln.
Singapore : US $ 8.3 mln.
Europe : US $ 5.3 mln.
Total World Market : US $ 30 bln.
In Japan - Market for potted plants
Cymbidiums : US $ 105 mln.
Phalaenopsis : US $ 103 mln.
Dendrobiums : US $ 53 mln.
Cut Orchid Flowers : US $ 205 mln
Classification based on growth habit
 Monopodial
 Sympodial
Monopodial (one footed)
It have a main stem which counties to grow year after. (Eg. Phalaenopsis, Renonthera, Vanda, etc)
Sympodial (many footed)
The Plant produces a series of adjacement shoots which grow to a certain size, bloom, then stop growing
to be replaced by the next growth. (Eg. Cattleya, Dendrobium, Oncidium, Cymbidium)
Classification based on Habitat
 Terrestrial (or) Ground Orchids
 Epiphytic Orchids
 Saprophytic Orchids
 Lithophytic Orchids
 Subterranean Orchids
Terrestrial (or) Ground Orchids
 Grow in soil. Sympodial and perennial
 Example : Spathoglottis plicata, Arundina graminifolia, Phaius tankervilleae etc.
Epiphytic Orchids
 Grow well on other plants. Abundant in humid tropical rain forests of India. Elevation upto 3000m.
 Example: Vanda, Vanilla, Dendrobium, Cymbidium, Cattleya, Oncidium, etc.
Saprophytic Orchids
 Live on dead and decaying organic matter and found on the moist forest floors.
 Example: Neottia, Galeola, Listera etc
Lithophytic Orchids
 Rare and grown in moist, shaded rocks and crevices of walls.
 Eg: Cymbidium munronianum, Diplomeris birsuta
Subterranean Orchids
 Underground orchids, Found in Australia. Eg: Rhizanthella and Cryptanthemis
Classification based on temperature requirements
Cool orchids: Eg. Cymbidium, Paphiopedilum, some Dendrobium
Warm orchids: Eg. Vanda, Phalaenopsis, Dendrobium Intermediate: Eg. Cattleya, Oncidium
Day temperature Night temperature
Cool orchids 15.5 – 210 C 10 – 12.50 C
Intermediate 18 – 210 C 15.5 – 180 C
Warm orchids 21 – 290 C 18 – 210 C
Climate
Indirect sunlight is ideal for Orchid. Seedling requires less sunlight than adult plant. Very poor light tends
to produce weak plants and retards flowering.
Optimum requirement varies between species to species
 Cypropedium and Phalaenopsis required only 200 – 300 foot candles.
 Vanda & Aranda best under 800 foot candles
 Growers have used shadenets in 35% to 85% shade percentage to grow Orchids of different Genera
Orchids in nature grow pretreated from the tropical sun by the shades of trees.
 Tropical Orchid enjoy humid, warm atmosphere.
 Temperate Orchid should be growing in cool houses.
 Proper ventilation is must to provide fresh air.
 Orchids dislikes sudden change in temperature, the best suitable range is 180C to 300C
 However Orchids likes Vanda, Aranda, Arachnis, Renanthera, Kegawara, Mokara can be grown in open
sun in trenches filled with brick pieces and characoal.

In nature, Orchids obtain their supply of inorganic nutrients like calcium, Magnesium, Iron,
Potassium, Nitrogen and traces of manganese, boron, copper, zinc etc. from the tree on which they are growing
and also from atmosphere and decaying vegetables and dropping of birds, Under control conditions they have to
be supplied these major and minor nutrients.
 Solid and liquid fertilizer mixtures are available in the Market.
 Liquid fertilizers are much more quickly absorbed and can be applied more frequently.
 Usage of fertilizer depends on stage of growth.
 During vegetative growth, large quantities of nitrogen are required while during flowering, nitrogen should
be reduced and amount of phosphate increased.
 NPK 20:20:20 or 18:18:18 is good during vegetative growth.
 NPK 10:20:30 or 7:12:40 is good during flowering stage.
 In general, PH of the nutrient solution should be slightly acidic or neutral but not alkaline.
 Fertilizer should be made on sunny days during 8.00 a.m. – 10.30 am. for better absorption.
Propagation
Orchids like other Horticultural crops may be propagated either sexually or asexually. Since most of the
commercial Orchids are highly heterozygous they are not raised through seed and are propagated through vegetative
means to get true to type plants.
 Cutting
 Off shoots and keikis
  Aerial shoots
 Seed
 Tissue Culture
Cutting
Orchid like Aerides, Arachnis, Epidendrum, Renanthera, Phalaenopsis, Vanda and Dendrobium can
be propagated by cutting. Cut ends should treated with fungicides to prevent rotting. Most of the sympodial
Orchids like Ceelogyne, Catteleya, Dendrobium and Cymbidiun are propagated through this method.
Propagation Division
It is suitable for sympodial orchids. The 4-5 years growth, clump have 8-10 canes and divided to 4-5
individual units with 2 canes per division. Eg. Dendrobium, Cattleya, Epidendrum, Oncidium etc.
Off-Shoots (Keikis)
Off-Shoots are miniature plants with roots from the nodes of old canes. Application of cytokinins like
BAP 1g/litre will stimulate new off shoots in Dendrobium, Phalaenopsis, Paphiopedilum etc.
Cuttings
Matured stems - cut neatly into pieces with 3-4 nodes and a few roots. Planted on sand and kept in shade for
root development. Eg. Vanda, Arachnis, Ascocentrum etc. Flower stalk cuttings of Phalaenopsis, Phaius etc., are
also used. The concentrations of 4000-5000 ppm IBA or NAA enhance root development
Seed
The orchid seeds are very minute, dust like particles. The seeds are lacking nutritive substances to
start the plant growth as thousands o seeds are formed in a capsule. Seeds are dispersed by the wind and symbiotic
fungi (micorrhiza) provides necessary substances during germinartion and early stage of development.
Propagation
Orchids are propagated by seeds or by vegetative means.
Propagation of monopodial orchids Stem cuttings:
The main method of propagation is through stem cuttings. About 40-50 cm long top cuttings with at
least two well-developed aerial roots are ideal. Intermediate cuttings can also be used. If smaller cuttings (2-3
nodes) are used, the time taken to flowering will be longer.
Flower stalk cuttings:
These are also reported to be useful in certain genera like Phalaenopsis, Phaius, Calanthe and Thunia.
Sometimes vegetative shoots are produced from the flowered spikes in these genera. Otherwise the flower stalks
can be cut off and laid horizontally on moist media, like sphagnum moss or coconut husk bits.
Layering
Air layering was found to give success in monopodials like Vanda. For this, a slanting cut may be given
on the stem, at about 20-30 cm below the apex. The wound may be covered with some moist media, as in the case
of air layering. The layers can be separated and planted when they strike roots.
Propagation of sympodial orchids Division
The method involves division of large clumps into smaller units. This is the most common method of
propagation in sympodial orchids. Care should be taken to see that each unit has at least 4-5 shoots, including the
old ones. Large size divisions favour faster establishment and earlier flowering. This method is especially suitable
for Cattleya, Dendrobium, Cymbidium, Epidendrum etc. Aseptic conditions are to be followed in cutting and
separating in order to prevent transmission of diseases.
Off-shoots or Keikis
Orchids like Dendrobium sometimes produce small plants with roots at the nodes of pseudobulbs. These
are called 'keikis' meaning 'babies'. These, when sufficiently grown, are to be separated carefully from the mother
plant and potted independently. The performance of 'keikis' is found to be better if they are allowed to flower on
the mother plant and then separated and planted.
Same monopodium Orchids like Ascocenda and Phalaennopis, Keikis or off shoots emerge frequently on the
main stem

Induction of Keikis can also be induced through the use of cytokinins which force the dormant bud to
develop into keikis
Aerial shoots
Most of the dendrobium produce aerial shoots or bulbs on old back bulbs devoid of leaves. Usually arise
on the upper part of the back bulbs. In genera like Good year, Rhizomes gives off special lateral branches which
turn up and produce aerial shoots.
Seed
Orchids produce seed pods with literally hundreds of thousands of seed that are released and scattered by
the wind. (1,300 to 400,000)
 Colour may be white, Cream, Pale green, reddish orange or dark brown and have very diverse shapes.
 Orchid seeds must establish a symbiotic relationship with a special fungus to survive its first year
of life.
 The fungi gathers water and minerals for itself and the seedling, and the seedling shares its sugars from
photosynthesis with the fungus.
 Only one or two orchid seeds will ever germinate and survive on that perfect crevice or depression that
is both moist and has the fungus present.
 Its chances to survive in the wild long enough to bloom are slim
 To avoid this problem, greenhouse growers sow orchid seeds on moist, sugar-rich, sterile agar, or they cut
out growing clumps of orchid cells and place them on the agar.
 These techniques allow many hundreds of orchid plants to survive to maturity.
 New and improved hybrids can be mass produced rapidly.
 This is important as orchids are very slow growing as many orchids take five to seven years to mature
to flowering.
  Breeding three or four orchid generations could span a person's lifetime just to get one new hybrid
propagated sufficiently for sale.
Backbulbs
The older shoots (or canes) of sympodial orchids, which are lesser active physiologically, are called
'backbulbs'. Sometimes these shoots will be devoid of leaves and green in colour. They do not have visible
eyes and not too many roots. These 'backbulbs' may be severed off the mother plant and kept horizontally over a
moist medium. After sometime they will strike roots and sprout from the nodal region. Then they can be separated
and planted in individual pots.
Micro Propagation Tissue culture
Various plant parts like shoot tip or meristems, leaf and leaf segments, stem segments, floral parts, aerial
roots, etc. have been used for tissue culture of orchids. Meristem culture is more popular and is extensively
used for the commercial propagation of orchids.
 Tissue culture technique were applied to orchids in 1960.
 Tissue culture technique is highly successful to get virus free plants.
 Today tissue culture is preferred for commercial propagation of orchids.
 Both liquid and solid media are used for the orchid tissue culture.
 The explants after being isolated from the shoots are cultured in or on the desired medium – under sterile
conditions; offer to produce clones of a plant.
Varieties
Since 1856 when the first Orchid hybrid produced, a very large number of artificial hybrid have been
produced both at intergeneric and interspecific level. To date more than 125,000 hybrid have been registered with
an average of 10,000 or more every year. The success for the production of such a large number of hybrid in every
year is due to the fact that most of the orchids genera and species have no generic barriers and they cross freely with
each other.
 Most of the orchid‘s genera are still in the process of evolution and most of the orchid groups are in reality
only artificial constructs. Two factors which have played a major role in the development of orchid hybrids
are polyploidy and introgressive hybridization. Some genera has been of extraordinary effect and
coupled with inter-generic compatibility has culminated in formation of hybrid groups which show
both greater size and hybrid vigour as compared to parental species.
 The important genera which have given maximum number of man-made hybrids are Cattleya, Cymbidium,
Paphiopedilum, Vanda, Dendrobium.
Ascocentrum X Vanda Ascocenda
Arachnis X Vanda Aranda
Aerides X Vanda Aeridovanda
Brassovola XCattleya Brassocattleya
 Phalaenopsis X Vanda Vandanopsis
Cattleya X Laelia Laeliocattleya
Cattleya X Sophronitis Sophrocattleya

Commercial cut-flowers of different classes of vandaceous orchid cultivars currently exported from
Singapore .

Vandaceous hybrids
Aranda (Arachnis x Vanda) - 22
Mokara (Arachnis x Vanda X Ascocentrum) - 12
Arachnis (interspecific hybrids) - 4
Aranthera (Arachnis x Renanthera) - 2
Renantanda (Renanthera X Vanda) - 2
Aeridachnis (Aerides X Arachnis) - 1
Aeridovanda (Aerides x Vanda) - 1
Holttumara (Arachnis X Vanda x Renanthera) - I Leeara (Arachnis X Vanda X Vandopsis)
Phalaenopsis sp.
Distribution
 Phalaenopsis are widely spread from Southern India to Northern Australia with many species found in
the Philippines.
 All are warm growing tropical orchids.
 All the thousands of modern hybrid Phalaenopsis have originated from 62 wild species.
 Their common name is – Moth Orchid‘
 This comes from Phalaen‘ which means moth like‘ and is a reference to the Moth genus Phalaena.
Importance and Origin
 Orchids constitute an order of royalty in the world of ornamental plants and they have immense
horticultural importance.
 They play a very useful role to balance the natural ecosystem
 They are most pampered of the plants and occupy top position among all flowering plants valued for cut
flower production and as potted plants.
 They are known for their long lasting flowers of myriad shapes, sizes and colours and bewitchingly
beautiful flowers which fetch a very high price in the international market
 Orchids are major players in the multibillion dollar floriculture trade in the world
Origin: India
Today, orchid such as, Dendrobium, Cymbidium, Phalaenopsis and Oncidium are marketed globally and the orchid
industry has contributed substantially to the economy of many ASEAN (Association of the South East Asian
Nations) countries.

 The orchid cut flower industry is growing at the rate 10-20 per cent annually and presently is a US
$ 44 billion industry
 Orchids used as a medicine- Dendrobium as a source of tonic, astringent, analgesic and anti- inflammatory
substances.
 Used as spice, flavouring agent and food: Vanilla planifolia, V. pompona, V. tahitensis.

History of natural hybridization

The presence of natural hybrids evolved from crosses between two species in the wild is known since the early
days of orchid collection.
 In fact, absence of natural hybrids would have been strange.
 Lack of a strong crossability barrier among orchid species coupled with the above fact led to constitution
of several natural hybrids in the wild.
 Such natural hybrids often breed true and get established as new species.
 One of the earliest reported natural orchid hybrids was Phalaenopsis intermedia.
 Natural hybrid of Phalaenopsis aphrodite and Phalaenopsis rosea
 Two Masdevallia species, Masdevallia splendida and Masdevallia parlatoreana are also recognized as
natural hybrids developed from a cross between Masdevallia veitchiana and Masdeviallia barlaeana.
 A natural hybrid population of Oncidium, arising out of a cross between Oncidium staievi  and Oncidium
jonesianum, was also reported.
 Veitch, 1886 described a complex of natural hybrids among Mexican and Colombian Odontoglossums.
 In this region, hybridization among
 Odontoglossums crispus, Odontoglossums heterocarpum, Odontoglossums lindleyanum, Odontoglossums
odoratum, Odontoglossums triumphans and Odontoglossums prescotria is so common that drawing a clear
–cut line between species becomes very difficult.
 At least five different types of hybrids, namely the crispo-odoratum group, crispo – lindleyanum group,
crispo-luteopurpureum group and triumphante-prescatoria group are recognized (Abraham and
vatsala,1981).
 One of the most popular Vanda hybrids, Vanda Miss Joaquim was found growing between some plants of
Vanda teres and Vanda hookeriana and later on it was found to be a hybrid between these two species.
 Vanda xamoena, which is also registered as an artificial under the name Vanda violeta, occurs in nature
as a result of hybridisation between Vanda tessellata and Vanda coerulea.
  Natural inter- specific hybrids are also reported in Cattleya, Laelia and Miltonia. Cattleya guatemalensis,
collected by Skinner from Guatemala in 1861, was later found to be a natural hybrid between two species
from different genera.
 It was developed from a cross between Epidendrum aurantiacum and Cattleya skinneri.
 Presently, this natural hybrid is known under the generic name Epicattleya.
 Laeliocattelya elegans, found in brazil, came into existence from a natural cross between Laeliacattleya
purpurata and Laeliocattleya guttata.
 Laeliacattleya scilleriana is also a natural cross between L. purpurata and L. intermedia.
 Another inter-specific natural hybrid Cattleya intricata was developed from a cross between Cattleya
intermedia and Cattleya leopoldii.
 One of the most interesting inter –generic natural hybrids spotted in the wild is the one that developed from
a cross between Cattleya warneri and Brassovola tuberculata.
 In 1988, the natural hybrid and the parental species were spotted flowering side by side in Rio Doce
Valley (Devi and Deka, 2001). Two new natural hybrids are also reported in the genus Ophrys from
central Italy.
 Natural hybrids have also been documented in the genus Disa. Existence of bi-directional gene flow
between Cypridum candidum and Cypripedium pubescence, wherever the two species were sympatric
History of Artificial hybridization
 The first mane made orchid hybrid, a cross between Calanthe masuca and Calanthe furcate flowered in the
year 1856 for the first time.
 The hybrid was named Calanthe dominiyi, in honour of breeder, Mr. John Dominy.
Reports suggest that Rev. William Herbert, Dean of Manchester, attempted orchid breeding even before
John Dominy
Species
1. Aerides
These are mainly epiphytic orchids and known as Foxtail orchids. They have monopodial pattern of growth.
Species are A.multiflorum, A.fieldingi, A. crispum
2. Anoectochilus
This group of plants are known as Jewel orchids. A. sikkimensis, A. roxburghii 3.
Bulbophyllum
This genus consist of a large number of species. B.cylindricum, B. cauliflorum, B. sikkimens, B.
parviflorum
4. Cymbidium – C. elegans, C. grandiflorum, C. white
5. Cattleya – C. multiflorum, C.citrina
6. Coelogyne
7. Cypripedium – ladies slipper orchids
8. Dendrobium – this is very big genera with more than 1000 species. Tropical orchids.
Piegeon Orchid
Pigeon Orchid (Dendrobium crumenatum)
It produces white, fragrant flowers with a yellow tinted throat. The bloom cycle is triggered by
sudden drops in temperature (at least 5.5 °C or 10 °F), usually as a result of rain, although the same effect can be
artificially created. The plant produces a fragrant smell, but only for two days. A tropical plant, it is the most
common orchid in Singapore, found growing naturally on trees as well as being planted onto street trees by
the authorities
Renanthera
In allusion to the kidney-shaped pollinia of the original species.
 The name Renanthera is a combination of the Latin "renis" meaning kidney, and the Greek "anthera" or
anther, and refers to the distinct kidney shape of the pollinia, characteristic of this genus.
 Renanthera flowers are usually red, red-orange, or yellow, some with red or purple spots or blotches.
Texture may be matte or velvety. Some species provide a spectacular display of 100 + flowers on a
large branching inflorescence.
 R. storiei, the species with the largest red velvety flowers, and unfortunately the largest plant habit, has
been the most popular hybrid parent.
Varieties
 Dendrobium species is a typical tropical orchid species suitable for Chennai and other coastal
areas where the humidity is high.
 The important varieties of Dendrobium are Sonia-17, Sonia-28, Madam Pampadour, Pravit white, Sarifa
Fatima, Emma white, Ekapal Panda etc.
Commercial varieties
Emma White
Creamy white coloured flowers. Creamy white sepals, petals and lip, Creamy white lip with feathery
longitudinal situations. Petals are larger than sepals. Ceratobium type. Length of spike ranges from 19.00 to 29.00
cm and seven florets.
Sonia 28
Purple and white coloured flower. Deep purple petals and lip with white colouration towards the centre.
Sepals white with a purple tinge. Petals are little larger than sepals. (Intermediate between Ceratobium and
Phalaenantha) length of spike ranges from 35 cm to 43 cm with twelve florets.
Sonia -17
 White and purple coloured flower. Sepals creamy white with purple marking and petals purple in colour.
Lip light purple with cream coloured can be region and feathery outgrowth in lines club shaped pseudobulbs leaves
are bright green, broad and acute.
Sakura Pink
Light purple coloured flowers. Light purple coloured petals, sepals and lip. Petals and sepals of almost
equal size. Ceratonium type. Length of the spike 24 cm with seven florets.
Growing structure:
Orchids are grown under shade net house conditions. 75% green shade net with a humidity level of 70-
80 %, temperature 18- 28 ºC and light intensity of 1500 – 2000 foot candles is ideal for growing Dendrobium orchid.
Containers
All orchids which do not grow very tall are ideal for growing in pots. The desirable qualities of a container
are
 It should hold the potting material conveniently
 The type of container should take in to account the conditions under which orchids grow in their natural
habitat
 It should drain excess water. They can be provided with sufficient number of holes on the sides and
bottom
 Clay pots should not be painted as it may seal the holes
 For hanging purpose light weight containers like wooden baskets or plastic pots are preferred
 The size of the container should be in proportion with the size of plants and their growth habit
 Shallow containers are sufficient for most of the orchids
 Climbing orchids and terrestrial orchids can be generally planted on the ground.
Epiphytic orchids are grown in some type of containers or supports.
Earthen or clay pots
The most widely used containers are clay pots. They are porous, stable and absorb excess water.
They are cheaper and provide better aeration. They are best suited for terrestrial orchids.

Plastic pots
It is most suited when the plants are grown in hanging pots. They are light in weight, more durable, easy
to transport and do not accumulate algae or salts on their sides but expensive too.
They retain moisture for a sufficiently longer period and hence water requirement is less.
Baskets:
Wooden baskets are generally used for Vanda. The basket is very shallow and is made of wood that can
withstand continuous wetting for a sufficiently lo0ng period.
Slabs:
Slabs or logs of tree fern are useful especially for hanging purpose. The plants are secured on slabs using
hairpins. Slabs need frequent watering and high humidity.
Others
Half or complete portion of coconut husks, wire baskets etc can also be used as containers
Growing Media
Orchids thrive well under a wide range of growing media. Most
common mixture consists - charcoal,
- coconut husk pieces,
- dried tree fern roots,
- sphagnum moss,
- broken pieces of bricks and tiles
- perlite pieces etc.,
 Mixture can be used either singly or in combination.
 Medium should have good drainage and water retention.
 Micro climate and aeration within the pot will favour the healthy growth of the plant.
Dendrobium, Phalenopsis, Cattleya, Paphiopedilum and Cymbidium grow in coconut husk dust, husks of coir
fibre.
Dendrobium grown in brick pieces + coir dust recorded best performance. Cymbidium sp. grew well in bark,
leaf mould than in sphagnum moss.
General considerations of the media
Since the epiphytic orchids are the commercially more important ones, we shall consider some of
the general qualities required for the components used in their media.
They can be listed as follows:
 They should hold sufficient amount of moisture, which should be released to the plants when
needed.

 They should provide adequate drainage.

 They should be easily available locally.

 They should be cheap or less costly.
 They should not contain substances that are toxic to orchids
  They should retain nutrients for a reasonable period of time and at the same time should be easily washable
so that the accumulating salts of fertilizers do not build up dangerous levels.
 They should be easily workable since potting is tedious, consuming much labour and time.
Watering
Watering is also one of the important factors
The two questions that arise here are
1. How much water is to be given?
2. When watering is to be done?
 Too much water will encourage fungal and bacterial growth.
 Too little water will stunt the plant.
 The latter is better than excess watering.
 Watering depends on type of orchid, type of pot, potting medium, position of shade house etc.
Containers and supports
 Climbing orchids and terrestrial orchids can be generally planted on the ground
 Epiphytic orchids are grown in some type of container or supports
- Pots
- Wooden baskets,
- Coconut husks
- Tree fern rafts
- Pieces of wood etc.
Potting Medium
 Orchids thrive well under a wide range of growing media.Most common mixture consists -
charcoal,
- coconut husk pieces,
- dried tree fern roots,
- sphagnum moss,
- broken pieces of bricks,
- perlite pieces etc.,
Mixture can be used either singly or in combination.
 Medium should have good drainage and water retention.
 Micro climate and aeration within the pot will favour the healthy growth of the plant.
Repotting
 Orchids need repotting regularly, usually every two to three years.
 When the plant grows large and overgrows its container.
  When the potting material deteriorates  When the plant has to be split or divided
 It is better to repot epiphytes every year.
 The best time for repotting - Fresh roots emerge at the bases of the previous year‘s growth.
 In monopodial climbers, repotting or division has to be done when new leaf growth shows at the top
and there is new root growth.
Splitting or division of plants
 Plant grown to a large clump with 2 or 3 old canes and new shoots, divided before repotting.
 Each division - at least one old cane of two years‘ growth, one new shoot & some new roots.
 Monopodial climbers - cut the top region with a few roots and plant it a new. Off-shoots
(‗Keikis‘) that arise from the nodes of the stem - cut and potted.
Fertilizer application
In their natural habitats, orchids grow on no special nutrients, depending on decaying tree bark and the
atmosphere.
N,P,K at 17:17:17 or 20:20:20, dissolved in water @ 1-5g twice a week.
 To promote flowering, a higher proportion of P and K at 10:20:20
 Organic fertilizers like cowdung, chicken manure, groundnut cake, neem cake etc. can be moderately used.
 It must be soaked in water at 1:10 or 1:20 for 2 to 3 days to allow decomposition of the fertilizer.
 The supernatant solution is used for spraying once / twice a month.

Harvesting and Handling

 Both are very important operations.
 Proper time and method of harvest controls vase life and the quality  Dendrobium flower fully matured
only 3 or 4 days after it opens.
 A spike can be cut at last 1or 2 buds are yet to open or 20 per cent of flowers are in bud condition.

Immediately after harvest, the lower 0.75cm of the peduncle is cut off, and the flower is inserted into
a fresh tube of water containing preservative.
 Treatment with 8-HQC+5% sucrose improve the flower quality and vase-life of flowers.
Orchid trade in India
Some important orchid species are occupied in flower market : cymbidium, vanda, paphiopedilum
and dendrobium Oncidium goldiana, Vanda rothschildiana and dendrobium (madam pumpadour) are three high
valued cut flowers for export trade.
 Lecture 7 : Production technology of gladiolus and tuberose under open conditions

GLADIOLUS
Importance and uses-origin and distribution-area and production- botany and varieties propagation
and planting-media – environmental factors-inter culture - production constraints-plant protection-harvesting
and yield.
Introduction:
 It is said to be the ―Queen of bulbous flower crops and commonly known as ―Sword
Lily: Corn flag‘ is another common name in Europe.
 The name gladiolus was originally coined by Pliny the Elder.
 Gladiolus (Tournefort.) L. takes its name from the Latin word ―Gladius” meaning a sword,‟ because
of sword- like shape of its foliage
 Majestic spikes of gladiolus has attractive florets
 It is striking and colorful with towering stems
 Occupies 4 th place in International cut flower trade
 Gladiolus primulinus is also known as waterfall gladiolus
Importance and Uses:
 Gladiolus is an important florist crop, most popular as cut flower in the domestic and International market.
 In Netherlands, it ranks next only to tulip in commercial importance
 It is relatively easy to grow and also suitable for bedding and exhibition.
 The fascinating spikes bear a large number of florets which exhibit varying sizes and forms; with
smooth, ruffled, deeply crinkled or laciniated tepals.
 The flower spikes are used in flower arrangements, in bouquets and for indoor decoration.
 Grandiflorus and Primulinus types look very attractive in mixed flower borders.
 Spikes of gladiolus have good keeping quality and can be transported to long distances.
 Its flowers open in acropetal succession, one by one and spike lasts for 1 to 3 weeks in ordinary vase
water, depending upon the season and variety.
 Practically all colours except true blue and green are available in gladiolus
 Gladiolus corms are used as food G . edulis, G . quartinianus, G . zambesiacus, G . spicatus, G . italicus
(Greeks)
 The flowers is used as uncooked salad by nipping of the anthers  Psittacinus hybrids - high amount of
carbohydrates mostly as
Starch (65.4 - 78.61%), Protein (12.6 - 18.5%), Fat (0.58%)
Medicinal uses of Gladiolus
G . crassifolius – used for Headache and Lumbago
G . saundersii – Diarrhoea
G . ecklonii – Rheumatism and Allied pains Origin and Distribution:
 It is said to be in cultivation since 1578.
 It was first introduced into France & it spread to England, Germany, Holland & North America.
 No species is known to be native of India.
 In India it was introduced during British period
 In 1816, France, Holland , Belgium started raising hybrids
Taxonomy:
 Gladiolus L. belongs to the family Iridaceae. Basic chromosome number is n=15.
 Ploidy in the genus ranges from diploid (2n=30) to dodecaploid (2n=180)
 The modern garden gladiolus is a complex of at least 12 species and most of the cultivars are
tetraploids (2n=60) & highly heterozygous, they will not breed true to the type if grown from seeds.
 Inflorescence has 25 florets arranged on axis
 Sepals and petals are together called as tepals
 Ovary has 75 - 150 ovules
 Fruit is called as a capsule
 Cross pollination is done by bees
Species:
 There are about 226 recorded species scattered in Republic of South Africa.
 There are about 260 species and 30,000 varieties
 Varieties were evolved through conventional and mutation breeding in USA
 Other countries involved in breeding gladiolus are Netherlands, UK, Canada, Russia,
Australia, Slovakia, Poland, Japan, New Zealand and India
 Gladiolus natalensis, G. cardinalis, G. communis, G. callianthus, G. arneus, G. recurvus, G.
tristis
Gladiolus aureus
 Most striking golden yellow blooms in late winter and early spring
 Unfortunately, it is on the verge of extinction in the wild Gladiolus caeruleus
 Fairly vigorous plant growing to about 18" high when in bloom
 Lower petals are cream colored and marked with many dark blue-violet spots
Gladiolus carneus
 Large flowered, late blooming species.
 Single spike has three buds with large light lavender pink florets
 Lightly ruffled floret had three prominent red-pink darts on the lip
 Flowers have little or no fragrance
 Sets seed when pollinated with Gladiolus tristis
Gladiolus huttonii
 Single slender leaf from which a graceful spike emerges
 The spike has 4 buds and all four flowers open at once
 The species has no detectable fragrance
Gladiolus miniatus
 Vigorous late spring blooming species
 Produces 10-12 bud spikes with medium sized light pink flowers
 Flowers last about four days and the color deepens over time
 Each flower has throat darts similar, but not as conspicous as Gladiolus carneus
Gladiolus teretifolius
 Graceful and very attractive species
 Zygomorphic bright red flowers look like butterflies
 No fragrance (typical with red flowered species)
Gladiolus priorii
 Very early blooming, almost leafless species
 At bloom it produces a sheath and flower stalk right from the start of growth
 Bright red florets bloom at once
 Flowers are somewhat spidery in form and have no fragrance
Gladiolus tristis
 A hardy easy growing species
 Typically 4-6 buds per spike
 Flowers are intensely fragrant, especially at night. The fragrance is similar in scent and intensity to
that of a "Stargazer" lily
 Not self fertile, but sets seed readily when crossed with other species
Gladiolus watsonius
 Small plant producing a single round leaf
 Flower spike emerges from the base of the leaf
  Vigorous species
 Flowers are burnt orange in color with the center of the flower, especially the "hood" petal being a pale
yellow with some veining of the orange color.
Gladiolus muriale
 Strongly scented and blooms very late in the summer, often just before frost in Northern areas
 Used to develop several hybrids with modern Gladiolus, the best known is 'Lucky Star'.
 Unfortunately the fragrance in the hybrids is not as strong as in the species, and is readily lost in
further crosses to the grandiflora type hybrids, and in fact 'Lucky Star' was the only fragrant seedling
produced
Other species
Gladiolus alatus, Gladiolus delanii, Gladiolus italicus, Gladiolus illyricus, Gladiolus imbricatus,
Gladiolus klattianus, Gladiolus palustris, Gladiolus antakiensis, Gladiolus dubius, Gladiolus palustris Gladiolus
flanaganii
Based on plant and flower characters - Six groups
Grandiflorus (large or exhibition type) - which grows to a height of 90 to 150cm with strong and erect stalks.
Primulinus - Florets - 5-9 cm; Spike 40-45 cm and growing to a height of one metre.
Butterflys - which are upto 1.25 metre, bearing medium – sized flowers spaced closely and marked with
attractive blotches and throat markings; and miniature, growing to a height of 75 to 90cm with flowers 5 to
7.5cm across.
Miniature hybrids: Florets - 2.5-5 cm; Spikes 40 cm
Face up: Florets - 5-6 cm wide and face upward
Colvillei hybrids:
Varieties
Colour Variety
Pink America, Applause, Dawn pink, Deciso, Friendship, My love, Powder Puff, Pink, Cheer

Orange Autumn Gold, Coral Seas, Fiesta, Setting sun, Orange Beauty, Orange Chiffon
Red Black Prince, Hunting Song, Oscar, Victoria, Red Bantam, Redeem
Yellow Anglia, Aurora, Folk Song, Golden Harvest, Golden Peach
White Amsterdam, Classic, Cotton Blossom, White Friendship, Lipstick, Snowdrop
Purple, Violet Blue Moon, Her Majesty, High Style, Mayru, Pusa Sarang, Pusa Shingarika All
Aglow, Lavender Master-piece, Angel Eyes, Blue Bird
Green Green bird, Green Giant
Cream Cream Topper, Dew Drop
Buff Royal buff, Royal Glimpse
Salmon Frilled Champion, Summer Garden
Rose American Beauty, Royal Brocade
 Tan Little Fawn, Tapestry
Smoky Blue Smoke, Misty Eyes
Brown Brown Beauty, Chocolate Dip

Some of commercial important cultivars belonging to different colour groups

 Pink - America, Dawn pink, Pusa Archana, Suchitra, Pink Friendship , Priscilla, Pink Perfection
 Green - Oasis, Green bay, Green bird, Green giant, forest glade
 Cream - Classmate, Cream topper, Dairy queen
 Yellow - Fatima, Royal gold, Nugget, Medusa
 Orange - Foxfire, Setting sun, Tangerine, Peters pears
 Buff - Adventure, Fashion, Happy birthday, Honeycomb
 Tan - Papoose, Table talk, Little fawn
 Red - Advance, Black prince, Eurovision, Oscar, Red batam, Red beauty, Victoria
 White - Classic, Snow princess, Moon frost, Snowdrop, Snow dust,
 Rose - American beauty, Mexicali rose, Upper crust
 Smoky - Autumn charm, Autumn sensation, Blue smoke, Cosmic
 Brown - Brown beauty, Little tiger
 Purple and violets - Her majesty, Mayur, Purple giant, Pusa sarang, Pusa shingarika, Pusa urmil
Some outstanding cultivars suited to Indian conditions
Eurovision, Snow princess, Rose supreme, Jacksonville gold, Suchitra, Peter pears, Mayur, White prosperty
Pink friendship, Jester, Subhangin
IARI, New Delhi
 Apple Bloom, George Mazure, Goelf Whiteman, Jo Wagenaar, Patricia, Pfitzer‘s Sensation and Snow
Princess were the promising varieties
 All are recommended for northern plains
Regional Fruit Research Station, Shimla
 Anne Virginia, Blaur Domino, Cardinal Spellman, Double Frills of Pink, Exotic Double
Sister Eliz, Fenny Lind, Florence Nightingale, Gold Dust, Hawaii, Hill Crest, Kenny, King
Lear, La Paloma, Spic and Span were the promising varieties

IARI Regional Station- Katrain

Apollo, Candyman, Regency, Souvenir and Enchantress performed well
IARI Regional Station, Shimla
 Evaluation of large no. of varieties resulted in selection of 30 large flowered varieties viz.,
  Apple Bloom, Australian Fair, Blue Lilac, Camellia, Debonair, Fred Tucker, Friendship,
George Wagenaar, Lady Killer, Life flame, Lincoln‘s Day, Old Gold, Oscar, Pactolus,
Patricia, Prof.Goudrin, Rose Spire, Sam Smith, Scheherzade, Snow Princess, Stromy Weather,
Sylvia, Thunderbird, Vink‘s Glory & Winter Gladioli
 4 miniature var. viz., Canberra, Jolly Jocker, Pisttacinus Hybrid & Red Canna
IIHR, Bangalore
 Large no. of varieties were evaluated and recommended 11 varieties for commercial cultivation
 Beauty Spot, Cherry Blossom, Friendship, Jo Wagenaar, Melody, Picardy, Snow Princess,
Tintorente, Tropic Seas, Watermelon Pink and Wild Rose
 All are recommended for Bangalore and other places with identical climatic conditions
Hortl. Experiment and Training Centre, Chaubattia
 Evaluated & recommended 9 varieties for commercial cultivation under UP hills
 Apple Bloom, Australian Dust, Australian Sunday Best, Friendship, Geliber Herald, House of Orange,
Mazolia, Oscar and Prof.Goudrin
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana
Emerald Queen, Melody & Snow Princess were recommended for cultivation in Punjab state
IARI, New Delhi
Suchitra – Sylvia x Jo Wagenaar
Neelam- Sylvia x Patricia
Anjali- Sancerre x Rose Spire
Archana- Creamy Green x American Beauty
Chirag- Cygnet x Little Fawn
Gunjan- White Oak x Oscar
Kamini- Ave x Christian Jane
IIHR, Bangalore
Aarti – Shirley x Melody
Apsara – Black Jack x Friendship
Darshan- Watermelon Pink x Shirley
Kum Kum- Watermelon Pink x Lady John
Meera – GP1 x Friendship
Nazrana – Black Jack x Friendship
Poonam – Geliber Herald x RN 121
Sagar- Melody x Wild Rose
Sapna – Green Woodpecker x Friendship
NBRI, Lucknow
Archana – Sylvia x Friendship
Arun – Sylvia x Fancy
Dhiraj- Beauty Spot x Psittacinus hybrid
Hans – Friendship x Gladiolus tristis
Indrani – Friendship x Gladiolus tristis
Kohra – Sylvia x King Lear
Manhar – Friendship x Gladiolus tristis
Manisha – Friendship x Gladiolus tristis
Manmohan - Friendship x Gladiolus tristis
Mohini - Friendship x Gladiolus tristis
Mridula - Friendship x Gladiolus tristis
Sanyukta - Friendship x Gladiolus tristis
Hortl Experiment and Training Centre, Chaubattia Chaubattia
Ankur – Oscar x Friendship
Chaubattia Arunima – Oscar x Mother Fisher
Chaubattia Shobhit – Meria Goretti x Tropic Seas
Chaubattia Tripti – Sunny Boy x Oscar
PAU, Ludhiana
Punjab Dawn- Suchitra x Melody
Punjab Morning- Sancerre x White Prosperity
Shan-e- Punjab- Suchitra x Melody
Hybrids from IIHR
Meera
 Cross from GP1* Friendship
 Flowers after 58 days of planting
 Florets show white – 18 per spike
 Vase life = 8 days
 Good cormel production
 Ideal for cut flower and garden display
Nazrana
 Cross from Black Jack * Friendship
 Production of flowers 57 days after planting
 Florets - cardinal red with barium yellow flash in throat - 18 per spike
  Vase life - 6 days
 Good cormel production
 Suitable for cut flower purpose
Poonam
 Cross from Geliber Herald R. N. 121
 Flowers after 61 days of planting
 Florets - Dresden yellow with Mimosa yellow blotch - 17 per spike
 Vase life = 7 days
 Excellent multiplier
 Tolerant to Fusarium wilt
 Good for cut flower and garden display
Sapna
 Cross from Green Woodpecker * Friendship Requires 54 days to flower
 Florets - barium yellow with primrose yellow blotch and mandarin yellow tinge on margins -17 per spike
 Vase life = 8 days
 Good for cut flower and garden display
Aarti
 Cross from Shirley * Melody Requires 70 days to flower
 Florets - poppy red with reddish purple and canary yellow blotch and mandarin red spots -
11 per spike
 Vase life = 6 days
 Butterfly type, suitable for flower arrangement
Apsara
 Cross from Black Jack * Friendship
 Flowers 45 days after planting
 Florets - ruby red with barium yellow flecks in throat - 18 per spike
 Vase life = 8 days

Varieties from IARI Agni

rekha
 Open pollinated seedling of cv. Sylvia
 Florets – fire red with saffron yellow blotch and scarlet stripes - 18 per spike
 Suitable for cut flower purpose Mayur
 Open pollinated seedling of cv. Sylvia
  Late flowering
 Florets - lilac purple with dark purple throat - 20 per spike .Suitable for cut flower and garden display
Suchitra
 Cross from Sylvia * Jo Wagenaar
 Florets - camellia rose with stripes of vermilion and dianthus purple blotch - 22 per spike
 Good for cut flower purpose
Varieties from NBRI Mukta
 Hybrid from the same cross
 Flowers 90 - 120 days after planting
 Florets - Sulphur yellow throat - 12-15 per spike
Archana
 It is a cross between G. psittacinus 'Sylvia' x G. 'Friendship'
 The spike is branched with a mean spike length of 80cm
 The petals have a central white streak with the throat blotched with prime rose yellow
 There are 16 - 18 florets / spike
Basant Bhar
 It is a seedling produced by selfing G. 'Tunias Challenge'
 Mean spike length is 50cm
 The florets are Empire Yellow with throats speckled magenta
 There are 14 florets / spike
Gazel
 It is a seedling produced by selfing G. 'White Friendship'
 Mean spike length is 35cm
 The florets are Fuchsine pink with darker tips and linear shading while the throat is persian yellow
 There are 14 - 18 florets / spike
Jwala
 It is a seedling produced by Selfing G. psittacinus hybrid
 The spikes are branched with a mean spike length of 65cm
 The florets are Vermilion with sparingly spread long liner streaks of Vermilion  There are 14 - 18 florets
per spike
Manmohan
 Cross from Friendship * G.tristis
 Blooms 80 - 120 days after planting
 Spikes are one sided
  Florets - primrose yellow - 14-16 per spike
Manohar
 Developed from the cross Friendship * G. tristis
 Florets - orchid purple and at tips orchid purple with primrose yellow throat – 14 - 16 per spike
Manisha
 It is a cross between G. 'Friendship' x G. 'tristis'
 The spikes are one sided with a mean spike length 60cm
 The florets are white with outer three petals splashed with Tyrian Rose colour more towards margins
 There are 14 -16 florets per spike
Pitambar
 It is a cross between G. 'Friendship' x G. 'tristis'
 The spikes are branched with a mean spike length 64cm
 The florets are Uranium Green towards edge with throats having a streak of Orchid purple colour
 There are 15 - 16 overlapping florets per spike
Smita
 It is an Indian bred late season hybrid developed from a seedling of G. 'Lavanesque'
 The mean spike length is 45 cm
 The florets are China Rose in colour with darker margins
 There are 14 - 18 florets per spike
Triloki
 It is an Indian bred late season hybrid developed by crossing G. 'Friendship' x G. 'tristis'
 The spikes are one sided with a mean spike length of 75cm
 The florets are China Rose in upper half portion and Primrose Yellow in the lower half
 The petals have splashes of China Rose along the margins
 There are 14 - 15 florets per spike
Aldebaran
 It is an exotic variety having a mean spike length of 62cm
 The petals are Straw Yellow in colour with throat blotched with Signal red colour
 There are 12 - 14 florets per spike
Mutation Breeding
Gladiolus cvs. Sylvia & Eurovision produced more spike length, rachis length, no. of florets/ spike &
flower diameter by radiation with gamma rays at 20-80 Gy
 Sl. No. Mutant Type of mutation Remarks

1. Salmon‘s sensation Spontaneous mutation Petals has Salmon Scarlet ring and the petal joints
had red streaks (Misra,1975)

2. Ratna‘s Butterfly Spontaneous m utation All the petals has violet colour with lighter
flaking in between on the upper half portion
(Misra,1982)

3. Wild rose Physical (1KR) mutation Variety named as ‗Shoba‘. Florets shel pink with
empire yellow throat, 18/spike (Raghava et al.,
1981)

4. Cormels of Physical (1KR) mutation Slight earliness in sprouting, increase in uptake,

Scarlet rise in sugar content

Classes of Gladiolus:
On the basis of floret size, gladiolus has been put into 5 classes, the description of which
is as follows:
Class Designation Floret size (cm)
100 Miniature
200 Small or miniature
300 Decorative
400 Standard or Large o 14.0
500 Giant

Climatic requirement:
 Gladioli require full exposure to sunlight for better crop, otherwise blasting may occur or plants may
remain blind.
 The long day conditions of 12 to 14 h photoperiod increase number of florets, spike length and percentage
of flowering.
 Low light intensity causes failure in flowering.
 High light intensity without proper temperature also affects growth adversely.
 20 to 30oC accelerate flowering up to 55 days
 Corm storage at 3 to70C is good for better growth and flower production
 Growth and flowering Environmental factors
Light Photoperiod
 Earlier flowering 12 h light
 Lengthening the day with artificial light in the winter months increased flower production.
  Shortening the length of day-light period (SD) caused a decrease in either flowering percentage or the
number of florets per spike.
Light intensity
 Gladioli prefer high light intensities
 Very high intensities without provision for temperature control adversely affect growth  Low light
intensity is the main cause for failure in flowering of gladioli.
 Low light intensity during winter lead to serious flower bud abortion during greenhouse forcing of
gladiolus.
Temperature
 Temperature was the major factor influencing the number of days to flowering.
 Increased occurrence of flower blasting chilling injury under low light intensity in winter at low
temperature of 1-4oC.
 Occurred immediately after planting and at the 7th leaf stage when spike emergence began.
 Variations in response to temperature have been reported in cultivars.
Soil Requirement:
Gladioli can be grown in wide range of soils. The soil should have proper drainage facilities. It should also
contain sufficient organic matter. The soil should be sandy-loam and slightly acidic with pH 5-8
Land Preparation:
 Bed size - 6 x 2 meters
 Planting - October in plains and March-April in hills
 Depth of planting - 5 to 10 cm
 Row to row distance is - 40 cm - Plant-to-plant - 15 cm
 Requirement of corms per ha. roughly 1-1.5 lacs
Propagation:
Gladiolus can be propagated through (i) Corms (ii) Cormels (iii) Seeds and (iv) Tissue culture

1.Through Corms
 Propagation of gladiolus through corms is a commercially used method  Corm size is 2.5 cm diameter.
 A single corm produces on an average of 1 to 3 flowers along with daughter corms in a season depending
upon its size and the variety.
 10-50 cormels can be obtained from a single corm.
2.Through Cormels
 Cormels from corms are used as planting material.
 The multiplication of gladiolus through cormels is an inexpensive and rapid method which enables build
up of large stocks with minimum cost.
  The cormels also tend to escape diseases of viruses even if the parent corm is infected.
Time of Planting of Corms:
 North Western Plains – October (first fortnight)
 Staggered planting can, however, be done at 10-15 day intervals from mid-August to mid- December to get
continued supply of spikes over a longer period and to match the market demand.
 In temperate climates, the corms are planted after the winter, i.e. in March and April when frosts are
over and climate becomes warm.
Planting of Corms:
 Only the non-dormant corms should be planted
 The emergence of root buds at the base of the corms shows that the corms are ready for planting.
 The corms should be suitably treated with fungicides before planting.
 When planting, the lower portion of the corm should be placed on the soil such that the bud at the top
lies straight above.
 It is done to make sure that the stem grows erect and does not show crooked growth.
 At planting time, the soil should contain sufficient moisture to facilitate uniform sprouting of corms.
 The depth of planting depends more on the size of the planting materials. The medium and smaller sized
corms are generally planted upto 7 cm deep while large or jumbo corms to a depth up to 15 cm.
 Planting is carried out during October in plains and March-April in hills.
 The row to row distance is normally 40 cm while plant-to-plant is 15 cm.
 The requirement of the corms per hectare is roughly 1, 50,000-2, 00,000.

Irrigation:
 Gladiolus requires water in plenty but does not grow well under water-logged conditions.
 Frequency of irrigation depends upon the soil type, weather conditions and rainfall.
 Normally in sandy soils, the crop should be irrigated at 7-10 day intervals, whereas in heavy soils, at less
frequent intervals.
 Irrigation should be withheld at least 4-6 weeks before lifting of corms.
Staking:
 Especially large-flowered varieties of gladioli grown outdoors are susceptible to lodging, hence need
staking.
 The stems should be tied with strings to thin but strong supports
Weed Control:
 Pro-emergence herbicides reported for gladiolus are diuron (0.9 kg/ha) (or) linuron (3.0 kg/ha)
 Post-emergence herbicides, 2, 4-D @ 1.5-3.0 kg/ha has been found to reduce weed population.
Nutrition:
 Commonly a 12:12:18 N:P:K compound fertilizer is applied prior to planting at 1 ton per hectare.
 Gladiolus can be damaged by fluorine and phosphatic fertilizers containing fluorine should not be used.
 The crop can be top dressed as required with calcium nitrate at an application rate of 200- 300 kg per
hectare.
Growth regulators
 Friendship corms - Soaked in GA3 at 10 or 25 ppm - early sprouting of corms, increased plant height
 Sylvia - 3 applications of GA3 - increased plant height, spike quality in number and size of florets
 Ethylene - activate dormant or inhibited buds - increased flowering
Grading and Packing
International grades for Gladiolus
Grade Spike length (cm) No. of Florats/Spike

Fancy (Blue) (grade A) >107 16

Special (Red) (Grade B) 96-107 14

Standard (Green) (Grade C) 81-96 12

Utility (Yellow) (grade D) <81 10

Care of Spikes in Vase

 Spikes pulsed with 20 % sucrose + 8-HQC (200ppm) or Aluminium sulphate (300 ppm) or Sodium
hypochlorite (50 ppm) for improving vase life
 Holding solution - 4 % sucrose + 8 HQC (200 ppm) or aluminium sulphate (300 ppm)
Post harvest quality requirements
 Straight and strong stems
 Uniformly spread florets
 Turgid florets facing in one direction
 Proper colour of the flower and freshness
 Foliage with proper length and free from damage
 Petals free from discoloration
 Opening of florets - uniform
Floral preservatives
 Chemical formulation used to extend vase life of flowers
Contain 2 basic components
 Sugars - provide extra food for spikes and keeps the stem turgid
 Biocide - checks the microbial growth at the surface of the spike and vase water
Biocides
 Commonly used biocides for gladiolus are
 8-hydroxyquinoline citrate (8- HQC)
 Physan - 20
 Aluminium sulphate
 Sodium hypochlorite and bleach solution
 Ethylene Sensitivity Although exposure to ethylene does not affect the life of open florets, it can reduce the
flower life by causing abortion of unopened buds
Preservative can be used as
 Pulsing solutions
 Holding solutions
 Bud opening solutions
Pulsing solutions
 Short term transit treatment
 Given for 20 - 24 hrs at moderate temperatures (20-35 o C) and good light
 High levels of sucrose
 Effective tight bud stage
 8HQC can be replaced by Aluminium sulphate (300 ppm ) , NaoCl ( 50 ppm ) or a combination of both
 10 minutes impregnation with AgNO3 (1000ppm) - pulsing with sucrose (20%) for – effective for
gladiolus
Holding solution
 Cut spikes can be permanently put in a preservative solution
 Composition - same as pulsing solution
 Sucrose content - low
 Sucrose (4%) + Aluminium sulphate (300 ppm) / Sodium hypo chloride (50ppm) - opening of florets,
improving vase life
Bud opening solutions
 Specific bud opening solutions - not required
 Pulsing/ holding solutions can be used for this purpose
Harvesting of Spikes:
 Gladiolus takes 60-120 days to produce spikes from the corms to become mature and ready for lifting.
 Plant growth stops at this stage
 The spikes of gladiolus generally exhibit vase life of about 7-15 days.
 The spikes should be harvested in the morning or evening hours when temperatures are mild.
  Spikes should preferably be cut with sharp knives or secateurs.
 While harvesting, at least four basal leaves should be retained on the plant to ensure proper development of
corms and cormels.
 The stage at which the spike is to be cut should depend upon the transportation distance, consumer
requirement and prevailing temperature conditions
 Irrigations should normally be withheld at least 2-3 weeks before harvesting of corms.
 In India, lifting of corms is carried out manua lly with smal garden forks or ―khurpas‖.
 After lifting the corms from the soil, the upper leafy portions should be removed by twisting and
breaking the stalk.
 The old withering mother corms attached to the bottom of the newly-formed corms should also be
removed similarly with the thumb.
 The cormels should also be separated simultaneously and handled separately.
 The corms usually get damaged or bruised during harvesting and cleaning operations.
 The corms should be cleaned, dipped for 30 min in 0.3% Captan 50 WP and shade-dried at an aerated
place for about 15 days.
 Corms are then packed in crates or in net bags and cold-stored at 3-7oC.
 From cold storage, these corms should be taken out one month prior to planting and kept at ambient
conditions at an aerated place.
 The corms or cormels of different cultivars must be handled separately and labeling properly so that they
do not get mixed up.
 Before planting, these are once again dipped for one hour in 0.3% Captan solution
Disorders
 Fluoride injury has been observed in gladioli.
 Water used for cut flowers should also be low in soluble salts (Waters, 1966, 1968) and free of dissolved
fluorides.
 As little as 0.25 ppm fluoride is detrimental for certain cultivars.
Packaging
For local markets spikes may be taken submerged in water
For distant markets.
 Carried dry in cardboard or wooden boxes or in trunks and this way these can easily be retained for 12
hours
 These rectangular boxes may be prepared having 1.2 metre length, 60cm width and 30cm height, perforated
at several places for circulation of air.
 Bundles of 50 to 100 spikes are prepared for air lifting in the perforated and lightproof cardboard boxes.
 The upper portion of the spikes may bend downwards if cardboards are not kept vertically.
  One floret ordinarily lasts four days and generally one floret from bottom to top opens every day
Storage
 Gladiolus spikes of cv. White Friendship, wrapped in polythene or kraft paper placed in cartons, were
subjected to simulated condition at 4.4oC (40oF) or 10oC (50oF) for 3 days.
 They were than held at 23.3oC (74oF) either in water or in 400ppm hydroxyquinoline citrate (8HQC) + 3%
sucrose.
 Floret opening in gladiolus improves by controlled atmospheric storage with 1 per cent O2 and 5 per cent
O2 for 6-8 days.
 The storage of flowers can also be extended to over 30 days by low pressure storage techniques.

Corms and cormels Curing

 After lifting and removing the adhering soil, the corms and cormels of each cultivar are kept in trays
in a shady but well ventilated place for about a fortnight.
 Corms and cormels are washed after topping.
 These should be dried quickly with the aid of warm dry air or blower but the temperature should never
exceed 30oC
Cleaning and grading
 Fully cured, corms are cleaned diseased ones are discarded.
 Treatment with 0.02 per cent or 0.2 per cent captan 15 days before storage
 TUBEROSE
Importance and uses-origin and history-distribution-area and production-botany - species and varieties
propagation- season and planting-nutrition and irrigation soil climate – management practices – nematode
management -role of growth regulators- plant protection harvest and yield.
Introduction:
 Tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa L.), belonging to the family, Amaryllidaceae
 Chromosome No n = 30
 Single cultivar : 2n=60, fertile
 Double cultivar : 2n=50, infertile
 The generic name Polianthes is probably derived from the greek polios‘ shining or white, and
anthos‘, a flower, in alusion to the blooms of the common tuberose and species tuberosa‘, the plant being
tuberous in nature. The name, therefore, is tuber-ose, not tube- rose.
Pollination: cross pollination
 It is a half hardy erect perennial herb with fibrous roots, 60 – 120 cm high with stout and short bulbs,
leaves basal 6 – 9 in number, 30 – 45 cm long, linear, grass like, hairless, smooth edged or minutely
toothed, channeled bright green with reddish tinge near the base, flowers numerous, 4 – 6 cm long, funnel
shaped, waxy white, filaments attached on upper part of the corolla, fragrant and borne in pairs on erect
leafy flower stalks called scape
 Bulbs are made up of scales and leaf bases and the stem is a condensed structure which remarks
concealed with is scales.
Important and Uses
 Tuberose is one of the most important bulbous ornamentals of tropical and sub-tropical areas.
 People all over the world realize that flowers enhance the quality of life and human feelings more than
words or other gifts, which results in increased use of flowers and ornamental plants.
 Its blooms are mainly used for making garlands, bouquets, floral ornaments for bridal makeup and
other floral arrangements and buttonholes and the long spike of flowers is excellent for table decoration.
 The variegated ones with beautiful golden stripes on foliage margins are very attractive and suitable for
garden display.
 The fleshy, white, tubular flowers emit a strong odour and hence are cultivated on a large scale in some
parts of the world for the extraction of highly valued natural flower oil, the tuberose oil.

 The tuberose flower oil of commerce is one of the most sought after and expensive raw materials in
perfumery.
 The fresh flowers give a concrete yield of 0.08 to 0.11 %, of which nearly 18 to 23% constitutes the
alcohol-soluble 'absolute'.
  The essential oil is used in only the highest grade perfumes. Sometimes, the oil is used in flavouring
candy, beverages and baked food.
Origin and Distribution:
 The tuberose is a native of Mexico.
 It is grown largely in the southern states of America, Italy, France, Morocco, South Africa, Taiwan, Egypt
and many other tropical and subtropical areas in the world. 
 The word tuberose is derived from tuberose. This plant is being the tuberous hyacinth and distinguishes
from the bulbous hyacinth.
 In India, tuberose is cultivated on a commercial scale in Ranaghat, Kolaghat and Panskura in West
Bengal,
 Devanahalli, Tumkur and Mysore in Karnataka;
 East Godavari, Guntur, Chittoor and Krishna districts of Andhra Pradesh;
 Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu and
 Pune and Thane in Maharashtra
Species and Varieties:
 There are about fifteen species under the genus Polianthes, of which twelve species have been reported
from Mexico and Central America.
 Of these, nine species have white flowers, one is white and red and two are red.
 Except Polianthes tuberosa L., all the others are found growing wild.
Species
1. Polianthes tuberosa : An erect herb, flowers funnel shaped, waxy white, the tube bent only near the base,
filaments attached on upper part of corolla
2. P.palustris : This species was collected in swamps on the western foothills flowers in 3 to 5 pairs arising from
single bracts;
3. P.durangensis : Collected on the west slope of the last range of the Sierra Madre in the state of Durango.
Flowers arranged in one to six pairs are all sessile, becoming flowers white, become purplish with age.
4. P.montana : Flowers are short with lobes small, erect and rounded white flower
5. P.longiflora : Flowers in three to five pairs. Perianth is white tinged with purple colour.
6. P.platyphylla : Florets are arranged in four to seven pairs with white flower tinged with red colour. Natural
crossing of the wild red and white species of tuberose.
7. P.graminifolia :Deep red species common in Mexico found by Rose in 1987.
8. P.geminiflora : Flowers are light orange-red in colour and arranged in pairs of 6 or more
9. P.gracilis (P.tuberosa var. gracilis) :
 This species is supposed to be Mexican and is distinguished by slender habit and narrower leaves.
Perianth tubes are long and slender. Possibly this was the original form of P.tuberosa.
10. P.blissii : flowers white & red
11. P.pringlei : Fragrant and white flower turning purplish on drying
12. P.sessiliflora : Plants produce flowers of white colour.
13. P.nelsonii : Flowers are white in colour.
Polianthes tuberosa
There are three types of tuberoses named on the basis of the number of rows of petals they bear. They are,
Single, Semi-double, Double and variegated,
Single type.
 Cultivars having flowers with one row of corolla segments.
 Flowers are extensively used for essential oil extraction and also for loose flowers.
 Single types are more fragrant than double.
 Also the per cent seed setting is high in single.
 Its floral buds are greenish white.
 Flowers are pure white with only one row of corolla segment.
 Concrete content has been observed to be 0.08 to 0.11 per cent.
 Loose flowers are used for making floral ornaments.
 Calcutta Single and Single Mexican the single varieties, are being grown in Tamil Nadu.
Single type varieties
Calcutta Single, Mexican Single, Kalyani Single, Hyderabad Single, Phule Rajani, Prajwal, Rajat Rekha,
Shringar are main varieties.
Rajat Rekha
Single flowered type with silvery white streak along the middle of the leaf table. It is a mutant
evolved by irradiating bulbs of single flowered cultivar. Concrete content has been found to be 0.089 per cent. It
has been released by the National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow
Shringar:
 This variety has been developed form a cross between Single x Double‘ from IIHR, Bangalore.
 It bears single type of flowers on sturdy spikes.
 The flower bud is slightly pinkish tinged.
 Florets are bigger and appealing than Calcutta Single‘.
 Resistant to Meloidogyne incognita nematode.
 Loose flowers are ideal for making garland, while spikes can be used as cut flower.
 Yield of loose flowers is about 1500 kg/ha per year, which is 40% higher than ‗Calcutta or
 Mexican Single‘ and the concrete content of the Hybrid is at par with Mexican Single.  Shringar
is preferred by farmers and perfumery industries.
Prajwal:
 This hybrid from the cross Shringar‘ x Mexican Single‘ from IIHR, Bangalore.
 The flower buds are slightly pinkish in colour while the flowers are white.
 The individual flowers are large in size, compared to Local Single‘.
 It yields twenty per cent more loose flowers than Shringar‘.
 Recommended both for loose flower and cut flower purpose.
Arka Niranthra
 It is an single type, bold flower and highly suitable for loose flowers. It has been released by IIHR,
Bangalore.
 Semi-double type
 Flowers with 2-3 rows of corolla segments on straight spikes used for cut flowers
Vaibhav:
This hybrid which bears semi-double flowers on medium spikes is from the cross Mexican Single‟ x
IIHR-2. The flower buds are greenish in colour in contrast to pinkish buds in Suvasini‘ and Local Double‘.
Flowers are white. Spike yield is 50 per cent higher compared to Suvasini‘. Hence, recommended for cut flower
purpose.

Double type
 Flowers with more than three rows of corolla segments on long and sturdy spikes used as cut flower as well
as loose flower and for extraction of essential oil.
 Concrete recovery has been found to be 0.06%.
 The double type of tuberose is previously known as pearl.
 It does not open well and is not commercially viable as the single cultivar.
 The flowers tinged with red in the 'Double' type are known as 'Pearl'.
 There are some streaked leaf-forms, known as 'variegated',
 In others the flowers have little tinge of red in the bud-stage, which turns to white when fully
open.

Double type varieties

Calcutta Double, Hyderabad Double, Kalyani Double, Pearl Double, Swarna Rekha, Suvasini
Swarna Rekha
 Double flowered type with golden yellow steaks along the margins of leaf. It is a gamma ray induced
mutant, in which mutation occurred in chlorophyll synthesis resulting in change in leaf colour. Concrete
content has been found to be 0.062 per cent. It has been released from NBRI, Lucknow.
Suvasini:
 A multi whorled variety developed form the cross between Single x Double hybridization from IIHR,
Bangalore
 Pure white flowers are bold and big, borne on a long spike.
 Spikes are best suited as cut flower.
 Suvasini recorded 25% more yield than cv. Double.
 IIHR, Bangalore has also evolved two more new varieties of tuberose namely Prajwal and Vaibhav
recently.
Propagation:
Bulbs are used for commercial propagation. In general, bulbs having diameter between 1.5 and 2.5
cm with 25-30g weight are planted (1.25-1.5 lakh bulbs/ha) having 800-900 kg are required for planting one
hectare. On the sides of ridges at 45 x 20 cm spacing are planted during June – July at a depth of 2.5 cm. Bulbs
are planted after 30 days of harvest. Dip the bulbs in 5000 ppm CCC (5 g/lit) before planting to increase the yield.
Seed treatment
These bulbs are first thoroughly cleaned and treated with Bavistin (0.2%) for 30 minutes. Dipping the
bulbs in 4% solution of thiourea can break the resting period. Pre-plant storage of bulbs at 10°C for a period
of 30 days to improve the plant growth, increased spike and flower yield. Preplanting treatment of bulbs with GA3,
ethrel or thiourea promoted early appearance of flower and produced highest number of longer spikes with
maximum number of florets.
Dormancy breaking
The bulbs remain dormant during the winter months in places where the temperature is low and, If
early planting is desired, the dormancy can be successfully broken by dipping the bulbs in 4% Thiourea
solution for one hour. Ethylene chlorohydrins can also be used for breaking the dormancy. The bulbs are separated
from the clumps by rubbing off the loose scales and the long roots should also be removed. Spindle-shaped bulbs
with a diameter of 2.6 to 3 cm size are used for planting.

Soil
Tuberose can be grown on wide variety of soils from light, sandy loam to a clay loam. The soil should
be at least 45 cm deep, well drained, friable, rich in organic mater and nutrients with plenty of moisture in it.
The soil should have a pH range from 6.5 to 7.5 with good aeration. The crop can be grown even in high
saline-alkaline soils with better agronomical practices. It is observed that the vegetative growth and flowering
are affected by increasing the levels of NaCI and very a low concentration of CaCI2.
Climate
The crop is best suited for cultivation in tropical to subtropical and temperate climates. The crop is reported
to flower profusely throughout the year, if the climate is mild and free from extremes of high and low
temperature. In India, commercial cultivation of tuberose is confined to warm humid areas with average
temperature ranging from 20-30°C is considered ideal for this crop. If the temperature is above 40°C, the spike
length and quality of the flowers are affected. Very low temperature and frost will damage the plants and flowers.
Tuberoses grow well in a sunny situation. Although the plant is photosensitive, exposure to a day-length of about
16 hours appreciably promotes vegetative growth and enhances the emergence of the first flower-spike by
10 days. The length of the flower-spike also increases under long days. Tuberose is also grown in hilly areas up to
1200 to 1500 meter height.
Selection of site
For proper growth and high yield of tuberose it is better to choose a place having plenty of sunlight.
Tuberose should be grown in well drained place as it cannot tolerate water logging even for a short period.
Soil should be thoroughly prepared and clods should be broken properly. Decomposed organic matter or well rotten
cow dung manure or FYM should be thoroughly incorporated into the soil.
Land preparation
The land is ploughed deep, twice, to a depth of 45 cm. The first ploughing is done in January and the
second about a month before planting. At the time of the second ploughing apply FYM @ 20-50 t/ha and
incorporate into the soil.
Planting
The density of planting markedly influences the yield and quality of the flowers. The planting
distance varies with the soil and climatic conditions. About 1, 00,000 to 2, 00,000 bulbs are required for planting
one hectare of land. A spacing of 15 x 20 cm (Maharashtra), 25 x 25 cm (West Bengal), 30 x 30 cm (Lucknow), 30
x 22.5 cm (Bangalore) and 20 x 20 cm (for other part of South India) have been recommended for this crop. While
planting, the bulbs are planted at the recommended plant-spacing, 3.5 cm deep on the sides of the ridges. The plots
are irrigated immediately after planting.

Light:
 Tuberose although not strictly photosensitive, long-day exposure promotes vegetative growth as well
as early emergence of the first flower spike and also increases the length of flower spike.
 A day length of 16 hours promoted growth and flowering.
Effect of growth regulators
The effects of pre-planting treatment of bulbs with GA3, ethrel or thiourea promoted early appearance of
flower and the number of flower spikes but reduced the number of bulbs per plant. Foliar application of GA3 at 50
to 100 ppm thrice at 40, 55 and 60 days after planting. Treatment with GA3 (200ppm) produced highest number of
longer spikes with maximum number of florets.
Micronutrients: Foliar spray of ZnSO4 0.5% + FeSO4 0.2% + Boric acid 0.1% Season of
Planting:
Tuberoses are generally planted in February-March in the plains and April-May in the hills. The bulbs can
also be planted during July- August. It can be planted all year round in Bangalore, but a higher flower-yield
is obtained from the April-May planting. To obtain flowers almost throughout the year, sequential planting can
be practiced.
Nutrition
Tuberose is a heavy feeder and highly exhausting crop, responds well to the application of organic and
inorganic nutrients. In general, a basal dose consisting of FYM @ 10kg/sq.m., single superphospate and muriate of
potash each @ 80 g/sq.m., 10-15 days prior to the planting of bulbs is recommended. Fertilizer application @ 200
kg N, 400 kg P2O5 and 200 kg K2O per has been recommended. Of the full recommended dose of fertilizers, half
the N, the full dose of P and K has to be applied at the time of planting and the remaining half of N is given as
a top-dressing after 45 days of planting. Apart from N, P and K, calcium, magnesium, sulphur, iron, zinc,
manganese, aluminium, boron and copper have also been found to influence the growth and flowering in
tuberoses.
Inter-culture:
 In order to keep the plots free of weeds and to avoid the exposure of bulbs, the plots are weeded and earthed-
up once a month.
Earthing-up enables the spikes to grow erect, despite strong winds and rains.
The application of Atrazine (@ 3 kg/ha) as a pre-emergent weedicide keeps the plots weed- free.
 A pre-emergent treatment of Gramaxone (@ 3 kg/ha) followed by three post- emergent sprayings at
intervals of 110 days in between the rows also keeps the crop weed free.
Mulching the plots with strips of black polythene, dried grass and chopped straw is effective in controlling
weeds.
 The flower-spikes should be supported by stakes after about 2 1/2 months of planting.
Pest Management
The important insects are thrips, aphids and weevil. Thrips and aphids are controlled by the spray of
Rogor or Metasystox @ 1.75 to 2.0 ml/litre. The weevils can be controlled by the spray of Thiodon @ 2.0 mg/litre.
Bud borer (Helicoverpa armigera)
This can be controlled by the spray of endosulfan (0.2%), monocrotophos (0.2%) or Thiodan (0.5-
0.8%).
Nematodes
Tuberose is damage by nematodes and resulting extensive yield losses. Nematodes like root knot nematode
(Meloidogyne incognita and M. javanica) and reniform nematode (Rotylenchulus renioformis) and also greasy steak
nematode caused by Aphelencoids besseyi are reported to cause damage to the crop, which is characterized by the
stunted growth of the plants. The leaf size is reduced and the flowers look sickly and, ultimately, the roots rot.
The application of Thimet or Furadan (20 kg/ha) to the soil has been recommended for control or application of
Furadon @ 2 g/plant or carbofuran @ 2-5 kg/ha, neem @ 1 tonne/ha controls nematode infestation.
Disease Management Stem rot
The disease symptom is preceded by the appearance of prominent coarse mycelial masses on leaf
surface at or near the soil level. The infection is caused by Sclerotium rolfsii. The disease can be controlled
by soil application of brassicol or Zineb (20%) at the rate of 30 kg per hectare.
Also, the incidence can be minimized by reducing soil moisture or planting at wider spacing.
Flower Bud rot
It is caused by Erwinia sp. Results in dry rotting of the buds with brown surched necrotic discoloration of
peduncles. The diseased plants should be uprooted and destroyed. The disease can be controlled by the spray
of Streptomycin (0.01%)
Leaf blight or Botrytis blight
Fungal disease caused by Botrytis elliptica. The disease can be controlled by spraying the plant with
ammonical copper (2%) or Greeno (0.5%). The treatment should be repeated at 15 days interval.

Alternaria leaf spot

The fungi, Alternaria polyantha, causes leaf-spot disease, which is characterized by the appearance of
brown spots with faint concentric rings on the mid-rib. Bordeaux mixture (0.4%), Zineb or Ziram (0.5%) and
Mancozeb (0.2%) or Iprodione (0.2%) spray will effectively control the disease by the spray of at 10 days interval.
Harvesting and Yield:
The yield of loose flowers/spike depends on variety, planting distance and climate condition prevailing
in the area. One hectare of tuberose plantation yield 4-5 lakhs of spikes per year from single varieties, 10.5
tonnes/ha of loose flowers may be harvested. In addition, 20 tones/ha of bulbs may be harvested after 2-3 years.
 Flowering of tuberose starts 80 to 100 days after planting and flowering time is July onwards
 Tuberose flowers all the year round but August-September is the peak period of flowering
 Spikes are harvested at bud-burst stage preferably in the morning before sunrise or late in the evening by
clipping with a sharp knife or secateur that gives a clean cut.
  Depending on the purpose, harvesting is done by cutting the fully-opened spikes from the base or
single flowers are harvested as they open by day; the picking of individual flowers should be completed
by 8.00 a.m.
 The flowers have a shelf-life of 3 days.
 About 4-6 cm basal portion has to be left to allow the growth of bulb.
 The lower portion of the cut spikes immediately after harvest, are to be immersed in water for
prolonging life of spikes.
 For loose flower purpose individual flowers are plucked early in the morning and usually packed in bamboo
basket which can hold about 10-15 kg of flowers.
 The flower yield ranges from 150 to 200 quintals per hectare in the first year, 200 and 250 quintals per
hectare in the second year and 75 to 100 quintals per hectare in the third year.
 Flowers yield up to 17-18 t/ha can be expected from a well-maintained crop.
Handling and Packing of Flowers
 Loose flowers are transported in poly bags to the nearby whole sale market.
 The flower spikes are graded according to spike length, length of the flowering zone and quality of
individual flowers
 Bunched in round bundles each having about 50-100 spikes
The stem portion of the bundle has to be wrapped with news paper.
To avoid damage of the flowers and buds, the whole bundle may be wrapped with soft, white tissue paper
or polythene.

 Bundles have to be packed in card- board boxes for long distance transportation.
Grading
 The flower spikes are graded according to the stalk length, length of rachis, number of flowers per
spike and weight of spikes.
 Straight and strong stem of uniform length and uniform stage of development are preferred.
 Flowers should be free from bruises and diseases and pests.
 Florets are graded according to their size for loose flowers.
Packing and Transport
For room decoration, long spikes are preferred and are sold in bundles. Each bundle contain 100 spikes.
To avoid damage of the flowers and buds, the whole bundle should be wrapped in soft, white tissue paper or
polythene. These bundles are packed in rectangular bamboo baskets lined with Hessian cloth.
For long distance transport, they are packed in square boxes or airy baskets but packing in cardboard boxes
is more suitable which can be easily transported by rail, bus or by truck. Loose flowers are packed in bamboo
baskets holding about 10-15 kg flowers and the baskets are covered with muslin cloth and are transported to
the nearby wholesale market where they are sold by weight.
Storage of Flowers
The fresh flowers can be stored at 100C.
Holding solutions
A holding solution consisting of sucrose 2% + Al2 (SO4)3 300 ppm was found best for increasing the post
harvest life and quality of cut spikes of tuberose
Extraction of Essential Oil
 The flower oil is extracted by effleurage and solvent extraction with petroleum ether. Freshly picked
flowers, before they open are effleuraged. About 150 kg of flowers yield 1 kg of the brown, semi-solid
absolute of Enfleurage which contains 11-15% of steam volatile oil. Extraction of tuberose flowers with
petroleum ether yield 0.08 – 0.14 per cent of concrete.
 In recent years, the process of Enfleurage has been partly replaced by solvent extraction, which requires
much less labour though the yield of the absolute reduces considerably.
 The extraction of the tuberose flowers with petroleum ether yields 0.08-0.11 % of concrete, which gives
18-23% of absolute on treatment with alcohol and contains 3% steam distillate.
The concrete yield is about 17-18 kg/ha which gives 3.5 kg absolute and 0.8 kg distillable oil.
The concrete contains 3 – 5 per cent of a steam volatile oil.
 Out of the approximate total yield of 30,000 kg of loose flowers from one hectare, in three years, 27.5
kg of concrete‘ could be obtained.
 This concrete in turn will yield about 5.50 kg of absolute. One hectare of tuberose plantation may yield
upto 12 kg of concrete.
Ratooning
In November-December, when the temperature drops, the leaves of the plants turn yellow and die
and the plants undergo dormancy. Digging of bulbs should be done at this stage. With the increase in temperature
the crop regains growth from the previously planted bulbs which is termed as ratooning. The ratoon crop
results in more number of spikes but reduces number of florets, length of spikes and weight of flowers.
Therefore, ratoon crop should be used only for loose flower or oil extraction purpose.
For ratooning in tuberose, the yellowing plants should be twisted from the ground level which leads to early
maturing of bulbs. For the proper growth and development of plants, fertilizer dose as given in the main crop
should be applied in two equal split doses in January-February and April. All other cultural practices should be
done as in case of main crop. There is early flowering in ratoon crop as compared to main crop
 Lifting, Curing, and Storage of Bulbs
 Bulbs reach maturity at the cessation of flowering when the leaves become yellow and dry during winter
(February-March) in North India.
 At this stage, irrigation is withheld and the soil is allowed to dry.
 The leaves are cut off at the ground level and the bulbs are dug out.
 After digging, the bulbs are lifted out and the adhering earth shaken off neatly and thoroughly.
 The offsets are then separated out by hand, which are used as seed-stock for the next season.
 The bulbs are the graded based on the size into mature (> 1.5 cm diameter) and immature (< 1.5 cm
diameter).
 Cleaned and graded bulbs are placed on sheives to dry or cure.
 To hasten curing, artificial heat of 27 to 350C may be applied.
 The bulbs must be stirred or have their position changed every few days to prevent fungal attack and rotting.
 An ambient air temperature of at least 180C for four to six weeks or exactly six weeks at 300C stimulates
the yield of commercial sized bulbs.
Longer storage at 300C advances flower spike yield but the quality of spike deteriorates and the bulb
number decreases.



 Lecture 8: Production technology of chrysanthemum and marigold under open conditions
Chrysanthemum
Family : (Asteraceae)
Botanical name: (Dendranthema grandiflora) 2n: 18
Introduction:
 Chrysanthemum is a popular commercial flower crop of the many countries.
 It is next only to rose in value of flower trade in the world market.
 The word Chrysos means “golden” and anthos means “flower”.
 It is commonly known as Queen of East/ autumn queen/ guldaudi.
 Japanese National Flower.
The flowers of chrysanthemum possess two kinds of florets;
 The central disc florets which are tubular perfect flowers with both stamen and pistil
 The ray florets which surrounds the disc florets which are comparatively longer, vary in shape, colour
and form; pistillate and hence called as imperfect florets
Origin and History
It is native to the northern hemisphere chiefly Europe and Asia. Historically, Confucius the great
Chinese philosopher has, in his writing, mentioned chrysanthemum as early as in 500 BC making it one of
the most ancient cultivated flower of the world. It has second ranks as commercial crop. In the United States, it
is the number one dollar earner flower and the most reliable. It is difficult to say with certainty when its
culture began in India. Shant Gyanehswar has mentioned it in his famous Marathi exposition of Gita
―Gyaneshwari‖ written in AD 1290. The Hindi name guldaudi (meaning flower of Daud) suggests that
it must have been grown during the Moghul period in this country
Species involved in the development are C. sinense, C. indicum, C.japonicum, C. ornatum.
Area and Distribution
The chrysanthemum is one of the most important flower crops commercially grown in different parts
of the world. The Netherlands, Italy, Colombia, Spain, Germany and USA are the important countries where it
is mainly grown under greenhouse conditions. In India, it is commercially grown in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
and Maharastra. In different states of India, it is grown with different names, Guldaudi in Hindi belt,
Chandramalika, in the eastern state, Samanti in the southern states and Shevanti in the western states. It is
grown in on area of about 4,000 ha.
Commercial production centres in India
Karnataka - Bangalore, Kolar, Dharwad, Belgaum & Tumkur
Madhya Pradesh - Ratlam, Indore
Maharashtra - Ahmednagar, Pune & Nasik
Rajasthan - Udaipur, Ajmer, Jaipur & Kota
Bihar - Madhupur, Deoghar
Haryana - Ambala, Gurgaon & Faridabad
Tamil Nadu - Salem, Shervroy hills, Ooty
Importance and Uses
Chrysanthemum is versatile; it can be planted in the bed, cultured in the pot, used for garland making
and also as cut-flower for flower arrangement. In India, large flowered varieties are grown for exhibition
purpose while small flowered varieties are grown for cut flower, making garland, wreaths, veni and religious
offerings.
 In India too, chrysanthemum occupies a place of pride both as a commercial crop and as a popular exhibition
flower.
 It has a wide range of type, size and colour and also ―forms‖.
 Short day plant – ―Photo sensitive‖ (10 hours day light)
 The erect and tall growing cultivars are suitable for background planting in borders or for cut
flowers.
 The extra large-bloomed cultivars for their exhibition value.
 Dwarf growing for flower beds and pot culture (pot mums)  Loose flowers – garland, veni, worship etc.
 Long stem flowers – cut flowers for Bouquet, Vase etc.
 Chrysanthemum morifolium is also an important source of essential oil and sesquiterpenoid alcohol.
 The species like Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium and C. coccineum are also being cultivated as sources of
pyrethrum and an important insecticide.
 It is important both as cut flower and as potted plant in the international market.
 In Dutch cut flower auction, chrysanthemum ranks 2nd after rose.
Botanical description
It belongs to family Asteraceae. The species of chrysanthemum have fibrous root system (shallow rooted
plant), herbaceous perennial plant growing to 50-150 cm tall, with deeply lobed leaves and large flower heads,
white, yellow or pink.
Classification
 The species of the genus Chrysanthemum are annual, perennial herbs, sometimes partly woody.
 The genus Chrysanthemum belongs to the family Compositae / Asteraceae.
Class 1. Single
 Ray florets in a single row at right angles to the stem.
 Disc is flat to slightly round and may be of contrasting colours, e.g., Potomac.
Class 2. Semi-double
  Ray florets in more than one row at right angles to the stem but may curve downward at the tips.
 Disc as in class 1.
Class 3. Anemone
 Ray florets variable, from flattened, broad and equal in length to reflexing, pointed at tip and unequal
in length.
 Disc florets are numerous tube-like and elongated so as to form a prominent disc which may range from
flat to hemispherical in form.
Class 4. Pompon
 Bloom globular, somewhat flat in young stage or small button type.
 Ray florets broad, incurved, smooth and firm with good substance.
Class 5. Incurve
 Breadth and depth should be equal to produce a globular bloom.
 Ray florets narrow to broad, smooth and incurve in a regular to an irregular manner without producing an
open centre, e.g., Snow Ball, Mountaineer, Nob Hill.
 An Irregular Incurve chrysanthemum, meaning "big chrysanthemum". The size of this flower is around
20cm (about 8 inches).
Class 6. Reflexing incurve
 Ray florets usually broad and smooth. Breadth and depth nearly equal to form a globular bloom, sometimes
flattened, may be less compact than incurve.
 All mature florets not completely incurving and not all completely reflexed.
 The lower florets sometimes reflexing to give a skirted effect, e.g., Dream Castle, Indianapolis.
Class 7. Decorative
 Ray florets from short and broad to narrow, long and pointed, they generally reflex, although upper
florets may tend to incurve.
 Blooms more flattened than globular e.g., Otome Pink, Princess Anne.
Class 8. Reflex
 Bloom globular with equal depth and breadth and a full centre, or somewhat flattened.
 Ray florets narrow to broad, gracefully overlapping in either a regular or in an irregular manner and
reflexed. e.g., Coronation Pink.
Based on the size, shape of flower, arrangements of florets and purpose used, the chrysanthemums are
classified into several groups. i) Small flowered types. ii) Large flowered types iii)
Classification based on plant growth iv) Based on usage.
I. Small Flowered
1. Singles – The petals are arranged in one or not more than five rows with prominent central disc.
2. Anemones – Prominent centrally raised hemispherical cushiony disc florets surrounded by short rounded or
flat or twisted or quilled ray florets. Ex. Golden sands, White sands.
3. Korean single – Small flowers with a prominent central disc, ray florets are flat, number of whorls or
ray florets are five and less than five. Ex: Cardinal, Gul-e-Sahir, Chairman.
4. Korean double – The number of whorls of ray florets are more than five and the central disc is open. Ex:
Flirt, Man Bhawan.
5. Spoon – The outer ray florets are tubular with a spatula or spoon like opening at the tips. Ex:
Anokha.
6. Decorative – Fully double flowers with flat petals and central disc is generally absent or not seen, ray
florets are longer. Ex: Aretic, Elegance, Blue chip, Dolly.
7. Quilled – Small flowers, ray florets are tubular. Ex: Golden crystal, Snow crystal.
8. Button – Very compact, small flowers, produce numerous flowers. Ex: Golden dust.
9. Pompon – The flowers small, freely opened, compact, hemispherical or ball shape, the central disc is
concealed or absent, florets neatly arranged. Ex: Apsara, Jayanthi, Lameo, Dandy, Eve.
II. Large Flowered
1. Incurved regular – The outer ray florets curve upwards and inwards towards the disc florets to forma
globular shape. Ex: Snow ball, Sonar Bangla, Chandrama.
2. Incurve irregular – The outer ray florets incurve loosely and irregularly and do not from a ball as
in case of regular.
3. Refluxed – The outer ray florets curved outwards and downward away from the centre so that only
their upper surface is seen. Ex: Cresta, City Beauty, Golden Rule, Day dream, Peach blossom, Sweet
Heart.
4. Intermediate – The inner florets incurved and outer florets are refluxed, they are intermediate in shape
to incurved and refluxed. Ex: John Reid, Lady Hope town.

5. Spider – The outer ray florets are large, elongated, tubular and curved to form a hook or coil like structure
at the tip of the petals. Ex: Rupasi Bangla, Mahatma Ganthi.
6. Quill – The outer ray florets are elongated, straight and tubular like a quill with tips open but not flattened.
7. Exhibition - The outer florets are refluxed and inner florets incurred, the ray florets are generally twisted,
irregularly overlapped each other and looks attractive.
8. Ball type – Ray florets are straight and radiated in all directions to give a complete ball shape.
III. Classification based on plant growth
 Standards – plants with single flower, other buds are removed if arise from the laterals and produce
big flower.
 Spray – The main apex bud is removed and lateral buds are allowed.
 Pot mums – Small flowered mums with 6-9‖ height are beautiful in decorating the places.
IV. Based on Usage.
Cut flowers –
i) Disbudded inflorescence ii)
Spray inflorescence
Loose flowers
Potted/bed plants
V. Classification of varieties based on duration for flowering
Early varieties : 90 days (from transplanting)
Medium varieties : 100-110 days(from transplanting)
Late varieties : >110 days (from transplanting)

Species and Cultivars

The number of species under the genus Chrysanthemum varied from 100-200. Some important species are:
n=9 (2n=18 to 90)
1. Chrysanthemum boreale :Abura–Giku
2. C. carinatum : Tricolor chrysanthemum
3. C.coronarium:Garland chrysanthemum 4. C.cinerariifolium:Dalmatian pyrethrum
5. C. rubellum – sturdy species used for breeding of hardy cultivars.
6. C. satsumense : Satsuma-nogiku
7. C. sinensis- One of the sourses of today‟s florists‟ mums.
8. C. sibiricum is one of the parents for Korean hybrids.
9. C. coccineunm :Painted daisy
10. C. indicum : Chinese/ Japanese mums
11. C. morifolium : Florists’ chrysamthemum
 C. morifolium is a hybrid species and is the result of repeated cycles of inter-specific crossing among
elemental species extending over a period of 2500 years.
 Plants are perennial.
Cultivars
 More than 15000 cultivars are listed in Japan alone.
  The National Chrysanthemum Society of Britain lists over 6000 cultivars.
 In India also more than 500 cultivars.
 Major Varieties were developed from IIHR, Bangalore, NBRI, Lucknow, PAU, Ludiana, TNAU,
Coimbatore.
Selection
Most of the outstanding spray and loose flower type cultivars evolved in India- Birbal Sahni, Apsara,
Kundan, Jaya, Jayanthi, Sharad Singar, CO 1 &CO 2 etc.
IIHR
Chandrakant, Kirti, Chandrika, Indira, Arka Swarna, Nilima, Pankaj, Rakhee, Ravikiran, Yellow Star, Arka
Ravi, Arka Ganga, Usha Kiran, Red Gold, Yellow Gold
NBRI
Shanti, Y2k, Kargil, Sadbhavana, Appu, Bindiya
No-pinch no-stake mini chrysanthemums (NBRI, Lucknow)
` NBRI Indiana, NBRI Kusum, NBRI Little Darling, NBRI Mini Jessie
TNAU
CO-1, CO-2, MDU-1
PAU
Punjab Gold, Birbal Sahni, Baggi
Varieties of TNAU,Coimbatore released through selection CO-1(1985):
It is a selection made form a bulk population introduced from Hosur of Krishnagiri district. Flowers are
medium sized (2.5g) and attractive (canary yellow) the flowers have thick, sturdy stalks, which are an
added advantage for easy tying in the making of garland and other decoratives. It flowers early by about 15-
20 days and the blooming period also lasts longer when compared to the other local cultivars. Average yield
on main crop is 16.7 t/ha.
CO-2(1989):
This is a clonal selection from among the germplasm type introduced from the National Botanical
Research Institute, Lucknow. This selection recorded higher yields than CO .1 and MDU.1. It has several attributes
like more number of flowering shoots per plant, more number of flowers per plant, invisibility of the disc in the
flower (capitulum) which is considered a desirable feature in the trade circle and a novel new purple colour.
MDU-1(1985):
It is a selection from the germplasm type. It is an early type, coming to first flowering in 104 days as
against 120 days in the local type. The flowers are large and attractive sulphur yellow in colour with a
diameter of 3.90 cm. It yields 30.59 tonnes per hectare per year in two crops (main and ratoon crop).
Hybrids released from IIHR, Bangalore Arka
Swarna:
A cross between ‗Nanako x CO–1‘. This hybrid bears Yellow pompon flowers. It is found superior in
respect of plant height, number of flowers per plant, flower size, flower weight, flower yield per plant and flowering
duration. This is suitable for both cut and loose flower purposes.
Arka Ravi:
It is a cross between Mundial and Hybrid 87-17-1, flowers in 102 days which is earlier than local
varieties. Flowers are semi-double type, each being in 6 cm diameter. It produces 130 flowers per plant. Flowers
are attractive peach in colour. It has a vase life of 12 days. Flowers can be used for cut flower purpose.
Arka Ganga:
Bears attractive double Korean white flowers with pink tinge. Flower yield is higher than Local White
variety. Suitable for both loose and cut flower purposes.
Chandrakant:
Flowers are decorative, white in colour, takes 124 days to flower. It is dwarf with a plant height of
39cm. On an average, flower diameter is4.7 cm and weighs about 1.85 g. It is floriferous and produces 149
flowers with an yield of 272 g per plant, it produces about 2 times more yield than the local white variety, flowers
are more attractive and can be used as loose flower.
Chandrika:
A white flowered hybrid obtained by crossing Angela x GP1. It produces decorative flowers. It takes 92
days to flower. Number of flowers per plant is 130, which is 3.7 times more than the local white variety. It can
also be used as cut flower. Its shelf life is 7 days and vase life 10.8 days. It can also be used in flower
arrangement, bouquets, can also be used as loose flowers for Pooja and floral decoration.
Indira:
It is a cross betweenan open pollinated seedling of Lord Donex‘ LD-14 (imperial purple) and ahybrid
seedling of Flirt‘ x Valentine‘ F x V-1 (beet root purple). It flowers in three months. The flowers are double
Koreans,, yellow at bud stage and butter cup yellow at picking stage, fading to aureolin. Each flower is 5 cm in
diameter. Produces about 300 g flowers per plant under field conditions. It is a good multiplier and can be
multiplied through cuttings. Ideal for cut flower purpose, religious offerings, wreaths, bedding and potting.
Kirti:
It is a hybrid between Angela x G.P.1. It flowers early (88days). It bears white coloured double Korean
type of flowers, which fade to a pink tinge. It is floriferous and produces 119 flowers per plant. It yields 168g
of flowers per plant, which is 1.71 times more than the Local white. Its shelf life is 7.5 days. It is dwarf
(34.5 cm), spreading (41.1 cm) and compact. Therefore suitable for bedding and potting purposes; besides,
the flowers canalso be used for floral decoration.
Nilima:
 Hybrid produced by cross cvs ‗Flirt‘ x ‗Valentine‘. It takes 116 days to flower. It bears purple coloured
decorative flowers whose diameter is 4.86 cm and average flower weighs 1.96 g. It is floriferous and bears 144
flowers per plant. On an average its flower yield is 281 g per plant. Suitable for cutflower (spray type) purpose
having vase life of 14 days. Flowers are compact and are good for loose flower purpose in floral decoration.
Pankaj:
It flowers early and takes about 114 days to bloom. It bears pink, attractive flowers which are decorative
type. Diameter of flower is 4.8 cm which weight 2.68 g. I is high yielding and; produces 140flowers with an yield
of 363 g per plant. Its attractive flowers on stiff stalk makes them suitable for cut flower purpose. Loose flowers
can be used for floral decoration.
Rakhee:
It is an open pollinated seedling of Lord Donex‘(Super yellow with purple stripes). It flowers in 3
months. The flowers are anemone primrose yellow with red stripes on ray florets, each of 5 cm diameter. Plants
are bushy, compact with shiny leaves. Produces about 125 flowers in beds but around 100 flowers in pots. It is
a good multiplier, is good for potting, veni and religious offerings.
Ravi kiran:
One of the hybrid produced by crossing cvs Flirt‘ x Valentine‘. It takes 122 days to flower. This
hybrid is a novelty. It looks like a papery flower. Its flower diameter is 6.12 cm and flower weighs2.48 g. It
produces 86 flowers per plant. Flower is grey-red and fading to grey-orange. It is suitable as cut flower and can
be used in flower vases or in bouquets. It has a vase life of 12 days.
Red Gold:
It is a cross between Flirt‘ (Current red) x Valentine‘; (amethyst violet). It flowers in 4 months.
Flowers are initially greyish-orange and fade to golden yellow double Koreans, 5 cm diameter. Flowers
profusely produced at an average of 400 g flowers per plant, can be used for cut flower purpose; good for bedding,
potting, wreaths and for religious offerings.
Varieties Developed From - PAU, Ludiana
Baggi
Flowering in Nov-Dec. Flowers snow white , decorative, Flowering in 137 days ,Flower diameter
5.1 cm, Y-143 q/hec ,Plants 64cm tall Upright growth, Leaves simple & deeply lobed, resistance to leaf spot
Birbal Sahni
Flowers – Oct-Nov, snow white , pompon flowers ,Small-4.8cm, Y-32 q/ hec ,65 cm tall and upright
,Early – 121 days to flowering & hence fetch good price, Leaf simple and moderate lobe Ratlam Selection
Flowers – Nov- Dec, creamish white , decorative, large size-8.1cm, Y-175q/ hec ,57 cm tall and spreading
,138 days to flowering & hence fetch good price, leaf simple and deeply lobed
Punjab Gold
Flowers – Oct-Nov, Hybrid of Flirt X Gul-e-sahir, Golden yellow semi double flowers ray florets
have tinge -coppery red colour at opening, plant dwarf,29.5 cm tall ,Early type,D-
5.0cm,Attractive and suited for pot culture, leaf dark green and small
Varieties Developed From - NBRI, Lucknow
Shanti (2000)
Small flowered ,white decorative Profuse branching, long erect stem, uniform blooming,
Plant -51.2 cm tall, flower Dia -3.4 cm , 99 fl/pl ,good cut flower and garland type
Y2K (2000)
Small flowered ,dwarf bushy, compact round, white anemone type Profuse and uniform blooming –Early
Dec ,Habit and shape suitable for mini culture, no pinch nor staking, Plant 31.6 cm tall,D-3.15 cm , 370
fl/pl
Kargil 99 (2000)
Small flowered , spoon type Single whorl ray florets- yellow disc purplish mauve florets, distinguish
feature variegation in leaves which is enjoyed through out the year even when there is no flower, snow
white variegation of leaves dwarf bushy, compact round, Profuse blooming –
Early Dec, habit and shape suitable for mini culture, Plant -34.2 cm tall,D-4.98 cm , 215 fl/pl

Sadbhavana (2000)

Small flowered ,dwarf bushy, compact round, red, yellow , open disc, double korean type Profuse and
uniform blooming –Early Dec, habit and shape suitable for mini culture, no pinch nor staking, Plant -29.1 cm tall,D-
3.74 cm , 303 fl/pl
Appu (1982)
Open pollinated seedling selection – Original Dwarf Double, dwarf and early blooming , purple flower
compact button type ,habit and shape suitable for mini culture, flower length – 1.5 cm wt -0.4 g/fl
Bindiya
Dark crimson flower double korean type ,habit and shape suitable for mini culture, flower length – 1.1
cm wt -0.3 g/fl
No Pinch No Stake Mini Chrysanthemum
Mini varieties, no pinching No staking, dwarf bushy compact round shaped ,profuse blooming, plant
habit and shape attractive, easily transported in mini containers, Bindiya, Mother Teresa, Diana
NBRI Develops New Varieties of Chrysanthemum
The Floriculture Division of NBRI has recently developed new varieties through selective crossing and
seedling collection. These varieties are being released as `NBRI Golden Jubilee
Year Varieties. These varieties are NBRI Indiana, NBRI Little Darling, NBRI Mini Jessie, and NBRI
Kusum
Varieties released through mutation:
Usha Kiran:
An induced mutant of IIHR cv. Kirti, with more plant height and spread compared to Cv.
Kirti. The floral traits were at par with the cv. Kirti, but the flower colour of mutant is yellow. Mutant is
dwarf, compact and spreading and found suitable for bedding/ potting and loose flower purposes as it has a shelf
life of 7 days as against 5 days in Kirti. The flowers are semi- double with prominent disc
Yellow Gold:
This is a yellow flowered induced mutant of the red flowered variety ‗Flirt‘ obtained by gamma
irradiation. On an average, it takes 140 days to flower. It bears yellow coloured decorative flowers whose diameter
is 5.26 cm and weighs 2.16 g. Petals has Brick Red coloured stripes. It produces 113 flowers per plant. Flower
yield is 244 g per plant; good for loose flower purpose but also suitable for cut flower (spray type) purpose
with a vase life of 14 days.
Yellow Star:
It is a yellow flowered cultivar. Flowers are decorative, with average diameter of 4.33 cm. It takes 140
days to flower. It produces150 flowers per plant. It is high yielding and produces 272 g flowers per plant, which
is 1.3 times more than in the local yellow variety. Flowers can be used as cut flower, in flower arrangement
and as loose flowers for garlands, floral decorations.
Batik(1994) :
It is a Gamma ray mutant of Flirt (small, double korean ,red colour),Small flower Double korean
Type ,Induced stripes , unique combination of yellow and red colour Yellow mutant
Purnima(1977) :
It is a Gamma ray mutant of OTOME ZAKURA which are large lilac flower pompon type , Purnima flowers
white , pompon
Shabnam(1987):
It is a gamma ray mutant of D5, Decorative Type, Mangnolia Purple, Induced flower shape mutation (small
appendage like structure at the tip of each floret)
Subarna (1991):
It is a gamma ray mutant of Flirt, a colour mutant, small, Double korean type, Yellow mutant
Propagation
Chrysanthemum can be propagated both by vegetative and sexual methods. Chrysanthemum is
propagated vegetatively through suckers, cuttings or by micro-propagation.
Vegetative Propagation
1.Suckers:
Suckers arise from the underground stem and these are separated and planted in prepared nursery beds
during January for stock plants. Regular pinching is performed in these plants for vigorous and profuse
branching.
2.Cuttings (Terminal Cuttings)
Preparation of cuttings.
The first pinching is performed in April, followed by monthly pinching up to June.
After 3rd pinching in June, cuttings are taken from these mother plants.
Cuttings of 5-7 cm in length are taken form healthy stock plants in June. The cuttings are prepared
removing basal leaves and reducing the leaf area of remaining leaves to half. The basal portions (less than half
inch) of cuttings are dipped rooting hormone (1000 ppm solution of IBA) for better rooting. These rooted cuttings
are ready for planting in the field.
3.Micro propagation
Among these, propagation through cutting is the most common and popular method.
Land Preparation:
The field is ploughed two to three times before preparation of beds for planting. Trials conducted under
All India Coordinated Research Project on Floriculture recommended a basal application of FYM @ 5 kg/m2.
Climate Requirement
Chrysanthemum requires long days for good vegetative growth and short days for flowering. The
most important environmental factors influencing the growth and flowering of these plants are light and
temperature. The rate of vegetative growth and flowering are also affected by temperature. The optimum
temperature of 15.60C is required. The relative humidity of 70 to 90% is suitable for the plants.
 Light and temperature are the two important environmental factors influencing the growth and
flowering.
 As far as light is concerned, both photoperiod and the intensity have profound effects on growth and
flowering of chrysanthemum.
 It is a short-day plant normally initiates and flowers during September to December under South Indian
conditions. Hence, planting during April-May is recommended.
Soil Requirement
The ideal soil for chrysanthemum growing is a well drained, sandy loam of good texture and aeration. Good
amount of organic matter and pH of 6.5 is essential. It is a shallow fibrous rooted plant and is very sensible
to water logged conditions.
Time of planting and Spacing
 Terminal cuttings of stock plants are taken in June and they are transplanted after rooting. These plants are
ready for pinching during end of August or beginning of September May-June planting resulted in well
developed plants with good flowers. Cut flower production was the highest from May plantings. 90,000 to
1, 10,000 suckers or slips obtained from 15 cents of the previous crops are required to plant one hectare.
 Before planting, the roots of the suckers or slips are dipped in wet Cerasan or Agallol 0.1% to protect
against wilt.
Planting Density
The best plant population was 32 cuttings / m2 and spacing of 30 x 30 cm.
Manuring and Fertilization
Chrysanthemum is a heavy feeder and requires large amount of both Nitrogen and Potassium.
Nitrogen is required at early stage and the plants need P throughout the growth period. As the buds appear,
the proportion of K should be increased and N should be reduced. Chrysanthemums are heavy feeders and hence
they are to be adequately manured at 25 t of FYM along with 250,120, 25 kg NPK/ha.
 Half of the N and the entire quantity of P and K are to be applied basal by just before planting.
 The other half of N is to be applied 30 days after planting the suckers.
 The same dose can be repeated if a ratoon crop is raised and hoeing should be done once in a month.
Micronutrient application by
 Coated fertilizers
 Liquid feeding and foliar feeding
Special practices Pinching
 Pinching is one of most important operations in chrysanthemum culture.
 The operation of removal of terminal growing portion of stem pinching reduces plant height and
promotes axillary branches.
 Time and severity of pinching depend on the type of chrysanthemum and the desired objectives.
 After planting, the growth is mostly upward with very little branching.
 To arrest such tall growth, a simple procedure cal ed ―pinching‖ is used. It is also called
―stopping.
Only soft vegetative shoot tips 1.5 to 3 cm long are removed.
Pinching is most essential for small flowered chrysanthemum.
First pinching is done when the plants reach a height of 15-20 cm with 3-4 pairs of leaves.
  A second pinching may be necessary if the plants make straggly and lean growth.
Pinching increases the number of flowering stems in each plant; it can indirectly control flowering date and
bloom quality; and the number of stems to a plant can easily be controlled.
Two types of pinching are performed:
(a) Soft pinching:
By this pinching the top soft tips of the shoot along with 2-3 open leaves are removed;
(b) Hard pinching:
It means removing a longer portion upto hard shoot. Single pinching is done, if two flowers are
desired, whereas double pinching is done for four flowers.
 In spray chrysanthemum numerous small to medium sized flowers are produced, therefore, two pinchings
are required to encourage lateral growth.
 As a general rule rooted cuttings are pinched two weeks after planting or approximately 100 days before
full bloom.
Disbudding and De-Shooting
 These operations are mostly performed for large flowering of decorative type chrysanthemums.
 Many of the standard type varieties are disbudded in which the largest terminal bud is reserved and all
auxiliary buds are removed.
 Disbudding of spray varieties is very easy because in this case only the large apical bud is removed and
the auxiliary buds are allowed to develop
 For taking three blooms per plant, three lateral strong shoots are allowed to grow and others  are removed.
 Lateral buds and side shoots are removed at their early stage of growth from time to time.
 For taking one bloom per plant no pinching is done.
 Only the main stem is allowed to grow.
 Removal of undesirable lateral buds and shoots are done.
 De-shooting is practiced to reduce the number of branches for improving the size and form of the
flower.
De-Suckering
During the vegetative growth phase, plants grow upward. New suckers continue to develop from base of plants. For
proper and vigorous growth of plants, suckers are removed from time to time. It is practiced to allow single stem
to develop up to a certain height. Without de-suckering the main plant will loose vigour and becomes weak.
Staking of Plants
 Staking is necessary to keep plants erect and to maintain proper shape of plants and bloom.
 Stakes are prepared mostly from bamboo sticks.

Green House Cultivation Environmental Factors

Light: Chrysanthemum flowering is very much influenced by the quantum and quality of light. Most of
the cultivars require shorter days for flower bud initiation and development. Under long days they tend to
remain vegetative.
Light Requirement of Chrysanthemum
 Short day plant - short days for flowering
 long days for vegetative growth
 Most cultivars : <10 -13hrs light - for flower bud initiation & development Importance of long day:
 For adequate vegetative growth
 To maintain stock plants in vegetative phase
Response to light:
Phytochrome - photoreceptive pigment in plant - responds to day length / photoperiod associated with flowering
and other photo-morphogenic responses - seed germination, synthesis of plant pigments, stem elongation
What is Phytochrome?
Phytochrome = a chromo-protein existing in 2 forms
- inter convertible by radiation (Butler et al., 1959)
2 forms : pR and pFR
Red light (660nm) Far red light (730nm) pR - absorbs red light; stable & inactive form pFR -
absorbs far red light; unstable & active form pFR - continuous darkness pR
Light Regulation In Chrysanthemum
Role of pR : triggers release of ‗Florigen‘ - flower hormone Light regulation in chrysanthemum:
During early phase
 pFR - for vegetative growth & to prevent flowering
 Availability of pFR - extending light hours and reducing / interrupting continuous darkness
 Exposing to LD conditions : >12hrs light - artificial illumination
 LD conditions - adequate vegetative growth - to build up plants After 6 weeks from planting
 SD conditions : > 12hrs darkness
 Ideal light period for most cvs : <10-13hrs
SD created by artificial darkening
 Under SD conditions - pFR converts to pR - induces Florigen - flowering

Growth phase Weeks from planting Photoperiod

 Vegetative phase Up to 4-5 weeks from planting till the Long day: 13 hrs light and 11 hrs dark
plant attains 50 to 60 cm height

Flowering 5 -6 weeks after planting till harvest Short day: 10 hrs light and 14 hrs dark

2. Temperature: Based on temperature requirements chrysanthemum cultivars are classified into three.
 Thermo-zero cultivars which flower at any temperature between 10-270C but most constantly at 160C
night temperature.
 Thermo-positive cultivars in which continuous low temperature between 10-130C inhibit or delay
flower bud initiation and at 270C there will be rapid initiation but delayed flowering.
 Thermo-negative cultivars in which bud initiation occurs at low temperature delay bud development.
 The effect of night temperature is more pronounced than day temperature and night temperature of 16-
200C was found optimum for most of the cultivars.
 High temperature may cause floral distortion and low temperature may some time cause discoloration of
the flower.
3. Relative humidity: The chrysanthemum requires a moderate humid condition of 70 to 90 per cent and
hence it should be preferably grown in places there will not be any rains during flowering time.
Growth regulators:
 Crop growth regulation and flowering can be modified or controlled by use of growth regulators. the use
of regulators.
 The plant starts flowering from 3rd months onwards.
 GA3 100-400 ppm - 3 DAP and 6DAP - increases stem length  GA3 50
ppm - 30, 45 and 60 DAP - longer stems, higher yield
Harvest Stage of harvest
1. Standard
Distant market – paint brush stage Local market – Half opened flower
2. Spray
Local market - Two flowers have opened others have shown colour
Distant market - 50% flowers have shown colour
 Decorative types are harvested when the petals in the centre of the topmost flower is almost fully
developed.
 In standards, harvesting is generally done when outer ray florets ceases to further develop.
 Pot-mums are sent to the market with half to fully opened flowers.
  Spray mums are generally harvested at the two thirds to three-fourths open stage; standard mums at the
three-fourths to full open stage of development.
 Yield start from 3-4 months after planting.
 Main crop duration 6 months.
 Ratoon crop 4 months.
 Total duration (6+4) 10 months.

Yield
 Main crop : 9-10t/ha.
 Ratoon crop : 4-5 t/ha.
 Sprays- 1, 00,000 stems can be obtained from one ha.

Postharvest Technology Grading

stem straightness, colour and freshness of flowers.

 Standard chrysanthemum is graded into Blue, Red, Green and Yellow, whereas spray types are graded
into Gold, Silver and Bronze based on the quality parameters.
 spray chrysanthemums are graded into extra grade and shorter grade.
 The lower leaves are stripped off up to 15-20 cm and bundled in units of 5 stems and secured
with a rubber band.

Post harvest handling……

Pre-cooling
Flowers are conditioned for 16 hrs at 200C
Storage
0°C for 3 to 5 weeks in moisture retentive boxes
Holding solution
10 to 15 days – under holding solution (citric acid 300 ppm + sucrose 1.5 %)
Packing
 Most often standard chrysanthemum are placed in sleeves and packed in display boxes measuring 91 x 43
x 15cm.

They are placed in the boxes according to the grades.

 For bulk packing of the spray chrysanthemums, 10, 15 or 20 stems are placed in sleeves according to the
grades.
 Six sleeves, three at each end, are generally packed in each box, measuring 80 x 50 x 23cm.
Storage
 Chrysanthemum cut flowers can be wrapped in plastics and stored dry for 6 to 8 weeks at a temperature of
0.50C.
 Temperature for truck shipments across the country ranged between 2 - 40C.
 The stems in the buckets (after grading) are given a cut using sharp blade and pre cooled at 1°C
minimum of 2 hours before packing.
 Chrysanthemum can be stored for 3-6 weeks period at 0-30C.
Vase Life
 The use of proper preservative solution throughout the period of post-harvest handing is very important
to prolong the life of cut flowers.
 Dipping of the stem for a very short period (5 seconds) in 1200-4800 ppm silver nitrate or soaking the stems
in 1000 ppm silver nitrate for 10 minutes.
 Addition of 2 % sucrose to silver nitrate was found beneficial.
 It increased the vase-life from 12 days to 20 days.
Export standards for chrysanthemum
Parameter Standard Spray Dwarf
Stem Length 88-100 cm 75-88 cm 25-38 cm
Weight 30g/stem of 90 cm 30g/stem of 85 cm 30g/stem of 30 cm
Number of flowers Only 1 flower With 5 10 flowers with 5-8 10-12 flowers
buds Buds
Diameter of bloom 60-80 mm 35 mm for half 45 mm for full bloom

Floral abnormalities……..
Crown Bud – bud development is severely retarded and invloucral bracts become glossy enlarged -
Plants grown in long days after receiving a few short days produce crown buds
- Ca deficiency
- Spray Ca(NO3)2 5 g/l at 10 days interval
Quilling of florets - Boron deficiency
- Spray Borax @ 3g/l (or) 25 to 75 ppm
Bleaching of petals – cause bronze and pink coloured cultivars due to high temperature during floral
development
Pink colouration in white petals – low night temperature during flower development
Doubleness – transfer of plants to long days during floret formation Singleness - transfer of plants to short days
during floret formation
Crooked Neck
Bending of flower neck in greenhouse chrysanthemum often occurs in the winter crop.
There are 2 types of crooked neck in chrysanthemum.
1. The bending of the flower neck which occurs in the uppermost leaf node.
2. The adhering of the terminal flower neck to an axillary bud.

Blindness
 It occurs when the night temperature is too low and the days are short at the time when flower buds
are forming.
 A rosetted type of growth is indicative of this difficulty.
Pests in chrysanthemum Aphids
 Suck the plant sap and excretes honeydew
 Various aphids: Muzus persicae, Macrosiphonilla sanborni, Brachicaudus helichryse, Aphis gossypii and
Aphis fabae
Control Measures
Malathion @ 0.2%, Dimethoate @ 0.3%, Neem oil @ 1%
Red Spider Mite- Tetranychus urticae
Suck plant sap thus making it stunted appearance
Damage : April to July
Flower buds fail to open and dry before opening Management
Spray dicofol(0.05%), wettable sulphur(0.3%), vertimac(0.05%)
Thrips
Nymphs and adults of Thrips tabaci, Thrips negrophilosus, Frankliniella tritici and hercinothrips feed on tender
leaves
Silvering, molting and distortion of leaves
In summer: flowers discolored and dry
Management
• Drenching soil with chlorpyriphos(0.1%)
• Spray acephate or dimethoate @ 0.05% 2-3 times @ 15 days interval
Nematodes
• Caused by : Lesion nematode(Pratylenchus penetrans)
• Symptom : stunting and premature yellowing of plants, dying of leaves, reduced flower size and dark
lesions on roots
Management
• Use neem cake@ 1ton/ha
Diseases in chrysanthemum
Fungal diseases
Fusarium wilt
• Fungus: Fusarium oxysporium f. sp. Tranchiphilum
• Causes : general chlorosis & stunting of leaves
Management
• Thiram @ 1.5g/l of water with dexon or carbendazim.
• Use disease free cutting from healthy plants in clean soil having pH 6.5-7
Rust
• Caused : Puccinea chrysanthemi
• Symptom : brown spore at the underside of the leaves.
• Spores burst and infect the plant making it weak and fail to bloom.
Management
• Sanitation and clean cultivation
• Zineb and captan(0.15%) spray should be applied.
Leafspot
Two types
Fungus : Septoria chrysanthemella and Cylindrosporium chrysanthemi
Causes: 1.withering of leaves
2. At time of flowering infection occurs on buds and rot completely.
Management
• Bavistin or bordeaux mixture @ 0.05%
• Or ancozeb @ 0.2% along with sticker (0.1%)
• Wetting of leaves should be avoided at the time of watering
Bacterial diseases
Bacterial blight
• Caused by: Erwinia chrysanthemi
• Symptom: water soaked lesions which finally splits the stem.
Management
• Disease free cutting should be used.
• Planting material should be treated with streptomycin
Crown Gall
• Caused by: Agrobacterium tumefaciens
• Symptoms : irregular and round gall apears on stem & leaves
Management
• Destroy the infected plant
Viral diseases
1. Chrysanthemum stunt
2. Tomato spotted wilt
3. Tomato aspermy
4. Flower distortion
5. Chrysanthemum mosaic and
6. Chrysanthemum rosette
 Marigold
Importance and uses–origin and history- area and production – botany – species and varieties– propagation -
season and planting-nutrition and irrigation – management practices - role of growth regulators-pinching and
disbudding- plant protection -harvest and yield.
Introduction
Marigold has gained popularity amongst gardeners and flower dealers on account of its easy culture and
wide adaptability. Free flowering and short duration. Wide spectrum of colour, shape, size and good keeping
quality. Marigold is also known as Friendship Flower in the United States. In language of flowers, marigold,
in general, means anxiety but despair or grief, in particular. African marigold represents vulgar minds whereas,
French marigold is a symbol of jealousy. Marigold popularly called as ―Yellow Gold Uses:
Used for garland, veni and other decorations. The long stemmed flowers used for vase arrangements. It is
highly suitable as bedding plant, in an herbaceous border, also as shrubbery in landscaping. French marigold is ideal
for rockery, edging, hanging baskets and window boxes. Have medicinal properties to cure boils and carbuncles.
Floral extract is used as a blood purifier and cure for bleeding piles. Good remedy for eye diseases and ulcers.
Some species of Tagetes are used for essential oil extraction. The Pigments (Xanthophylls) are used as a
natural colour to intensify yellow colour of egg yolk and broiler skin, flesh and also for fish. Xanthophylls
are the major carotenoid fraction in the flower petals. Lutein accounts for 80 - 90% of total xanthophylls content.
Used for colouring the food stuffs, textile industries and pharmaceuticals.
Tagetes patula contain essential oil which can readily be extracted by steam distillation.
The oil has a pronounced odour and acts as a repellent to flies.
Trap crop -It is highly effective in reducing the population of nematodes under control and also
attracts the fruit borers in many vegetables, fruits and ornamental plants.
Origin and History
Marigold is native of Central and South America, especially Mexico. From Mexico it spread to
different parts of the world during early part of the 16th century. The name Tagetes was given after Tages, a
demigod, known for his beauty. African marigold was first introduced into
Spain early in the 16th century and became popular in Southern Europe under the name ‗Rose of the Indies‘.
This plant was reintroduced into Europe in 1535 under the name, Flos Africonus Emperor Charles V.
Area & Distribution
Cultivation tends to be located close to big cities like Mumbai, Pune, Bangalore, Mysore, Chennai,
Calcutta and Delhi. The estimated area on which flowers are grown in India is about 1,10,000 hectares. Major
growing states are Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. Traditional flowers,
including marigolds, occupy nearly two thirds of this area. In northern India in Himachal Pradesh, small scale
farmers are growing marigold and other flower crops for garlands and decoration.
Species - (Tagetes spp., Asteraceae)
There are about 33 species of the genus Tagetes. Some of the important are as follows
Tagetes erecta (African /Tab marigold):
The African marigold plant is hardy, annual; about 90 cm tall erect and branched. Leaves are
pinnately divided and leaflets are lanceolate and serrated. Flowers are single to fully double with large globular
heads. The florets are either 2-lipped or quilled. Flower colour varies from lemon yellow to yellow, golden
yellow or orange.
Tagetes patula (French / Dwarf marigold):
The French marigold is a hardy annual, about 30 cm tall, forming a bushy plant. Foliage is dark green with
reddish stem. Leaves are pinnately divided and leaflets are linear lanceolate and serrated. Flowers are small,
either single or double borne on proportionately long peduncles. The flower colour varies from yellow to mahogany
red.
T.tenuifolia (T.signata) - Ornamental marigold or Single signet
It is another dwarf type of marigold. Plants grow 30-35 cm tall, bushy with fine lacy foliage and
covered with small single flowers of lemon-yellow, and orange colour. These are grown for pot culture, edging or
rock garden
T.lucida (Sweet scented marigold)
The plants are annuals. Leaves sessile, Small, lanceolate, flowers 2-3 rayed in dense, terminal
corymbs, with more agreeable odour that other species.
T.lacerata
It was discovered in California. The plant up to 120-150 cm in height, flowers profuse, yellow.
T. limmoni
It is shrubbery plant, grows up to 60-70 cm. leaves slender, opposite; leaflets about 2-3 cm long; flowers
showy, 2-3 cm diameter.Other species grown in gardens are T.minuta, T.pusilla and T.corymbosa. In India the
cultivation of T. erecta and T. patula are dominant.
Varieties Types and Cultivars
In the two main groups of marigold- African and French, there are many types stains varying in
plant height, growth habit, flower shape and size. African marigolds have yellow, and orange colours in
various shades – light yellow, canary yellow, golden yellow, bright yellow, cadmium orange, golden orange, deep
orange, bright orange. A strain with white and almost with white flowers has been developed. In French
marigold, besides the colours mentioned above, the crimson and mahogany red colours are very attractive.
Some cultivars have bicoloured flowers like light yellow with maroon blotches, deep crimson-edged yellow,
gold and red bicolour. Like many other flowers of commercial importance, marigold has also been classified
differently by floriculturalists and seedman in different countries. Therefore, no standard and accepted
classification of marigold is available. However, attempts have been made to include the major groups but
the cultivars are not always known or widely accepted in different countries
Tagetes erecta (African marigold)
Cracker jack, Climax, Doubloon, Golden Age, Chrysanthemum Charm, Crown of Gold, Spun
Gold. Giant African Orange Double, Gaint Aftrican Yellow Double, Star Gold, Prime Rose, Pista , Pusa
Narangi Gainda, Pusa Basanthi Gainda (IARI varieties) and MDU 1
Tall F1 hybrids :
Plants about 3m high, large, fully double, flowers up to 12 cm across. F1 gold coin series and F1
Climax Series
Semi tall F1 hybrids
This is also known as hedge type because of uniform and compact growth, 50 cm high, Double
flowers are 10cm across with lemon and golden yellow light orange

Dwarf F1 hybrids
Plants are 15 to 40 cm high, and compact growth; many flowers appear at one time.
Inca series: Flowers are large, fully double and compact,
Space Age Series: Early flowering, dwarf and uniform
Galore series: Long flowering duration, uniform
F1 triploid
Early and very free flowering, large and golden yellow flowers
Tagetes patula (French marigold)
Red Foregate, Rusty Red, Butter Scotch, Valentia, Susana, Corkymenu, Flames Spray.
1. Dwarf double
Plants 20-30 cm high, colours – yellow, orange, reddish brown, mahogany-red, golden yellow, bicolour
2. Dwarf double-scabious flowered
Flowers with crested centre, wide range of colour- golden yellow, golden orange with red marking, golden
yellow with red, brownish red with orange centre, golden yellow with spotted red, etc.,
3. Dwarf double petite
Very dwarf plants, 15-20 cm high, bear numerous attractive flowers with golden yellow, orange, yellow
and maroon colour
4. French dwarf single
Plants 20-35 cm high, compact flowers, single, golden yellow, yellow, golden yellow with maroon eye,
mahogany-red with yellow centre, yellow with brown.
5. Dwarf triploid F1 hybrid
Plants 25-40 cm high, extremely early, profuse flowering; colour – yellow, golden yellow, orange and
brownish red
6. Dwarf double:
Dwarf all saints – about 20cm high, good for bedding, wide range of colour
Dwarf chrysanthemum – plants are 20cm high, compact and bushy, chrysanthemum
flowered, rose crimson.
Tagetes tenuifolia
Golden Gem, Lulu, Pumila, Ursula. However, in the market mostly orange coloured varieties are
preferred.
Species:
Towner 1961 compiled the species of Tagetes based on their chromosome number is as follows
Diploid species - 2n : Tagetes erecta - 24
Tetraploid species - 4n : T. patula - 48
Diploid species 2n = 24
 Tagetes erecta (Eyster, 1939)
 Tagetes tenuifolia (Eyster, 1939)
 Tagetes elongata
 Tagetes lemmonii
 Tagetes jalicensis
 Tagetes lucida 2n = 22
Tetraploid species 4n = 48
 Tagetes patula (Eyster, 1939)
 Tagetes minuta
 Tagetes remotiflora
 Tagetes mendocina
 Tagetes biflora
TNAU MDU – 1
It was released during the year 1986 and is a selection from a germplasm type. The plants are medium
tall with moderate branching habit. The plant produces on an average 97 flowers weighing 561.40 g/plant, with an
estimated yield of 41.54 t/ha. The flowers are large with a stalk length of 8.39 cm. The light orange colour
petals are compactly arranged and each flower has 210 petals. The flowers fetch premium price in the market.
IARI
Pusa Narangi Gainda
It is a pedigree selection after 8th generation from a cross between Cracker Jack and Golden Jubilee-8.
Other varieties of IARI are Pusa Basanti Gainda, Pusa Sankar 1 – Pre release
Hybridization:
Hybridization between distantly related types is the most effective and commonly employed tool to
induce variation so as to improve the existing cultivars and evolve new, high yielding and better quality
of genotypes. Different principles of breeding have successfully been used in marigold which resulted in
new cultivars and present day F1 hybrids.
Inter varietal hybridization
Singh and Swarup (1972) observed appreciable heterosis in a well planned breeding studies. F1 hybrids
are considerably uniform in size and capable of producing large blooms with high yield potential. In addition, they
are characterized by their semitall nature with excellent large full double flowers. Wide range of hybrids are
available in both the species, whereas hybrids of Tagetes erecta are larger plants than the French forms.
Climax- first F1 hybrid – African marigold. Tetra ruffled Red was the first hybrid in French marigold.
Example
Apollo, First Lady, Orange Lady, Show Boat, Moon Shot, L3
Inter specific hybridization
Towner (1961) suggested that T.patula is an allotetraploid of T.erecta (2n=24) and T. tenuifolia (2n=24).
A true breeding, fertile allo tetraploid T.Patula (2n=48) was synthesized by chromosome doubling of the F1
hybrid using colchicine.
Other inter specific hybrids are
• T.erecta x T.tenuifolia
• T.erecta x T.jaliscensis
• T.erecta x T.patula – Red and gold hybrids – red glow, red gold, red seven star, yellow nugget etc.,
Triploid marigold (Signet hybrids)
Triploid marigolds are cross between T.erecta x T.patula. These triploid plants bloom repeatedly through
the summer, even in hot weather. They are sterile and unable to set seed. It has low seed germination rate (50
percent). So they are popularly called as Mule marigolds
Male Sterility
Male sterility was of two types. Apetalous and fully doubled flowers. Apetalous type is more
preferred than full double type because apetalous type is less attracted by pollinating insects. But full double
type is prone to break down exposing disc florets. Male sterility is governed by recessive genes and is incorporated
in seed parent and maintained by crossing the heterozygous plants. In a study by Gupta (1999) male sterile
apetalous lines , MS7 MS8 of variety T.erecta was crossed with Male fertile petalous line Selection -21. F1
obtained and selfed to get F2 Segregation ratio was 3 :1 (petalous male fertile : apetalous male sterile ).So
apetalous trait were governed by a single recessive gene. It is maintained by crossing the heterozygous plants with
the sterile ones.
Breeding:
 Self incompatible and cross pollinated crop.
 The ratio of CP to SP is 35:65
Climatic Requirement:
 Marigold requires mild climate for luxuriant growth and profuse flowering.
 It ceases to grow at high temperature thereby flower quantity and quality is adversely affected.
 During severe winter including frost plants and flowers are killed and blackened.
 Sowing and planting is carried out during rainy season, winter and summer season.
 Mild climate during growing period (14.5°-28.6°C) greatly improves flowering while higher temperature
(26.2°-36.4°C) adversely affects flower production. Hence, flowers of marigold can be had almost
throughout the year.

Soil Requirement:
Marigold can be successfully cultivated on a wide variety of soils. However, a soil that is deep fertile
and sandy loam, friable having well water holding capacity, well drained and near to neutral in reaction pH of
7.0-7.5 is most desirable.
Preparation of soil:
Land should be well prepared by ploughing 2-3 times and 50 tones of well decomposed farmyard manure
should be well mixed. Beds of convenient size are made to facilitate irrigation and other cultural operations.
Propagation:
Marigold is propagated by both methods i.e., Seeds and Cuttings
Seeds:
Nursery beds of 3 x 1 m size are thoroughly prepared and mixed with 10 kg of well decomposed farmyard
manure per sqm. For raising crop for an hectare about 8 to 10 beds are prepared. Seed rate is 1 to 1½ kg / hectare.
Line sowing at a distance of 15 cm is taken up. After sowing river sand is sprinkled over the seeds and covered.
Irrigation is done using rose can. The seeds germinate in seven days. By 30 days the seedlings reach a height
of half a foot and is ready for transplanting. A temperature of about 18 to 32 C is required for good germination.
Seed treatment with Azospirillum @ ½ kg / seed is recommended for good yield.
Cuttings:
Normally, the presence of adventitious roots along the stem helps in the establishment of cuttings. About
10 cm long cuttings are made and treated with seradix No.1.
Transplanting of Seedlings:
At the time of transplanting, seedlings of one month old at 7 to 10 cm height with 3-4 true leaves have
to be selected for proper establishment and higher yield. Aged seedling should not be selected. Transplant should
be done early in the morning or late in the evening. One side of the ridges formed. Mid July, mid October
and February-March are suitable time for transplanting.
Planting Season
Marigold grows all round the year.
Season Month of sowing Month of transplanting
Rainy season June last week to July first week August 1 – 15
Winter season Mid September Mid October
Summer season First week of January First week of February

Spacing:
In general Tagetes erecta requires wider spacing than T. patula. However a wide range is practiced all over
the country for higher yield. They are as follows,
Tagetes erecta Tagetes patula
1) 40 x 40cm 1) 20 x 20cm
2) 45 x 30cm 2) 30 x 30cm
3) 60 x 45cm
Manures and Fertilizers:
 To get highest flower yield, 100 kg N, 100 kg P2O5 and 100 kg K2O should be mixed at the time of
preparation of land.
 Remaining 100 kg N per ha should be applied in 2 splits @ 30 and 40 days after transplanted
Irrigation:
It takes about 55-60 days to complete vegetative growth and to enter into reproductive phase.
Growth Regulators
 Reduction plant height and dark green colour of the foliage in cvs. Moon Shoot, Yellow Galore and First
Lady when the plants sprayed with SADH at 2,500 ppm.
 Etherel 250ppm application reduces plant height and increases flower bearing lateral branches.
 After 30 days of planting spray Ascorbic acid at a rate of 1000ppm.
 Spraying cytocyme at a rate of 360 ml / litre of water on 30 & 60 days will increase the number of
flower / plant.
 Generally all growth regulators are to be sprayed either in morning or evening.
Micronutrients: Foliar spray of FeSO4 0.5% + ZnSO4 0.5% on 30th and 45th day after transplanting
Biostimulants: Spray Humic acid @ 0.2% on 30 & 45 days after transplanting
Pinching:
 In tall varieties of Tagetes erecta, emergence of side branches and their flowering is influenced by the
presence of apical dominance.
 Due to which the plants of marigold grow straight upwards to their final height and develop into terminal
flower bud.
 However the apical portion of the shoot is removed at the early stage to get more number of axillaries which
in turn produces more flowers.
 Pinching the plants at 40 days after transplanting enabled the plants to yield more flowers.

Flowering
 In summer season crop, - commences by the middle of May with maximum intensity in the month of
June and continues till the onset of rains.
 Rainy season crop - by the middle of September and the flowering will continue till December.
 Flowering in winter crop - by the middle of January and will continue till March.
Pests and Diseases:
 Damping off (Rhizoctonia solani) -Seed treatment with capton @ 0.5%
 Collor rot: (Rhizoctonia solani) - Seed treatment with capton @ 0.5%.
 Phytophthora sp. Pythium sp. Sclerotium rolfsi
 Leaf spot (Alternaria tagetica) - Spray with Blitox @ 0.4% or Cercospora spp. Bavistin @ 0.1%
 Blight (Colletotrichum capsia) DM 45 @ 0.2%
 Inflorescence blight (Alternaria zinnac) DM 45 @ 0.2% or Bavistin @ 0.1%
 Powdery mildew (Oidium sp.) Spray with calixin, sulfex @ 0.2% (WS) @ 0.2%
Viral diseases:
Marigold is infected by CMV, Aster yellow virus
Pests
 Red spider mite : Spray Kelthane @ 2ml/l
 Hairy caterpillar: Spray Endosulfan or Ekolux @ 2ml/l
 Leaf hopper : Spray wits Melathian or Rogar @ 2ml/l
 Japanese Beetle
 Tarnished plant bug,
 Slugs
Harvesting
 Marigold flower should be plucked when they attain the full size depending upon the variety.
 Plucking of flowers should be done in cool hours of the day i.e, either in the morning or evening.
 Field should be irrigated before harvesting so that, flowers keep well for longer period after plucking.
  Plucked flowers should be covered with moist gunny bags if kept overnight before taking to market.
 Productivity of plants increases considerably by regular plucking of flowers.
Yield
No. of flowers Fresh flower (Million/ha) (t/ha)
1) African marigold (1.5 – 2.5) (11 – 18 )
2) French marigold (6.0 – 8.0) ( 8 – 12)
Marigold Flower Polysaccharide (MFP):
 MFP can be extracted from the meal with warm (50-550C) water.
 Petals were separated from the rest of the flower and extracted in a soxhlet apparatus with
methanol.

Post harvest processing, grading, packing and storage

After harvesting the flowers they are dried on floor under shade for 2-3 days. Upon drying, the seeds
are separated by hammering the flowers and the flower straw is separated out by winnowing of the hammered
flowers. The seeds are thoroughly cleaned and graded before packing in poly bags or cloths bags, and are
stored in cool places. The moisture contents of the seeds must be examined before the packing.
Extraction of Oil and Quality Control
All parts of Tagetes patula contain essential oil, which can readily be extracted by steam distillation. The
oil has a pronounced odour and acts as a repellent to flies. It has been reported that Ilimonene, ocimene, I-linalyl
acetate and I-linalool have been extracted from Tagetes erecta. While evaluating the different species for essential
oil contents, T. signata contained higher essential oil (4.25 of dry matter) of very good quality which can be
used in perfume industry.
Seed production
Since marigold is a cross pollinated flower an isolation distance of about 1 to 1 ½ km is maintained. Seed
is produced in six months. Winter season is essential for seed production. Long type varieties produce 375 kg
/ hectare and short type varieties produce about 1,250 kg / hectare.
 Lecture 10 : Production technology of jasmine under open conditions.

• Family : Oleaceae
• Botanical name : Jasminum spp.
• As many as 40 species of the genus are known to be available in India.
• Important species are :
1. Jasminum auriculatum: Mullai
2. Jasminum grandiflorum: Jathimalli / Pitchi / Spanish jasmine
3. Jasminum sambac: Gundumalli / Malligai / Arabian jasmine
Importance and uses
• Jasmine is one of the important commercial flower crops is cultivated in India.
• Mainly grown as climbers, shrubs and sometimes as pot plants.
• Jasmine flowers, known for their fragrance are used for making garland.
• Used for personal adorning by women and in religious offerings.
• The essential oil extracted from the flowers is a high value perfume.
• There is tremendous scope for the development of jasmine essential oil industry for export.
• Some portion of the flowers are also used for the production of perfumed hair oil and ‘attar’.
• The world famous jasmine oil is extracted from flowers of the Spanish jasmine (J. grandiflorum).
• The jasmine oil is considered unique as it blends well with other floral extracts to make high grade perfumes
and cosmetics.
Soil and Climate
Jasmine prefers mild tropical climate.
Loamy (or) red loamy and well drained garden soil is the best suited.
Since jasmine is commercially grown in India under open field conditions, the ideal requirements for successful
cultivation of these plants are mild winter, warm summer, moderate rainfall and sunny days.

Varieties
S.No. Varieties Genesis Characters

J. auriculatum - Mullai
1. Parimullai Selection Medium round bud
Resistant to gall mite Yield 8
t/ha
2. CO.1 Selection Long Round type
Long corolla tube Yield :
8 t/ha
 3. CO.2 Induced mutant Long corolla tube
Flower buds bolder
Tolerant to phyllody
Yield : 10 t/ha

J. grandiflorum - Jathimalli
1. CO.1 Clonal selection Pink streaks on outer
surface of petals
Loose flower production, oil
extraction Yield : 10 t/ha

2. CO.2 Induced mutant Bolder pink buds

from CO.1 Long corolla tube
Yield : 11.68 t/ha

J.sambac - Malligai
1. Ramanathapuram Selection Round flowers with good
Gundumalli fragrance; yields 7 to 8 t/ha
2. Khoya Selection Bolder buds with less
fragrance
Other varieties of J. sambac :
Ramabanam, Madanbanam, Single Mogra, Double Mogra, Iruvatchi,
Kasthurimalli, Oosimalli, Soojimalli.

Propagation and planting material

Jasmines are commercially propagated by cuttings and layering.
J.auriculatum Semi-hard wood cuttings
J.grandiflorum Terminal cutting cuttings
J.sambac Terminal and semi-hard wood cuttings.
Growth regulators : IAA or IBA treated @ 1000 ppm for terminal cuttings and 2500 ppm for semi-hard wood
cuttings. The treatment is quick dip method of the basal cut end before planting in the medium.

Best rooting medium is sand : vermiculate : moss at 1:1:1 ratio.

Planting

Species Spacing Density Season of

(Plants/ha) planting

J. auriculatum 1.5 x 1.5 m 4400

June to
J. grandiflorum 2.0 x 1.5 m 3350 November
 J. sambac 1.25 x 1.25 m 6400

The land should have proper drainage, irrigation facilities and sunny location.
Pits of 45 cm3 are dug at least one month before planting and exposed to sunlight.
A few days before planting, pits are filled with 2 parts of FYM and one part each of fresh earth and coarse
sand.

Pits are to be watered for the mixture to get settled.

Well rooted, healthy and strong plants are planted one in each pit.
Nutrition

Species Quantity (g/plant) Method

N P2O5 K2O

J. auriculatum 60 120 120 6 split doses at bimonthly intervals

J. grandiflorum 100 150 100 2 split doses :

(1) June - July
(2) December - after pruning
J. sambac 60 120 120 2 split doses :
(1) June-July
(2) November - after pruning

Foliar Nutrition
Spraying of zinc 0.25% and magnesium 0.5% before flowering increases the yield of flowers.

Spray Feso4 (5g/)l at monthly intervals until the chlorotic symptoms disappear.
Irrigation
Plants are irrigated by once in a week or once in ten days depending on the soil and climatic conditions.
Pruning
Need for pruning
In jasmine, flowering habit is terminal and axillary. So increasing the number of shoots is required to increase
the yield. This is achieved through pruning.

Pruning influences growth, flower bud initiation, differentiation and ultimately the flower production. Pruning
period
J.sambac - Last week of November
J.grandiflorum - Last week of December
J.auriculatum - Last week of January
 Pruning height : 45-50 cm from the ground level.
Weeding
Commonly done manually but is expensive.
Chemical weed control is effective and economical.
Spraying Oryzalin 1 or 2 application is effective.
Mulching also reduces weed .
Harvesting
Jasmine gives economic yield only from the third year and up to 12-15 years and then the yield starts declining.

The stage of harvest depends on the purpose of flowers to be harvested.

For fresh flowers, fully developed unopened flower buds are picked in the early morning, while for extraction
of concrete only fully opened fresh picked flowers are required.

Picking of flowers after 11a.m. will considerably reduce the yield and quality of the concrete.

Damage during harvest and transit will affect post-harvest life of the flowers and concrete recovery.

Grading
There are no standard grades available for jasmine.
The flowers may be graded according to the corolla tube length, bud size, shape and freshness.
Packing
Packing should be functional, economical and attractive besides being acceptable in markets.

Harvested flowers should be given cold treatment before packing.

Corrugated cardboard boxes are the proper packing materials for distant market.
Wholesalers pack flowers in bamboo baskets.
Provision for air circulation should be provided in the packages.
Yield
Flower and concrete yield in jasmines vary considerably according to the species and cultivars and management
practices.

The flower yield and concrete recovery in three important species of jasmine are:

Species Flower yield Concrete recovery Shelf life of flowers

(T/ha) (%)
J. auriculatum 4.6 - 9.0 0.28 - 0.36 28 - 30 hrs

J. grandiflorum 4.3 - 10.0 0.25 - 0.32 24 hrs

J. sambac 7.4 - 8.2 0.14 - 0.19 28 - 30 hrs

 EXTRACTION OF JASMINE CONCRETE

Concrete:

• It is a wax like substance containing the natural flower perfume together with some plant waxes, albumin and
colouring matter.

• The natural perfume is available in very small quantity (0.25%) in jasmine flowers in the form of volatile oil.

The concrete is used in the perfumery industry.

Picking of flowers for extraction:

• Freshly picked fully opened flowers are required.

• Jathimalli flowers open in the evening between 5-7 p.m.

• Picking of flowers is before 9.30 a.m.

• Picking after 11.00 a.m. will reduce the yield and quality of concrete.

• Flowers are collected in clean baskets (or) cloth bags without damage and contamination.

• Harvested flowers are kept in cool atmosphere and processed within two hours after harvest.

Processing:

Two steps

• Dissolving the perfume material by treating the flowers with solvent.

• Removal of the solvent from the perfume material by evaporation.

Equipments

1. Extractor (Rotary type of 3 kg capacity)

2. Evaporator (wide mouthed circular stainless steel bowel of 25 litre capacity with air tight lid + hole at the center
for the outlet of solvent vapour)

3. Condenser (Stainless steel with 12 small pipes fitted parallelly for solvent vapour passing and circulating cold
water to condense the solvent).

4. Vacuum distillation unit.