Personal Identification

Alphonse Bertillon was a French criminologist and anthropologist who created the first
system of physical measurements, photography, and record-keeping that police could use
to identify recidivist criminals.

Ancient Babylon- fingerprints were used in clay tablets for business transactions. 1000 -
2000 BC

Anthropometry- the first system of personal identification.

Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra Bose (1897) - Two Indian fingerprint experts credited with
primary development of the Henry System of fingerprint classification (named after their
supervisor
Edward Richard Henry.

Bertillon System - a system of identification which focuses on the meticulous measurement

and recording of different parts and components of the human body.

Chiroscopy – It is the examination and thorough study of the palms of the human hand.
point identifying persons.

Core-
Approximate center of the pattern
It is placed upon or within the innermost sufficient recurve.

Dactyl - finger

Dactylography - the scientific study of fingerprints as a means of identification.

Dactylomancy - the scientific study of fingerprint for the purposes of personality

interpretation.

Dactyloscopy - a method of studying fingerprints to establish identification.

Delta-
1. point on a ridge at or nearest to the point of divergence of two typelines and
2. is located at or directly in front of the point of divergence.

Dermal Papillae - are the irregular pegs composed of delicate connective tissue protruding
and forming ridges of the skin on the fingers, palms, toes, and soles of the feet.

Dr. Henry P. DeForrest - he accomplished the first fingerprint file established in the United
States, and the first use of fingerprinting by a U.S. government agency.

Dr. Nehemiah Grew - in 1684, he was the first European to publish friction ridge skin.
observations.
Edgeoscopy – the study of the morphological characteristics of friction ridges; shape or
contour of the edges of friction ridges.

Edmond Locard - informally referred to as the Sherlock Holmes of France, he developed the
science of poroscopy, the study of fingerprint pores and the impressions produced by these
pores. He went on to write that if 12 specific points were identical between two fingerprints,
it would be sufficient for positive identification. This work led to the use of fingerprints in
identifying criminals being adopted over Bertillon's earlier technique of anthropometry.

Fingerprint is an impression of the friction ridge of all or any part of the finger. Fingerprint
Ridges are formed during the third to fourth month of fetal development.

Fingerprint Classification Systems

1. The Henry Classification System–developed by Henry in the late 1800s.
Icnofalangometric System – the original name of the system developed by Vucetich
1891
3. Dactyloscopy - the new name of the system developed by Vucetich.
4. The Oloriz System of Classification–developed by Oloriz.
Identakey – developed in the 1930s by G. Tyler Mairs.
5. The American System of Fingerprint Classification – developed by Parke in 1903.
6. The Conley System. The Flack-Conley System – developed in 1906 in New Jersey, a
improved Conley System.
7. NCIC Fingerprint Classification System. Collins System–a classification system for single
fingerprint used in Scotland Yard in the early 1900s.
8. Jorgensen System – a classification system for single fingerprints used in the early 1900s.
9. Battley System – a classification system for single fingerprints used in the 1930s

Friction Skin- also called papillary skin, is the epidermal layer found on the ventral or lower
surface of the hands and feet covered with ridges and furrows.

Fundamental layers of friction skin

outer layer (stratum corneum, stratum mucusum)
2. Dermis - inner layer (blood vessels, dermal papillae, various glands and nerves)

Furrows - the depressed or canal-like structure/the white space between the ridges.

Gilbert Thompson - He used his thumbprint on a document to prevent forgery. First known.
use of fingerprints in the U.S.

John Evangelist Purkinje - anatomy professor at the University of Breslau, in 1823, he

published his thesis discussing nine fingerprint patterns but he made no mention of the
value of fingerprints for
personal identification. He is considered by many as the Father of Dactyloscopy. For
purposes of the
criminology licensure examination, Johannes Evangelist Purkenji is the same person as
John Evangelist Purkinje.
Juan Vucetich - In 1892, two boys were brutally murdered in the village of Necochea, near
Buenos Aires, Argentina. Initially, suspicion fell on a man named Velasquez, a suitor of the
children's mother, Francisca Rojas. Investigators found a bloody fingerprint at the crime
scene and contacted Juan Vucetich, who was developing a system of fingerprint
identification for police use. Vucetich compared the fingerprints of Rojas and Velasquez with
the bloody fingerprint. Francisca Rojas had denied touching the bloody bodies, but the
fingerprint matched one of hers. Confronted with the evidence, she confessed—the first
successful use of fingerprint identification in a
murder investigation.

Loop-
One or more ridges enter upon either side
Recurve
3. Touch or pass an imaginary line between delta and core
Pass out or tend to pass out upon the same side the ridges entered.

Three Loop Characteristics

A sufficient recurve
2. A Delta
3. A ridge count across a looping ridge

Marcelo Malpighi- in 1686, an anatomy professor at the University of Bologna, noted

fingerprint ridges, spirals and loops in his treatise. A layer of skin was named after him;
"Malpighi" layer, which is approximately 1.8mm thick. Malpighi is considered as the
Grandfather of Dactyloscopy.

Mark Twain - author of the novel Pudd'nhead Wilson where one of the characters has a
hobby of collecting fingerprints.

Paul-Jean Coulier of Val-de-Grâce in Paris, published his observations that (latent)

fingerprints can be developed on paper by iodine fuming, explaining how to preserve (fix)
such developed impressions and mentioning the potential for identifying suspects.
fingerprints by
use of a magnifying glass.

Poroscopy refers to the examination of the shape, size, and arrangement of the small
opening on friction ridge through which body fluids are secreted or released. Poros (a pair),
to study

Podoscopy – a term coined by Wilder and Wentworth which refers to the examination of the
soles and their significance in personal identification. Podo (foot), Skopien (to study)

Ridge - the elevated or hill-like structure (the black lines with white dots)
Recurving Ridge - a single ridge that curves back to the direction where it started.
2. Ending Ridge - it refers to an abrupt end of a ridge
3. Enclosure or Lake Ridge - a single ridge that divides into two but does not remain open
and meet at a certain point to form the original single ridge.
4. Sufficient Recurve - a recurving ridge which is complete with its shoulder free from any
appendage.
5. Diverging Ridge - two ridges that split apart.
6. Converging Ridge - two ridges that meet at a certain point.
7. Bifurcation - a ridge formation in which a single ridge splits or divides into 2 or more
ridges.
8. Ridge Dot (Island Ridge) - refers to a ridge formation in the form of a dot or period.
Appendage - a short ridge found at the top or summit of a recurve.
10.Rod (Bar) - a short or long ridge found inside the recurve directed towards the core.
11. Obstruction Ridge - short ridge found inside the recurve which blocks the inner line of
flow towards the core.
12. Typelines - a diverging ridge that tends to surround the pattern area and serves as a
basic boundary of fingerprint impression.
13. Pattern Area - a part of a loop or whorl pattern surrounded by typelines and consisting of
the delta, the core and other ridges.
14. Delta - also called the outer terminus, is a point along the ridge formation found at the
center or near the center of the diverging typelines.
15. Core - also called the heart or inner terminus, usually found at the center of the
innermost recurve.

Ridge Destruction - ridge destruction of the friction skin can either be temporary or
permanent. Generally, temporary destruction occurs when only the epidermis layer of the
Friction skin has been damaged while permanent damage can be inflicted on the friction skin.
due to the damage in the dermis layer.

Ridge Formation - ridges start to form in the fingers and thumb during the 3rd to 4th month
of fetus life.

Ridgeology describes the individualization process of any area of friction skin using
all available detail.

Ridge Characteristics
Ridge Dots - An isolated ridge unit whose length approximates its width in size.
2. Bifurcations - The point at which one friction ridge divides into two friction ridges.
3. Trifurcations - The point at which one friction ridge divides into three friction ridges.
4. Ending Ridge - A single friction ridge that terminates within the friction ridge structure.
5. Ridge Crossing - A point where two ridge units intersect.
6. Enclosures (Lakes) - A single friction ridge that bifurcates and rejoins after a short course
and continues as a single friction ridge.
7. Short Ridges (Islands) - Friction ridges of varying lengths.
8. Spurs (Hooks) - A bifurcation with one short ridge branching off a longer ridge.
9. Bridges - A connecting friction ridge between parallel running ridges, generally right
angles.

Sir Edward Richard Henry - he was appointed Inspector-General of Police of Bengal, India
In 1891, he developed a system of fingerprint classification enabling fingerprint records to
be organized and searched with relative ease.

Sir Francis Galton - He devised a method of classifying fingerprints that proved useful in
forensic science. He pointed out that there were specific types of fingerprint patterns. He
described and classified them into eight broad categories: 1: plain arch, 2: tented arch, 3:
simple loop, 4: central pocket loop, 5: double loop, 6: lateral pocket loop, 7: plain whorl, and
8: accidental

Sir Henry Faulds - his first paper on the subject of fingerprint was published in the scientific
journal Nature in 1880. Examining his own fingertips and those of friends, he became
convinced that the
the pattern of ridges was unique to each individual.

Sir William James Herschel was a British officer in India who used fingerprints for
identification on contracts.

to study or examine

Sweat duct - the passage way.

Sweat gland- the producers of sweat.

Sweat pores - the tiny opening / the tiny white dot

Time Line - Fingerprints

1000-2000 B.C. - Fingerprints were used on clay tablets for business transactions in ancient
Babylon.

3rd Century B.C. - Thumbprints begin to be used on clay seals in China to "sign"
documents.

610-907 A.D. - During the T’ang Dynasty, a time when imperial China was one of the most
In powerful and wealthy regions of the world, fingerprints are reportedly used on official
documents.

1st Century A.D. - A petroglyph located on a cliff face in Nova Scotia depicts a hand with
exaggerated ridges and finger whorls, presumably left by the Mi'kmaq people.

14th Century A.D. - Many official government documents in Persia have fingerprints
impressions. One government physician makes the observation that no two fingerprints.
were an exact match.

1686 - At the University of Bologna in Italy, a professor of anatomy named Marcello

Malpighi notes the common characteristics of spirals, loops and ridges in fingerprints, using
the newly invented microscope for his studies. In time, a 1.88mm thick layer of skin, the
The 'Malpighi layer' was named after him. Although Malpighi was likely the first to document
types of fingerprints, the value of fingerprints as identification tools was never mentioned in
his writings.

1823 - A thesis is published by Johannes Evangelista Purkinje, professor of anatomy with

the University of Breslau, Prussia. The thesis details a full nine different fingerprint patterns.
Still, like Malpighi, no mention is made of fingerprints as an individual identification method.

1858 - The Chief Magistrate of the Hooghly district in Jungipoor, India, Sir William Herschel,
first used fingerprints to 'sign' contracts with native Indians. In July of 1858, a
local businessman named Rajyadhar Konai put his hand print on the back of a contract at
Herschel's request. Herschel was not
motivated by the need to prove personal identity; rather, his motivation was to simply
frighten (Konai) out of all thought of repudiating his signature.” As the locals felt more
bound to a contract through this personal contact than if it was just signed, as did the
ancient Babylonians and Chinese, Herschel adopted the practice permanently. Later, only
the prints of the right index and middle fingers were required on contracts. In time, after
viewing a number of fingerprints, Herschel noticed that no two prints were exactly alike, and
he observed that even in widespread use, the fingerprints could be used for personal
identification purposes.

1880 - Dr. Henry Faulds, a British surgeon and Superintendent of Tsukiji Hospital in Tokyo,
published an article in the Scientific Journal, "Nature". He discussed fingerprints as
a means of personal identification, and the use of printer's ink as a method for obtaining
such fingerprints. Faulds had begun his study of what he called “skin-furrows” during the
1870s after looking at fingerprints on pieces of old clay pottery. He is also credited with the
first fingerprint identification: a greasy print left by a laboratory worker on a bottle of alcohol.
Soon, Faulds began to recognize that the distinctive patterns on fingers held great promise
as a means of individual identification, and developed a classification system for recording
these inked impressions. Also in 1880, Faulds sent a description of his fingerprint
classification system to Sir Charles Darwin. Darwin, aging and in poor health, declined to
assist Dr. Faulds in the further study of fingerprints, but forwarded the information on to his
cousin, British scientist Sir Francis Galton.

1882 - Gilbert Thompson, employed by the U.S. Geological Survey in New Mexico, uses his
own fingerprints on a document to guard against forgery. This event is the first known use of
fingerprints for identification in America.

1883 - 'Life on the Mississippi,' a novel by Mark Twain, tells the story of a murderer who is
identified by the use of fingerprints. His later book "Pudd'n Head Wilson" includes a
courtroom drama involving fingerprint identification.

1888 - Sir Francis Galton began his study of fingerprints during the 1880s, primarily to
develop a tool for determining genetic history and hereditary traits. Through careful study of
the work of Faulds, which he learned of through his cousin Sir Charles Darwin, as well as
In his examination of fingerprints collected by Sir William Herschel, Galton became the first to
provide scientific evidence that no two fingerprints are exactly the same, and that prints
remain the same throughout a person’s lifetime. He calculated that the odds of finding two
identical fingerprints were 1 in 64 billion.

1892 - Galton's book "Fingerprints" is published, the first of its kind. In the book, Galton
detailed the first classification system for fingerprints; he identified three types (loop, whorl,
and arch) of characteristics for fingerprints (also known as minutia). These characteristics
are to an extent still in use today, often referred to as Galton’s Details.
1892 - Juan Vucetich, an Argentine police official, had recently begun keeping the first
fingerprint files based on Galton's Details. History was made that year when Vucetich made
the first criminal fingerprint identification. A woman named Rojas had murdered her two
sons, then cut her own throat to deflect blame from herself. Rojas left a bloody print on a
doorpost. After investigators matched the crime scene print to that of the accused, Rojas
confessed. Vucetich eventually developed his own system of classification, and published a
book entitled Comparative Fingerprinting in 1904, detailing the
Vucetich system, still the most used system in Latin America.

1896 - British official Sir Edward Richard Henry had been living in Bengal, and was looking
to use a system similar to that of Herschel’s to eliminate problems within his jurisdiction.
After visiting Sir Francis Galton in England, Henry returned to Bengal and instituted a
fingerprinting program for all prisoners. By July of 1896, Henry wrote in a report that the
classification limitations had not yet been addressed. A short time later, Henry developed a
system of his own, which included 1,024 primary classifications. Within a year, the Governor
General signed a resolution directing that fingerprinting was to be the official method of
identifying criminals in British India.

1901 - Back in England and Wales, the success of the “Henry Fingerprint Classification
The 'System' in India was creating a stir, and a committee was formed to review Scotland.
Yard's identification methods. Henry was then transferred to England, where he began
training investigators to use the Henry Classification System after founding Scotland Yard's
Central Fingerprint Bureau. Within a few years, the Henry Classification System was in use
around the world, and fingerprints had been established as the uniform system of
Identification for the future. The Henry Classification System is still in use today in English.
speaking countries around the globe.

1902 - Alphonse Bertillon, director of the Bureau of Identification of the Paris Police, is
responsible for the first criminal identification of a fingerprint without a known suspect. A
Print taken from the scene of a homicide was compared against the criminal fingerprints
already on file, and a match was made, marking another milestone in law enforcement
technology. Meanwhile, the New York Civil Service Commission, spearheaded by Dr. Henry
P. DeForrest, institutes testing of the first systematic use of fingerprints in the United States.

1903 - Fingerprinting technology comes into widespread use in the United States, as the
New York Police Department, the New York State Prison system and the Federal Bureau of
Prisons begin
working with the new science.

1904 - The St. Louis Police Department and the Leavenworth State Penitentiary in Kansas
start utilizing fingerprinting, assisted by a Sergeant from Scotland Yard who had been
guarding the British Display at the St. Louis Exposition.

1905 - The U.S. Army gets on the fingerprinting bandwagon, and within three years was
joined by the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps. In the ensuing 25 years, as more law
enforcement agencies joined in using fingerprints as personal identification methods, these
agencies began sending copies of the fingerprint cards to the recently established National
Bureau of Criminal Investigation.
1911 - The first central storage location for fingerprints in North America is established in
Ottawa by Edward Foster of the Dominion Police Force. The repository is maintained by the
Royal Canadian Mounted Police, and while it originally held only 2000 sets of fingerprints,
Today the number is over 2 million.

1924 - The U.S. Congress acts to establish the Identification Division of the F.B.I. The
National Bureau and Leavenworth are consolidated to form the basis of the F.B.I. fingerprint
repository. By 1946, the F.B.I. had processed 100 million fingerprint cards; that number
doubles by 1971.

1990s - AFIS, or Automated Fingerprint Identification Systems, begin widespread use

around the country. This computerized system of storing and cross-referencing criminal
Fingerprint records would eventually become capable of searching millions of fingerprint files.
in minutes, revolutionizing law enforcement efforts.

1996 - As Americans become more concerned with the growing missing and abducted
children problem, and law enforcement groups urge the fingerprinting of children for
investigative purposes in
the event of a child becoming missing, Chris Migliaro founds Fingerprint America in Albany,
NY. The company provides a simple, at-home fingerprinting and identification kit for
parents
maintaining the family’s privacy while protecting and educating children about the dangers
of abduction. By 2001, the company distributes over 5 million Child ID Fingerprinting Kits
around the world.

1999 - The FBI phases out the use of paper fingerprint cards with their new Integrated AFIS
(IAFIS) site at Clarksburg, West Virginia. IAFIS will start with individual computerized
fingerprint records
for approximately 33 million criminals, while the outdated paper cards for the civil files are
kept at a facility in Fairmont, West Virginia.

Typelines-
Two innermost ridges that start or go parallel
Diverge and surround or tend to surround the pattern area

Types of Fingerprints
1. Visible Prints
Latent Prints
3. Impressed Prints

Visible prints - also called patent prints and are left in some medium, like blood, that reveals.
them to the naked eye when blood, dirt, ink or grease on the finger come into contact with a
smooth surface and leave a friction ridge impression that is visible without development.

Latent Prints - not apparent to the naked eye. They are

formed from the sweat from sebaceous glands on the body or
water, salt, amino acids and oils contained in sweat.
 They can be made sufficiently visible by dusting, fuming or
chemical reagents.

Impressed prints - also called plastic prints and are

indentations left in soft pliable surfaces, such as clay,
wax, paint or another surface that will take the impression.
They are visible and can be viewed or photographed without
development.

Types of Patterns
1. Arch a. Plain Arch
b. Tented Arch
Loop
b. Ulnar Loop
Whorl
b. Central Pocket Loop
c. Double Loop
d. Accidental Whorl

Plain Arch- 1. Ridges enter upon one side

Make a rise or wave in the center
3. Flow or tend to flow out upon the
opposite side.

Tented Arch- Possesses an 1. Angle

2. Upthrust
3. Two of The Three basic
characteristics of the loop

Ulnar loop - flow toward the little finger - ulna bone.

Radial Loop - flow toward the thumb - radius bone.

Plain Whorl - 1. Consists of one or more ridges which make

or tend to make a complete circuit
2. With 2 deltas
3. Between which, when an imaginary line is
drawn, at least one recurving ridge within
the inner pattern area is cut or touched.

Central Pocket Loop - 1. Consists of at least one recurving

ridge or
An obstruction at right angles to
the line of flow
3. With 2 deltas
4. Between which, when an imaginary
line is drawn, no recurving ridge
within the inner pattern area is
 cut or touched.

Double Loop - 1. Consists of two separate loop formations

2. With two separate and distinct sets of
shoulders and
3. Two deltas

Accidental Whorl - 1. Consists of a combination of two

different types of patterns with the
exception of the plain arch
2. With 2 or more deltas or
3. A pattern which possesses some of the
requirements for 2 or more different
types or a pattern which conforms to
none of the definitions.