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Figure 11-1: Distribution of Advertising Spending Worldwide,
2022 (%), p. 319

Figure 12-1: The Potter Box, p. 336

Figure 14-1: 2020 Election Crushes Spending Records, p.

389

Figure 14-2: Political Polarization and Media Habits, p. 401

Figure 15-1: 2020 World Press Freedom Index, p. 415

Figure 15-2: World Internet Users and Penetration Rates, p.
416

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Preface

John V. Pavlik
Rutgers University

Shawn McIntosh
The College of Saint Rose

Transformation is fundamental to contemporary journalism and

mass communication (JMC). Economic upheaval, technological
disruption, and political forces are just some of the complex factors
reshaping the contours of JMC. As mobile and streaming media have
become increasingly ubiquitous and social networks have come to
dominate much of the communication landscape, the financial
foundation for mainstream media has shifted in dramatic fashion.
Media companies have come increasingly to rely on subscription-
based revenues as advertising has flowed to platforms such as Meta,
Google, TikTok, and Twitter. Artificial intelligence (AI) is reshaping
the media as generative AI impacts nearly every aspect of
communication. The public accesses media through smartphones
and other networked devices rather than physical products like
books or newspapers. People participate in the journalism and mass
communication process by posting their own photos, video, and
other content online and sharing the online posts they encounter.

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Political winds sweep over the JMC landscape as well, fueling
debates about fake news, media ethics, and the role of journalism in
democracy. Globalization has become far more than a buzzword, as
citizens consider the ramifications of an increasingly international
media mix. Online subscription-based media entertainment such as
the video services of companies like Netflix and Prime have found
high levels of interest among millennials, Gen Z, and others
interested in on-demand media content.

Advances in technology are delivering new media content formats

such as augmented reality, virtual reality, and even the metaverse.
While the platforms for such content are still somewhat specialized
and expensive, they in many ways may represent the future qualities
of journalism and mass communication: interactive, multisensory,
and immersive.

Privacy remains a major concern in an era of ubiquitous digital

surveillance by smart TVs and other smart devices (such as smart
speakers) that track user behaviors and even what people say in their
homes, and social media that generates massive databases
encompassing nearly every man, woman, and child around the globe.
(Platforms such as Facebook and TikTok collect and store massive
volumes of data, including what videos people they watch, what they
share, and what they post.

The existence of these vast repositories of data, valuable for security

and commercial potential (such as individually targeted advertising),
raises concerns for civil liberties, including freedom of speech and
the right to privacy. An even bigger question is who has the right to

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own and control this information, especially with the
telecommunications companies and Internet giants contributing to
international surveillance programs. As Acting High Commissioner
for Human Rights Nada Al-Nashif declared in a 2022 United Nations
report, “Digital technologies bring enormous benefits to societies.
But pervasive surveillance comes at a high cost, undermining rights
and choking the development of vibrant, pluralistic democracies.” 1

Meanwhile, the transformation of media into digital form and the

convergence of media formats and industries have continued
unabated. Research indicates that people now spend more time
using digital devices than they do with any other medium. Digital
content is increasingly likely to be experienced on a smartphone,
tablet, or smart device (TV or smart speaker). Digital distribution is
now the dominant format for music, television, and radio, whether
delivered terrestrially, by satellite, or via the Internet. Thanks to
tablets and e-readers, ebooks have seen a dramatic surge in
popularity. Newspapers and magazines, which have experienced
significant declines in print circulation, are nonetheless seeing
growth in tablet, smartphone, and online distribution. Digital
distribution of movies, television, and video games is now
mainstream, with companies such as Netflix, Amazon, and Apple
producing and streaming their own original and acclaimed television
shows and movies. Movie theaters struggle to stay open as they
compete in this new entertainment media landscape. Tablets and
other mobile devices are blurring the lines between Internet, movies,
and television while allowing technology companies like Google,
Apple, and Amazon to challenge traditional media distributors.

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Our engagement with media also has changed, becoming more active
as mass and interpersonal communications converge. Any person
can broadcast his or her opinion on Twitter or via other social media,
and increasingly people do so while consuming traditional media,
such as television. They post comments and engage in conversation
about popular shows. Interactive media, especially video games,
constitute an increasingly popular form of entertainment.

Convergence also operates on a global scale today. The globalization

of media industries and distribution has produced a cultural
convergence that, at best, enables diverse local viewpoints to be
heard and, at worst, smothers local culture in a homogeneous,
commercialized, and Westernized culture. Yet the impact of other
viewpoints is beginning to shape the content of new Hollywood or
online blockbusters and other forms of Western media.

Rarely in history have there been such differences in media usage as

there are between the digital natives and those who grew up in a pre-
Internet era of mass communication. The one shrinking group may
enjoy reading a printed newspaper over breakfast; the other growing
group may get their news on a smartphone, tablet, or wearable
device—if they get any news at all. One group may have impressive
collections of CDs and DVDs; the other group may have their music
and movie collections in the streaming online “cloud” and accessible
from any location or on their portable devices. The older group may
worry how increased product placement may affect the type of shows
that are produced; the younger group may wonder what product
placement is and why it matters. One group may believe that it is
nobody’s business what their relationship status is; the other group

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may fret or develop social and psychological anxieties about such
subjects when receiving negative or even underwhelming feedback
on their public posts.

Interestingly, this media divide is often represented in the college

classroom, where college students are the digital natives and their
professors are generally from an older mass-media tradition. Yet the
two parties converge, just like the media discussed in this book, to
form a more critical and greater understanding of where media have
been, where they are today, and where they are going.

One way to look at the state of mediated communication today is that

convergence is bringing us the kinds of tools that audiences have
long wanted with their media—the ability to have greater control
over what they watch, read, listen to, and interact with and the ability
to share their stories and their lives with others. But with that greater
control also comes greater responsibility and a greater need for us to
understand how our media work and how they may affect our society
and political systems. A double-edged sword cuts both ways, but
which way it cuts depends largely on who is wielding it.

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Converging Media : An
Introduction to Mass
Communication and Digital
Innovation , Seventh Edition

Change is a constant in the mass-communication industry, and in

recent years fundamental transformation has rocketed forward with
surprising speed. Students are changing. The field is changing. The
world is changing. Yet these changes go largely unnoticed in most
textbooks. An introductory textbook should provide a foundation of
knowledge for students learning a new field. But when the
foundation sits on a bed of shifting sand, the introduction needs to
be revised continually.

Converging Media: An Introduction to Mass Communication and

Digital Innovation embraces these developments as well as the
impact of JMC on society. This book also explores the evolving career
pathways for those interested in a professional future in any of the
associated fields.

The seventh edition of Converging Media follows the class-tested

formula of the previous edition by offering:

A Fresh Perspective. Through the lens of convergence,

our book shows how different aspects of media are parts of a
whole and how they influence each other. Digital media are
not relegated to special features or an isolated chapter; they

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are integrated throughout every chapter. This reflects better
the world as students live in it and prepares them to
understand the changes that are taking place. This
organization invites students and professors to engage in
timely discussions of media within a larger framework of
understanding traditional mass-communication topics.
Comprehensive Coverage of Traditional Media. In
order to understand the present, we have to study the past.
We cover the development and historical influences of print
and electronic media and the issues these media face today.
The communication professions of journalism, advertising,
and public relations are viewed from historical, societal, and
career perspectives, giving students insights into how they
interact and influence each other.

Unique Coverage of Social Media. As the first

introductory mass-communication textbook to devote a
chapter (8) to this emerging area, we place social media
within a larger media and sociocultural context. Today’s
popular social media tools are given a historical context and
are connected thematically to older online communication
tools. Social media are such an integral part of the media mix
for so many people, and often used uncritically, that they
must be covered in an introductory course, not introduced in
an upper-division media and technology course.

Cutting-Edge Examples. We have chosen examples that

are diverse, interesting, and up to date. We have written
Converging Media with students always in mind—

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understanding the changing world they live in today. Taken
from popular media that are familiar and relevant to
undergraduates, the examples illustrate how the landscape of
media has evolved—and is still evolving.

Cultural Context. Mass communication, media

technologies, and convergence take place firmly within a
sociocultural milieu that simultaneously affects and is
affected by these forces. Understanding this cultural context
is vital for a complete grasp of convergence and today’s
media environment. The authors emphasize the cultural
influences and implications of media technologies while
explaining how they work and how they were developed.
Emphasis on Ethics. The book has a chapter devoted
entirely to ethics ( Chapter 12 ) and continues to thread
ethics-related discussions throughout other chapters, as
appropriate (see Ethical Debates boxes). Students should
learn that ethical considerations are tightly linked to a full
understanding of mass communication and media. Ethics
can also help guide us in the complex and often-confusing
world of converging media, giving a basis for sound and
humane decisions on media use and production and new
technologies and the way they affect people.

International Perspectives. A chapter on today’s global

media environment ( Chapter 15 ) provides a broad
perspective on media in various countries and the social,
economic, and cultural effects of media globalization
overseas and domestically. The remaining chapters also

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 highlight international perspectives in feature boxes and in
the text itself. Through comparisons and contrasts, students
obtain an appreciation for different media systems
throughout the world and how they work.

Video Links . We have added videos corresponding to

material in each chapter, which are accessible at
www.oup.com/he/pavlik-mcintosh7e .
Instructor Resources . An instructor’s manual, available
online at www.oup.com/he/pavlik-mcintosh7e , features
chapter objectives, lecture launchers, discussion topics,
activities, and web links. Corresponding PowerPoint
presentations and test banks are also available for in-person
and online use.

Features for Students

We have kept features limited and focused on a few key areas that
will help bring out interesting and relevant aspects of the content
discussed in the book.

Convergence Culture boxes showcase how media impact

our social, political, and popular culture in sometimes
dramatic ways. New or updated examples are provided in
every chapter in this edition and speak to current social,
political, and cultural issues in recent news.

55
Media Pioneers boxes examine the careers of visionaries
and leaders in the world of media both historically and in the
contemporary scene. They feature individuals past and
present who have made or are making media history (e.g.,
Doris E. Fleischman). Subjects represent a diversity of past
and present, media vocations, and cultural and ethnic
backgrounds. This feature now appears in every chapter and
three are new to this edition and several are updated.
Ethical Debates boxes, appearing in almost all chapters,
discuss timely issues related to ethical practices and issues in
mass media. Six are new to this edition and the others are
updated.

International Perspectives boxes take a global

perspective on chapter topics, showcasing how the use of
media and technology and media industries are similar to or
different from the U.S. context and why that is so. Eight are
new to this edition.
Timelines , appearing in select chapters, provide a history,
or even pre-history, of different media, such as newspapers,
television, and social media sites, giving the context for their
development.

Chapter Opening Vignettes have all been updated or

created new for currency and relevance.

Videos at the beginning and end of each chapter provide

updated stories on current events that intersect with issues
and trends in mass media. These videos are accompanied by

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assignable quizzes within a course’s learning management
system through our Oxford Learning Link course packages.

Discussion Questions are now located throughout each

chapter. They are also assignable within a course’s learning
management system through our Oxford Learning Link
course packages.

Critical Thinking Questions accompany many photo

captions, asking students to engage deeply with the image
and topic it represents and providing useful topics for lively
class discussions or brief assignments. They are also
assignable within a course’s learning management system
through our Oxford Learning Link course packages.
Key Term Practice at the end of most sections and
Flashcards at the end of each chapter aid students in
understanding key terminology as they go through the text.

Further Reading assignments round out each chapter,

offering books both seminal and new that students can use as
launching points for further research.

Chapter Quizzes and Test Bank questions are assignable

within a course’s learning management system through our
Oxford Learning Link course packages.

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Changes to the Seventh Edition

This seventh edition has undergone several changes to keep pace

with the rapidly evolving world of media. Most artwork has been
updated or replaced throughout all chapters.

Continued Emphasis on Careers in Media , including

entrepreneurship and innovation.

Updated Discussion Questions.

Further Reading. The seventh edition includes on average

one or two new sources per chapter.

Coverage of New Issues. Throughout the text, we have

updated and expanded coverage of critical topics, including
the convergence of interpersonal communication and mass
communication through social networking media,
gamification, augmented reality and virtual reality, fake
news, cyberbullying, AI, and mobile media. Noteworthy
chapter-specific changes include:

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Chapter 1
The chapter opening vignette has a large passage written
entirely by ChatGPT, showing how far AI has come and
laying the groundwork for students to understand what AI
will mean for media and mass communication.

Updated examination of the increasingly vast differences in

media habits between younger (eighteen to twenty-four) and
older audiences.
Updated examples throughout the chapter that highlight the
key concepts around the types of convergence and the
fundamental changes taking place in media and mass
communication today.

Updated discussion of how mobile devices are playing an

increasingly important role in how people engage actively
with media (for accessing content but also for commenting
on and sharing it).

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Chapter 2
Updated analysis of media ownership and what it means,
with Disney now having acquired 21st Century Fox.

Updated discussion of the advance of mobile media in Africa.

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Chapter 3
Reorganized chapters, with “Media Theory and Research”
now Chapter 3 .

Expanded discussion of research theories including the

Knowledge Gap hypothesis.
Updated discussion of the growth and impact of screen time
(now more than eleven hours per day on average).
Updated discussion of the nature and impact of mediated
violence.

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Chapter 4
Reorganized chapters, with “Print Media” now Chapter 4 .

Updated discussion of ebooks.

Updated discussion of audiobooks and their growth.
Discussion of state of newspapers in the United States.

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Chapter 5
Reorganized chapters, with “Audio Media” now Chapter 5 .
Updated examination of the music industry, including
revenues and growth of the streaming music industry.

Updated discussion of podcasting.

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Chapter 6
Reorganized chapters, with “Visual Media” now Chapter 6 .
Expanded discussion of programming on the transformed
platform of television.
New discussion of transgender issues in media, including the
actor in Nickelodeon’s “Henry Danger” who recently revealed
he transitioned twenty years ago.

Updated look at the state of movie box office revenues for

blockbusters including Black Panther , Avengers: Infinity
War and Avengers: End Game .

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Chapter 7
Reorganized chapters, with “Interactive Media” now Chapter
7.
A more in-depth look at the state of virtual and augmented
reality and what it means for changes to media.
Updated timeline on the development of video games.

Convergence Culture feature box discusses the latest

research on physiological changes that take place when
playing video games.

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Chapter 8
Reorganized chapters, with “The Impact of Social Media”
now Chapter 8 .
Expanded discussion of issues such as the congressional
hearings on Facebook’s practices regarding privacy and its
role in spreading misinformation.
Updated and more critical coverage of the potentially
harmful effects of social media use, even in moderation.

International Perspectives feature box discusses some of the

most popular social media platforms in China and how they
differ from their Western counterparts.

Expanded and updated material on cybershaming and

cyberbullying.

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Chapter 9
Reorganized chapters, with “Journalism” now Chapter 9 .
New discussion of the Constructive and Solutions Journalism
movement.

Updated discussion of the news production processes,

including the rise of automation in the newsroom.
Discussion and critical analysis of the potential uses of AI in
the newsroom and how it may change journalists’ work and
production.
Updated information on the state of the news industry for
those considering careers in journalism.

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Chapter 10
Reorganized chapters, with “Public Relations” now Chapter
10 .

Edited chapter title, replacing “with” with “through” to

reflect the changing role of public relations in relationship
management.

Examination of how the airline industry has not fared well

during and after the COVID-19 pandemic regarding its
handling of various PR crises.
A look at the PR issues around the 2022 World Cup in Qatar
and the notion of “sportwashing.”

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Chapter 11
Reorganized chapters, with “Advertising” now Chapter 11 .

A discussion in the chapter vignette about the controversial

Balenciaga ad campaign that sparked a widespread outcry
about the sexual exploitation of children in the media.

Updated and global perspectives on the issue of brand theft

and how organizations try to deter it in the digital age.
Updated discussion of in-game advertising, especially in
virtual reality formats.

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Chapter 12
Reorganized chapters, with “Media Ethics” now Chapter 12 .
Updated examples, including plagiarism by Jill Abramson
and paparazzi photographing Ivanka Trump and Jared
Kushner.

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Chapter 13
Reorganized chapters, with “Communication Law and
Regulation in the Digital Age” now Chapter 13 .
Updated discussion of states’ journalist shield laws.

Updated discussion of Russian journalists ordered killed by

the Russian government.
Updated discussion of copyright and fair use in media.

Newly included discussion of new GDPR data privacy rules

in Europe, impacting digital enterprises and media.

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Chapter 14
Updated information on media and politics, including levels
of spending on media during the 2020 presidential
campaign.
Updated discussion of fact checking.

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Chapter 15
Updates on global media companies, including Apple.

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How the Book Is Organized
Converging Media has the comprehensive mission of explaining not
only the world of digital media and social media but also the basics of
communication theory, ethics, and traditional mass-communication
forms, while also assisting in the development of media literacy
skills. It does this using a class-tested, multipart structure.

PART ONE: THE CHANGING MEDIA

LANDSCAPE
Chapter 1 explains the multifaceted nature of convergence (and
disputes over its definition) to see how the nature of mass
communication is changing. Chapter 2 discusses media literacy,
which helps meet students’ need for solid critical thinking skills in
the twenty-first century’s complex and fast-changing digital-media
environment, including notions of fake news. Providing an early
foundation in media literacy ensures that students will bring a
critical perspective to the remainder of the book. For students who
are interested in gaining a deeper understanding of media or are
considering a career in academia, Chapter 3 introduces some major
media theories and presents different types of research, examining
the strengths and weaknesses of each.

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PART TWO: MASS COMMUNICATION
FORMATS
Chapter 4 begins the exploration of traditional media with a
discussion of the print industry and the digital dynamics to which it
is now subject. Chapter 5 explores sound—namely, the recording
industry and radio. The recording industry has of course faced large-
scale changes brought by digital media through the sharing of music
files; and radio is increasingly facing questions about its role as
people come to expect music on demand and there are more options
for artists to promote their music, such as in video games and on
television shows. Chapter 6 looks at visual media—photography,
movies, and television—and examines how each of these
technologies developed and influenced the ways that we see media.
Photography is often ignored in books such as this, but it is an
important aspect of the development of our media usage.
Technological advances in photography not only led directly to
motion pictures but contributed to the increased importance we
place on visual media today. Chapter 7 explores how interactivity
and user interface have played fundamental roles in the development
of the Internet and video games. The chapter also discusses
gamification as well as the promise and perils of virtual and
augmented reality.

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PART THREE: MEDIA PERSPECTIVES
Chapters 8 , 9 , 10 , and 11 examine the way that digital and social
media are changing traditional communication professions.
Chapter 8 provides an overview of social media, which is allowing
the public to talk back to media producers and companies. Users of
social media can also band together and create entirely new projects
outside the traditional media professions. Journalism, the subject of
Chapter 9 , is probably the field most threatened by the digital
democratization of news reporting, but recent developments such as
the collaboration on publishing the Panama Papers show that
perhaps new models of journalism may be successful. Public
relations is its own chapter, Chapter 10 , which allows a deeper dive
into persuasion and the practice of public relations. Advertising is
also its own chapter, Chapter 11 , which likewise has allowed for
greater depth into advertising on its own and the challenges it faces
with more fragmented audiences and greater media choice than in
the past.

PART FOUR: MEDIA AND SOCIETY

Part 4 shows the broader social effects of developments related to
media. Media ethics receives a full treatment in Chapter 12 , with
an in-depth discussion of the ethical issues each profession faces. We
explore the unique dilemmas raised by digital technologies,
including the threats to privacy. Chapter 13 explores legal and
regulatory aspects of media, especially as related to the First

76
Amendment. Chapter 14 thoroughly examines politics and
communication, an area that in introductory books is often confined
to U.S. election coverage. Although the 2016 and 2020 U.S.
presidential elections are discussed, international politics and media
are not ignored. Chapter 15 , on global media, introduces the
notions of the public sphere and public opinion and looks at the
media’s role in democratic and nondemocratic countries throughout
the world. The globalization of media technology, industry, and
content highlights international issues, including the digital divide,
cultural imperialism, and cybersecurity.

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Acknowledgments

Creating a book such as this is very much a collaborative effort, and

the authors have benefited greatly from the advice and wisdom not
only of the reviewers, but of those who adopted previous editions of
the book going back to its first edition in 2003, when many educators
still saw the topic of digital media as, at best, perhaps an added
chapter to existing textbooks. These adopters sometimes had to work
hard to persuade colleagues and departments that Converging
Media was the text to use to introduce students to mass
communication. We can only hope that the argument is easier to
make with this seventh edition as we witness a growing number of
books about media convergence in the market.

We would also like to thank the adopters who wrote to us over the
years asking when a revised edition would be published and who
offered encouraging words about the usefulness of the book. Their
words of encouragement and clear interest in a book that integrated
technology with media helped convince us that the book provided a
unique and useful perspective for students in the twenty-first
century.

John Pavlik truly appreciates the love and support of his family,
especially his wife, Jackie, and his daughters, Orianna and Tristan.
Shawn McIntosh is similarly grateful for the love and support of his
wife, Naren, and his son, Altan, who has grown up in this evolving

78
media world and whose questions about media old and new always
help Shawn see media in new lights.

We want especially to thank the editors at Oxford University Press

with whom we worked: Jaime Burns, our portfolio manager;
McKenna Lay, assistant content editor; Laura Ewen, marketing
manager; and Kaylee Williams, marketing assistant. They
immediately understood and shared our vision of what this textbook
should and could be to introductory mass-communication courses.
Their insights and advice helped this book surpass our expectations.
We also wish to thank Dr. Mary Ann McHugh, whose extensive
editing and creative contributions have streamlined and updated
much of the text. We are grateful for the fine job of Oxford’s
production group: production manager, Theresa Stockton; senior
production editor, Melissa Yanuzzi; and senior art director, Michele
Laseau. The copyeditor, Tara Tovell, had an excellent eye for
catching details and also helped clarify and simplify, making great
improvements throughout the book.

And last but certainly not least, we wish to thank the following
reviewers for the detailed and insightful feedback on various parts of
the book and digital resources.

SEVENTH EDITION REVIEWERS

Robert Baron, Austin Peay State University

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