PHILOSOPHY

Teacher: Ma’am Meralyn Gonzales

Ist QUARTER
*This is just a reviewer, please still use your notes to correct information or use information
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Introduction
Philosophy
-​ philo=love, sophia=wisdom, philosophia=love of wisdom
-​ Study of general and fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind,
and language
-​ Way of thinking about the universe and society
Notable Philosophers
1.​ Pythagoras ( 570 BCE-495 BCE)
-​ mathematician/scientist
-​ credited with the pythagorean theorem
2.​ Heraclitus ( 535 BCE- 475 BCE)
-​ proposed that everything exists is based on a higher order or plan which he called logos
3.​ Democritus (460 BCE-370 BCE)
-​ devoted himself to the study of causes of natural phenomena
4.​ Diogenes of Sinope (412 BCE-323 BCE)
-​ known advocate for living a simple and virtuous life
5.​ Epicurus (341 BCE-270 BCE)
-​ believed that philosophy could enable man to live a life full of happiness
6.​ Socrates (470 BCE-399 BCE)
-​ socratic method - means of examining a topic by devising a series of questions that let
the learner examine and analyze his knowledge and views regarding the topic
7.​ Plato (427 BCE-347 BCE)
-​ student of socrates
-​ dialectic - method of inquiry when to opposing ideas are discussed in an attempt to
arrive at new knowledge
-​ traced man's need to philosophize to a sense of wonder
8.​ Aristotle (384 BCE-322 BCE)
-​ prominent student of plato
 -​ studies in logic led to the formation of a formal process of analyzing reasoning which
give rise to deductive reasoning - the process by which specific statements are analyzed
to reach a conclusion or generalization
9.​ Rene Descartes
-​ traced the need to philosophize to to doubt

Holistic and Partial Thinking

Partial Thinking
-​ Emphasizes specific aspects of a situation and is a key part of analytical thinking it involves
concentrating on certain areas of a problem in order to have an understanding
Holistic Thinking
-​ Refers to as perspective that considers large scale patterns in systems
-​ Requires an open mind and the ability to grasp the overall sense of a situation
-​ Sees the whole picture focusing on how parts form relationships and interact rather than on
isolated details
Examples
-​ Gestalt Philosophy - studies how people perceive patterns and holes from sensory
information
-​ Humanistic Psychology - emphasizes the uniqueness and potential of each individual
-​ Social Psychology - examines how people behave and think in social situations

Branches of Philosophy
1.​ Aesthetics
-​ Refers to the philosophy of beauty
2.​ Logic
-​ Studies of valid and correct reasoning
3.​ Epistemology
-​ Studies the origin, reason, nature of knowledge and knowing
4.​ Ethics
-​ The study of moral principles and virtues and moral dilemmas
5.​ Political Philosophy
-​ Deals with the concept of politics justice and society
6.​ Metaphysics
-​ Explores the nature of reality, existence and a higher order
7.​ Philosophy of the Human Person
-​ Explores what it means to be human ; a human perspective in everything
Fallacies and Biases
Fallacy - errors in reasoning that make the argument weak or misleading
1.​ Ad hominem - attacking the person instead of addressing the argument
2.​ Ad baculum - appeal to force, using threats to make someone accept a conclusion
3.​ Ad misericordiam - appeal to pity, appealing to one's emotions instead of logical reasons
4.​ Ad populum - appeal to the people which suggest something is true or right because a lot of
people believes like so
5.​ Ad traditio - appeal to tradition which means arguing something is correct because of tradition
6.​ Argumentum ad ignorantiam - appeal to ignorance which claims something is true because it
hasn't been proven false
7.​ Petitio principii - begging the question, assuming what you're trying to prove or circular
reasoning
8.​ Cause and effect fallacy - assuming that because two things happen together that one causes the
other
9.​ Fallacy of composition - assuming that what is true of the parts is true of the whole
10.​ Fallacy of division - assuming what is true of the whole is for each part

Bias - personal tendencies are prejudices that can affect how we create understand or judge arguments
often leading to unfair or illogical conclusions
1.​ Correspondence or attribution effect - people often blame others’ behavior on their personality
rather than the situation they're in
2.​ Confirmation bias - we tend to focus on information that supports what we already believe and
ignore what contradicts it
3.​ Framing - the way information is focused in only by a certain aspect while ignoring others
4.​ Hindsight - after something happens we feel like we know it all along
5.​ Conflict of interest - personal interest can unfairly influence someone's interests or actions
6.​ Cultural bias - we judge other events or issues based on one's cultural standards

Conclusion - judgements based on certain facts

Beliefs - statements that express convictions that are not easily and clearly explained by facts

Explanations - statements that assume the claim to be true and provide reasons why the statement is
true
Arguments - statements meant to persuade others or explain a point

Inductive Reasoning
-​ Generalized conclusions based on specific scenarios, correct observations won't necessarily lead
you to a correct general conclusion
Deductive Reasoning
-​ Active packing up a generalized statement with specific scenarios, specific conclusion follows a
general theory

The Human Person As An Embodied Spirit

-​ Humans are made of both body and spirit, which work together as one.
-​ The body influences the spirit and vice versa.
-​ Embodiment lets us experience both physical and spiritual life.

Two Aspects of the Human Person

-​ Cognitive Self: Invisible part (thoughts, beliefs, dreams, intentions).
-​ Physical Self: Visible body (type, strength, appearance).
Spirit
-​ From Latin spiritus meaning “breath”; symbolizes life and mood/intention.
-​ Spirit is the non-physical part of a person.
Body
-​ The physical, tangible aspect of a person.
The Body as Intermediary
The body acts as a mediator; it can help or hinder self-expression.
Terms and Definitions
-​ Man: Refers to the entire human species.
-​ Human: Classified under mammals.
-​ Human Being: Differentiates humans from animals.
-​ Person: A being with awareness, reason, and the ability to relate.
-​ Personhood: A state of having sacred value and ethical standing.
-​ Human Nature: Shared traits that make us human.
Traits of a Person
-​ Self-awareness: Knowing your thoughts, emotions, and identity.
-​ Self-determination: Making choices and directing your life.
-​ Ability to interact with others (Externality)
-​ Has the right to be respected (Dignity)
Consequence: Result of actions.
Externality: Reaching out to others.
Dignity: The right to be respected.

Limitation of the Human Person

Humans are naturally limited (e.g., can't fly or breathe underwater without help).

Limitations and Possibilities for Transcendence

The human body has many functions but also biological and physical limitations.

Types of Limitations
1.​ Bodily Limitations
-​ Mental/emotional disorders (anxiety, depression)
-​ Disabilities (e.g., amputation, deafness)
-​ Illnesses (e.g., hypertension, cough)
-​ Failures (e.g., failing a subject)
2.​ Social & Environmental Limitations
-​ Socioeconomic status
-​ Neighborhood conditions (unsafe, disorganized)
-​ Abusive relationships
-​ Negative influences (e.g., drug use)
-​
Possibilities for Transcendence
-​ Developing a positive outlook
-​ Working towards goals
-​ Learning from experiences
-​ Recognizing and evaluating own limits

Understanding limits allows for growth.

Transcendence happens when we go beyond our limits by setting our mind on goals.

Overcoming Limitations
-​ Try new experiences, gradually increasing difficulty
-​ Keep focus on goals beyond fears
 -​ Recognize that challenges are opportunities
-​
Reminders When Going Beyond Limits
-​ You are connected to the world (external/eternal)
-​ Challenges = learning opportunities
-​ Goals matter more than fears
-​ Think outside the box
-​ Everyone has fears

Key Concepts
1.​ Body : physical, tangible aspect of the person.
2.​ Spirit : intangible element of the person.
3.​ Embodiment : capacity to do and experience what makes us human.
4.​ Failure : confronting weaknesses and limitations.
5.​ Transcendence: ability to go beyond or surpass limits.
6.​ Human Person: more than just body and spirit; capable of growth and meaning.
7.​ Vulnerability: being human, dependent on others.
8.​ Loneliness: rooted in vulnerability and fear of death.
9.​ Love: richness, positivity, and transcendence.

The Human Person in Their Environment

Environmental Philosophy / Environmental Ethics

-​ Definition: Studies the moral relationship of human beings with the environment and its
non-human contents.
-​ Philosophers’ belief: Humans can change the environment to suit purposes.
-​ Changes in humans affect the environment, and environmental changes affect humans.

Three Major Views on the Relationship Between Humanity & Environment

1.​ Anthropocentrism
-​ Focuses on the central role of humans.
-​ Nature is seen as a means to meet human needs.
-​ Humans are the most important species and can use resources freely.
2.​ Biocentrism
-​ All organisms have inherent value and should be protected.
-​ Humans are not the only significant species.
 -​ Promotes ethical treatment of animals and preservation of biodiversity.
3.​ Ecocentrism
-​ Nature as a whole has value; humans are part of a larger biological system.
-​ Advocates stewardship and guardianship of nature.
-​ Emphasizes order, balance, stability, and beauty in nature.

Environmental Aesthetics
Maintaining environmental order enhances natural beauty and contributes to the well-being of people
and other organisms.

Sustainable Development/Sustainability Development

Meeting present needs without compromising future generations' needs.

Sustainability’s Three Principles

1.​ Environmental Integrity – Maintaining environmental stability.
2.​ Economic Efficiency – Wise resource use to minimize waste.
3.​ Equity – Conserving resources for future generations.

Prudence: Cautious, wise decision-making to avoid risks and ensure sustainable use of resources.
Frugality: Careful, thrifty use of resources, avoiding waste.

Theories in Radical Ecological Philosophy

1.​ Deep Ecology (Arne Naess) – All life has equal intrinsic value; humans are part of the living
Earth.
2.​ Social Ecology (Murray Bookchin) – Environmental problems are rooted in social problems,
especially hierarchical and exploitative systems.
3.​ Ecofeminism (Françoise d'Eaubonne) – Links environmental degradation to patriarchal
systems; promotes equality to address ecological issues.

Frugality & Environmental Problems

-​ Environmentally friendly by reducing use of electricity, water, and other resources.
-​ Minimizes environmental impact through reduce, reuse, recycle.