Arapi
Arapi | |
---|---|
العرب Al-ʿArab | |
Ukupna populacija | |
400–420 miliona Arapska liga 350 miliona Dijaspora 50 miliona | |
Značajno stanovništvo u | |
Arapska liga | 350.000.000[1][2] |
Brazil | 11.600.000-12.000.000[3][4][5] |
Francuska | 5.500.000–7.000.000[6][7] |
Turska | 5.000.000[8][a] |
SAD | 3.700.000[10] |
Argentina | 3.500.000[11] |
Kolumbija | 3.200.000[12][13][14][15][16] |
Izrael | 2.080.000[17] |
Čad | 1.800.000[18] |
Iran | 1.600.000-4.000.000[19]–4,000,000[20] |
Venecuela | 1.600.000[21] |
Njemačka | 1.401.950[22] |
Španija | 1.350.000[23][24] |
Meksiko | 1.100.000[25] |
Čile | 800.000[26][27][28] |
Kanada | 750.925[29] |
Italija | 705.968[30] |
Švedska | 543.350[31] |
Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo | 500.000[32] |
Australija | 500.000[33] |
Jezik | |
Arapski | |
Vjera | |
muslimani mali broj kršćana |
Arapi (arapski: عرب ʻarab) su tnička grupa[34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49] i semitski narod koji je većim dijelom nastanjen na Bliskom istoku i u Sjevernoj Africi. Značajna arapska dijaspora prisutna je u raznim dijelovima svijeta.[50] Podaci o broju Arapa su različiti jer postoje tri klasifikacije pripadnosti arapskom narodu: prema politici, jeziku i porijeklu. U zavisnosti koja se od ove tri klasifikacije koriste, zavisi i ukupan broj Arapa. Najčešća je klasifikacija prema maternjem jeziku, tj. prvom jeziku kojim se služe i prema toj klasifikaciji Arapa je oko 300 miliona. Arapi govore arapskim jezikom i koriste se arapskim pismom.
Arapi su bili u Plodnom polumjesecu hiljadama godina.[51] U 9. vijeku p. n. e, Asirci su pisanim putem spominjali Arape kao stanovnike Levanta, Mezopotamije i Arabije.[52] Širom drevnog Bliskog istoka, Arapi su uspostavili uticajne civilizacije počevši od 3000. godine p. n. e, kao što su Dilmun, Gerrha i Magan, igrajući vitalnu ulogu u trgovini između Mezopotamije i Mediterana.[53] Ostala istaknuta plemena uključuju Midjan, ʿĀd i Samud koji se spominju u Bibliji i Kur'anu. Kasnije, 900. godine p. n. e, Kedarci su imali bliske odnose sa obližnjim Kanaanskim i Aramejskim državama, a njihova teritorija se prostirala od Donjeg Egipta do Južnog Levanta.[54] Od 1200. p. n. e, do 110. p. n. e, u Arabiji su se pojavila moćna kraljevstva kao što su Saba, Lihjan, Minean, Kataban, Hadhramaut, Avsan i Homerite.[55] Prema abrahamskoj tradiciji, Arapi su potomci Abrahama preko njegovog sina Ismaila.[56]
Tokom klasične antike, Nabatejci su uspostavili svoje kraljevstvo sa Petrom kao glavnim gradom 300. godine p.n.e,[57] do 271, Palmirsko Carstvo sa glavnim gradom Palmirom, predvođeno kraljicom Zenobijom, obuhvatalo je Sirijsku Palestinu, Arabijsku Petraju i Egipat, kao kao i velike dijelove Anadolije.[58] Arapski Itureanci su naseljavali Liban, Siriju i sjevernu Palestinu (Galileju) tokom helenističkog i rimskog perioda.[59] Osroene i Hatran su bile arapska kraljevstva u Gornjoj Mesopotamiji oko 200. godine.[60] Sasanijci su 164. priznali Arape kao "Arbajistan", što znači "zemlja Arapa",[61] pošto su bili dio Adiabene u gornjoj Mezopotamiji.[62] Arapski Emeseni vladali su 46. p. n. e. Emesom (Homs), Sirija.[63] Tokom kasne antike, Tanuhidi, Salihidi, Lakhmidi, Kinda i Ghassanidi bili su dominantna arapska plemena na Levantu, Mezopotamiji i Arabiji, oni su pretežno prihvatili kršćanstvo.[64]
Narod
[uredi | uredi izvor]Semitski narod nastanjen je na Srednjem Istoku i sjevernoj Africi, od Maroka na krajnjem zapadu do Omana na istoku, i od Turske na sjeveru do Jemena i Sudana na jugu. Geografski Arapi se prostiru na nekih 10 miliona kvadratnih kilometara i broje najmanje 250.000.000 pripadnika. Oko 4 miliona Arapa živi također u Evropi i oko 2 miliona u Americi. Srce arapske zemlje je Saudijska Arabija i Jemen, područje poznato kao Hidžaz. Oko 610. godine, rođenjem Islama, Hidžaz postaje trgovačko središte duž karavanskih puteva a Mekka postaje jedan od najznačajnijih svjetskih gradova.
Etnički, Arapi su uglavnom tamnokosi i smeđih očiju, puti svijetle, ali i ona varira od mjesta do mjesta. Po vjeri su većinom sunitski muslimani, i tek 10% šijiti (osobito u Iranu, Jemenu, dijelu Iraka i obali Perzijskog zaljeva). Prvenstveno Arapi su, uz Židove, jedan od dva naroda kojima je porijeklo dao Sem, Hamov brat. Kroz svoju historiju osnovali su cijeli niz država kao što su: Alžir, Bahrein, Egipat, Irak, Jordan, Kuvajt, Libanon, Libija, Maroko, Oman, Katar, Saudijska Arabija, Sudan, Sirija, Tunis, Ujedinjeni Arapski Emirati, Jemen i Palestina koja se još bori za svoj nastanak i priznanje. Gledajući sa socijalnog aspekta, Arapi se dijele na stalno-naseljene (ruralni ' fellahin' = seljaci i urbani ' hadar', gradski Arapi) i nomadske Arape, poznajemo ih kao Beduine. Postoji i više jezično semitiziranih (tačnije arabiziranih) naroda koji nisu etnički Arapi, naročito ima arabiziranih Židova u sjevernoj Africi, Jemenu i Iraku. Arabizirani su i neki Kopti (koji su ipak porijeklom Egipćani, hamitski narod čiji su preci osnovali egipatsku kulturu i državu). Među hamitskim Berberima također postoji i dosta arabiziranih grupa, nomada koji naseljavaju pustinjske predjele sjeverne Afrike.
Ime
[uredi | uredi izvor]Ime Arapi i Arabija javlja se još u asirskim tekstovima kao mâtu arbâi /Arab land/, tačna lokacija ovog područja nije poznata, kasnije se javljaju termini Arabi, Arubu, Urbi. U srodnom hebrejskom jeziku riječ `aravah’ i ‘arav’ označava pustinju, pa bi se moglo prevesti da su Arapi ‘pustinjski narod’. Poluostrvo Arabija prekriveno je nepreglednim pustinjama i pradomovina je ovog ekspanzivnog naroda koji se proširio preko cijele sjeverne Afrike.
Jezik
[uredi | uredi izvor]Arapski jezik pripada semitskoj grani semitsko-hamitske porodice, pismo je arapsko.
Vjerski običaji
[uredi | uredi izvor]Arapi su većinom islamske vjeroispovijesti, što u veliko diktira način njihovog života i njihove običaje. Arapi su također u manjini kršćani i druzi, te žive u Libanu i Siriji, gdje zahvaljujući vjerskoj mješanosti postoji daleko veća varijacija u tradiciji i običajima.
Muslimanski Arapi su narod koji živi po pravilima Kur'ana. Kuran je često osnova zakona arapskih država kojima su regulirani neki aspekti njihovog života. Među Arapima preovladava patrijarhalni sistem. Poligamija je u nekim arapskim zemljama dozvoljena. Arapi, kao ni Židovi, ne jedu svinjetinu, i uglavnom se koristi govedina, ovčetina i puretina. U zemljama sjeverne Afrike je poznato nacionalno jelo kus-kus, priprema se sa ovčetinom, ribom i raznim povrćem. Umjesto masti Arapi koriste maslinovo ulje i druge masnoće biljnog porijekla, a kolači se često prave od meda.
Svaki Arapin-musliman trebao bi barem jednom u životu otići na hadždž u Meku.
Arapi u Evropi
[uredi | uredi izvor]Arapima u Evropi zahvaljujemo na znanju o umjetnom navodnjavanju tla, koje se zbog bezobzirnog krčenja šuma počelo isušivati. Iz Španije ovo se znanje proširilo na sjever, preko Alpa sve do Islanda. Španska riječ 'noria', označava stepen navodnjavanja, i nastala je od arapskog nd'ura. Pamuk, koji danas vodi glavnu riječ u tekstilnoj industriji, su u Evropu donijeli Arapi, iz njihov jezika potekao je francuski izraz 'coton' i engleski 'cotton'.
Arapske zajednice
[uredi | uredi izvor]- Arapi (iz Arabije)… 32,231,000
- Hassaniya Arapi… 4,714,000
- Levantski Arapi…53,032,000
- Libijski Arapi 3,785,000
- Arapi Maghreba…74,142,000
- Shuwa Arapi… 1,986,000
- Sudanski Arapi… 22,135,000
- Jemenski Arapi… 10,999,000
- Beduini Arabije… 14,187,000
- Saharski Beduini… 7,473,000
Također pogledajte
[uredi | uredi izvor]Bilješke
[uredi | uredi izvor]Reference
[uredi | uredi izvor]- ^ total population 450 million; CIA Factbook2030 estimates an Arab population of 450 million, see article text.
- ^ "World Arabic Language Day | United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization". Unesco.org. 15 December 2016. Pristupljeno 18 December 2017.
- ^ IBGE. IBGE | Biblioteca | Detalhes | Características étnico-raciais da população : classificações e identidades IBGE: Características Étnico-Raciais da População.
- ^ Silvia Ferabolli (25 September 2014). Arab Regionalism: A Post-Structural Perspective. Routledge. str. 151. ISBN 978-1-317-65803-0.
According to estimates by the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE), countersigned by the League of Arab States, Brazil has the largest Arab colony outside their countries of origin. There are estimated 15 million Arabs living in Brazil today, with some researchers suggesting numbers around 20 million.
- ^ Paul Amar (15 July 2014). The Middle East and Brazil: Perspectives on the New Global South. Indiana University Press. str. 40. ISBN 978-0-253-01496-2.
there are, according to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, more than sixteen million Arabs and descendants of Arabs in Brazil, constituting the largest community of Arabs descent outside the Middle East.
- ^ Crumley, Bruce (24 March 2009), "Should France Count Its Minority Population?", Time, pristupljeno 11 October 2014
- ^ "To count or not to count". The Economist. 26 March 2009. ISSN 0013-0613. Pristupljeno 30 January 2019.
- ^ a b "Turkey's demographic challenge". aljazeera.com.
- ^ "UNHCR Situation Syria Regional Refugee Response – Turkey". Government of Turkey. 11 November 2021. Pristupljeno 17 November 2021.
- ^ "Demographics". Arab American Institute. Arhivirano s originala, 23 October 2016. Pristupljeno 18 December 2017.
- ^ "Inmigración sirio-libanesa en Argentina" (jezik: španski). Fearab.org.ar. Arhivirano s originala, 20 June 2010. Pristupljeno 13 April 2010.
- ^ "Colombia y Medio Oriente". 26 April 2022. Pristupljeno 2 July 2022.
- ^ "Brazil-Arab News Agency – Colombia awakens to the Arab world". 2011-07-06. Arhivirano s originala, 6 July 2011. Pristupljeno 2022-06-17.
- ^ Tiempo, Casa Editorial El (2019-03-07). "Los palestinos que encontraron un segundo hogar en el centro de Bogotá". El Tiempo (jezik: spanish). Pristupljeno 2022-06-18.CS1 održavanje: nepoznati jezik (link)
- ^ "Estimación de la mortalidad, 1985–2005" [Estimation of mortality, 1985–2005] (PDF). Postcensal Studies (jezik: španski). Bogotá, Colombia: DANE. March 2010. Arhivirano s originala (PDF), 23 November 2007. Pristupljeno 29 March 2016.
- ^ "Proyecciones nacionales y departamentales de población. 2006–2020" [National and departmental population projections. 2006–2020] (PDF) (jezik: španski). DANE National Statistical Service, Colombia. September 2007. Arhivirano s originala (PDF), 23 November 2007. Pristupljeno 22 September 2015.
- ^ "Demographic characteristics – definitions and explanations (translation from Hebrerw into English)". Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. Pristupljeno 6 January 2024.
- ^ "Chad". The World Factbook (2024 izd.). Central Intelligence Agency. Pristupljeno 3 April 2019. (Archived 2019 edition)
- ^ "Iran". The World Factbook (2024 izd.). Central Intelligence Agency. Pristupljeno 3 August 2013. (Archived 2013 edition)
- ^ "Arabs". Minority Rights Group. 2015-06-19. Pristupljeno 2023-10-26.
- ^ Margolis, Mac (15 September 2013). "Abdel el-Zabayar: From Parliament to the Frontlines". The Daily Beast.
- ^ "Anzahl der Ausländer in Deutschland nach Herkunftsland in den Jahren 2015 und 2016". statista (jezik: njemački).
- ^ "Los musulmanes en España superan los 1,8 millones". europapress.es (jezik: španski). 30 March 2015. Pristupljeno 25 April 2017.
- ^ Redaction (9 October 2012). "La cifra de musulmanes en España alcanza los 1,6 millones, de los que casi un tercio viven en Cataluña". alertadigital.com (jezik: španski). Arhivirano s originala, 1 December 2017. Pristupljeno 25 April 2017.
- ^ Sierra, Mauricio (2021-06-16). "Arab Ancestry in Latin America". Berkeley High Jacket. Arhivirano s originala, 15 February 2022. Pristupljeno 2022-02-15.
Arab Mexicans are an important group within Mexican society. There are around 1,100,000 Mexican citizens of Arab descent, primarily of Lebanese, Syrian, Iraqi and Palestinian heritage.
- ^ "Aurora | Aurora". aurora-israel.co.il. Arhivirano s originala, 18 March 2012.
- ^ "Chile: Palestinian refugees arrive to warm welcome". Adnkronos.com. 7 April 2003. Arhivirano s originala, 19 September 2011. Pristupljeno 17 September 2011.
- ^ "500,000 descendientes de primera y segunda generación de palestinos en Chile". Laventana.casa.cult.cu. Arhivirano s originala, 22 July 2009. Pristupljeno 17 September 2011.
- ^ "Canadian Arab Institute :: 750,925 Canadians Hail from Arab Lands". canadianarabinstitute.org. Arhivirano s originala, 19 March 2017. Pristupljeno 19 October 2019.
- ^ "Cittadini stranieri in Italia – 2021". tuttitalia.it.
- ^ "Population by country of birth, age and sex. Year 2000 – 2020". Pristupljeno 19 September 2019.
- ^ Anthony McRoy. "The British Arab". National Association of British Arabs. Arhivirano s originala, 3 January 2015. Pristupljeno 17 April 2012.
- ^ "australianarab.org/about-us". Arhivirano s originala, 30 October 2016.
- ^ Mackintosh-Smith, Tim (30 April 2019). Arabs: A 3,000-Year History of Peoples, Tribes and Empires. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-18235-4.
- ^ Levinson, David (1998). Ethnic Groups Worldwide: A Ready Reference Handbook. Oryx Press. ISBN 978-1-57356-019-1.
- ^ Shakry, Omnia El (20 October 2020). Understanding and Teaching the Modern Middle East. University of Wisconsin Pres. ISBN 978-0-299-32760-6.
- ^ Ahrari, Mohammed E. (1994). The Middle East in Transition: An Instructional Guide. Southern Center for International Studies. ISBN 978-0-935082-19-7.
- ^ Hitti, Philip K. (1996). The Arabs: a short history. Washington, D.C.: Regnery Pub. ISBN 0895267063.
- ^ Rogan, Eugene (2011). The Arabs: a history (1st pbk. izd.). New York, NY: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0465025046.
- ^ Hauss, Charles (July 2005). Ie Comparative Politics. Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-495-06294-3.
- ^ F., Eickelman, Dale (September 2013). "Arabs (anthropology)". Encyclopaedia of Islam. Three.
- ^ Shoup, John A. (31 October 2011). Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9781598843620.
- ^ Barakat, Halim (1993). The Arab world society, culture, and state. Berkeley: University of California Press. ISBN 0520914422.
- ^ Reynolds, Dwight F. (2 April 2015). The Cambridge Companion to Modern Arab Culture. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521898072.
- ^ Jandt, Fred E. (2 February 2012). An Introduction to Intercultural Communication: Identities in a Global Community. SAGE Publications. ISBN 9781412992879.
- ^ Kreider, Kyle L.; Baldino, Thomas J. (2016). Minority voting in the United States. Santa Barbara: Praeger. ISBN 978-1440830242.
- ^ Epstein, Steven (2007). Purity Lost: Transgressing Boundaries in the Eastern Mediterranean, 1000–1400. JHU Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-8484-9.
- ^ "ʿARAB". Encyclopedia Iranica.
- ^ "Arabs". MSN Encarta. 28 October 2009. Arhivirano s originala, 28 October 2009.
- ^ Bureš, Jaroslav (2008). Main characteristic and development trends of migration in the Arab world. Prague: Institute of International Relations. ISBN 978-80-86506-71-5.
- ^ * "HISTORY OF THE ARABS". historyworld.net. Pristupljeno 2023-05-01.
- Eph'al, Israel (1982). The Ancient Arabs: nomads of the fertile crescent. Jerusalem Leiden: Magnes press Hebrew university E. J. Brill. ISBN 978-965-223-400-1.
- Mackintosh-Smith, Tim (2019-04-30). Arabs: A 3,000-Year History of Peoples, Tribes and Empires. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-18235-4.
- ^ * Myers, E. A. (11 February 2010). The Ituraeans and the Roman Near East: Reassessing the Sources. Cambridge University Press. str. 18. ISBN 978-1-139-48481-7.
- Hoyland, Robert G. (2001). Arabia and the Arabs. Routledge. str. 11 METHODOLOGY (modern Saudi Arabia minus the east coast, the Sinai and Negev deserts, and parts of modern Jordan, Syria, and Iraq). ISBN 0-203-76392-0.
- ^ * Smith, Sylvia (2013-05-21). "Bahrain digs unveil one of oldest civilizations". BBC News. BBC.
- "Qal'at al-Bahrain – Ancient Harbour and Capital of Dilmun". UNESCO. Arhivirano s originala, 5 April 2012. Pristupljeno 17 August 2011.
- ^ * Bowman, Alan K.; Champlin, Edward; Lintott, Andrew (8 February 1996). The Cambridge Ancient History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-26430-3.
- Retsö, Jan (October 2010). "Arabs (historical)". Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three.
- "The origin of the word "Arab"". Ismaili.net. Pristupljeno 18 December 2017.
- ^ Werner Daum (1987). Yemen: 3000 Years of Art and Civilization in Arabia Felix. Pinguin-Verlag. str. 73. ISBN 3701622922.
- ^ Fisher, Greg; Wood, Philip (July 2015). Arabs and Empires before Islam. Oxford University Press. str. 368. ISBN 9780191799730. Pristupljeno 3 August 2023.
Origen, in the third century, was the first Christian to identify the Ishmaelites with the Arabs, but he only does so in a cursory fashion
- ^ "Thamud | History, Tribe, & Location | Britannica". britannica.com. Pristupljeno 2023-04-07.
- ^ Warwick Ball (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. str. 80. ISBN 9781134823871.
- ^ Berndt Schaller, Ituraea, p.1492.
- ^ de Jong, Albert (2013). "Hatra and the Parthian Commonwealth". Oriens et Occidens – Band 21: 143–161.
- Ellerbrock, Uwe (2021). The Parthians: The Forgotten Empire. Oxford: Routledge. ISBN 978-0367481902.
- ^ Jullien, Christelle (2018-03-22), "Beth 'Arabaye", The Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity, Oxford University Press, doi:10.1093/acref/9780198662778.001.0001, ISBN 978-0-19-866277-8, pristupljeno 2023-04-20
- ^ Šablon:Oxford Dictionary of Late Antiquity
- ^ Bowman, Alan; Garnsey, Peter; Cameron, Averil (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193–337. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521301992.; Hornblower, Simon; Spawforth, Antony; Eidinow, Esther (2012). The Oxford Classical Dictionary. OUP Oxford. ISBN 9780199545568.; Burns, Jasper (2006). Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars. Routledge. ISBN 9781134131853.; Prado, Leonardo de Arrizabalaga y (2017). Varian Studies Volume One: Varius. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. ISBN 9781443893855.; Shahid, Irfan (1984). Rome and The Arabs: A Prolegomenon to the Study of Byzantium and the Arabs. Dumbarton Oaks. str. 37. ISBN 0884021157.; Freisenbruch, Annelise (2011). Caesars' Wives: Sex, Power, and Politics in the Roman Empire. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 9781416583059.
- ^ * Bowersock, G. W., Peter Brown and Oleg Grabar, eds. 1999. Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World (2nd ed.). Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press. ISBN 978-0-674-51173-6.
- Cameron, Averil (29 April 2015). The Mediterranean World in Late Antiquity: AD 395–700. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-136-67305-4.
- "Lakhmids". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Pristupljeno 18 December 2017.
Izvori
[uredi | uredi izvor]- Abu-Amero, Khaled K; Hellani, Ali; González, Ana M; Larruga, Jose M; Cabrera, Vicente M; Underhill, Peter A (2009). "Saudi Arabian Y-Chromosome diversity and its relationship with nearby regions". BMC Genet. 10: 59. doi:10.1186/1471-2156-10-59. PMC 2759955. PMID 19772609.
- Alshamali, Farida; Pereira, Luísa; Budowle, Bruce; Poloni, Estella S.; Currat, Mathias (2009). "Local Population Structure in Arabian Peninsula Revealed by Y-STR diversity". Human Heredity. 68 (1): 45–54. doi:10.1159/000210448. PMID 19339785.
- Ankerl, Guy (2000). Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU PRESS. ISBN 978-2-88155-004-1.
- Bacharach, Jere L. (1996). "Marwanid Umayyad Building Activities: Speculations on Patronage". u Necipoğlu, Gülru (ured.). Muqarnas: An Annual on the Visual Cultures of the Islamic World. Muqarnas an Annual on Islamic Art and Architecture. 13. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-25933-1. ISSN 0732-2992.
- Ball, Warwick (2000). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. ISBN 9780415113762.
- Birley, A. R. (2002). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. Routledge.
- Bin-Muqbil, Musaed (2006). "Phonetic and Phonological Aspects of Arabic Emphatics and Gutturals". University of Wisconsin–Madison.
- Brunner, Christopher (1983b). "Geographical and Administrative divisions: Settlements and Economy". The Cambridge History of Iran: The Seleucid, Parthian, and Sasanian periods (2). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521200936.
- Bryce, Trevor (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-100292-2.
- Bryce, Trevor (2009). The Routledge Handbook of the Peoples and Places of Ancient Western Asia: From the Early Bronze Age to the Fall of the Persian Empire. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-39485-7.
- Burns, Ross (2007) [2005]. Damascus: A History. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-48849-0.
- Cobb, Paul M. (2001). White Banners: Contention in 'Abbasid Syria, 750–880. State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-4880-9.
- Retso, Jan (2002). Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7007-1679-1.
- Cragg, Kenneth (1991). The Arab Christian: A History in the Middle East. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 978-0-664-22182-9.
- Cribb, Robert; Kahin, Audrey (2004). Historical Dictionary of Indonesia. Historical dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East. Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 978-0-8108-4935-8.
- Deng, Francis Mading (1995). War of Visions: Conflict of Identities in the Sudan. Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 9780815717942.
- Ettinghausen, Richard; Grabar, Oleg; Jenkins-Madina, Marilyn (2001). Islamic Art and Architecture: 650–1250. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-08869-4. Pristupljeno 2013-03-17.
- Flood, Finbarr Barry; Necipoğlu, Gülru, ured. (2017). A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture. Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 9781119068662.
- Grabar, Oleg; Holod, Reneta; Knustad, James; Trousdale, William (1978). City in the Desert. Qasr al-Hayr East. Harvard Middle Eastern Monographs. 23–24. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-13195-8.
- Hawting, Gerald R. (1991). "Marwan II". u Bosworth, Clifford Edmund; van Donzel, Emeri J.; Lewis, Bernard; Pellat, Charles (ured.). The Encyclopaedia of Islam (New Edition/EI-2). 6. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-08112-3.
- Hillenbrand, Robert (1999). "'Anjar and Early Islamic Urbanism". u Brogiolo, Gian Pietro; Perkins, Bryan Ward (ured.). The Idea and Ideal of the Town Between Late Antiquity and the Early Middle Ages. The Transformation of the Roman World. 4. Brill. ISBN 978-90-04-10901-8. ISSN 1386-4165.
- Hoyland, Robert G. (2002). Arabia and the Arabs: From the Bronze Age to the Coming of Islam. London: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-64634-0.
- Kia, Mehrdad (2016). The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-1610693912. (2 volumes)
- Kitchen, Kenneth (2001). "Economics in Ancient Arabia from Alexander to the Augustans". u Archibald, Zofia H.; Davies, John; Gabrielsen, Vincent; Oliver, G. J. (ured.). Hellenistic Economies. London: Routledge. str. 119–132. ISBN 978-1-134-56592-4.
- Le Strange, Guy (1890). Palestine under the Moslems, a description of Syria and the Holy Land from A.D. 650 to 1500. Translated from the works of the medieval Arab geographers. Houghton, Mifflin and Co. OCLC 5965873.
- Rapp, Stephen H. (2014). The Sasanian World through Georgian Eyes: Caucasia and the Iranian Commonwealth in Late Antique Georgian Literature. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. ISBN 978-1472425522.
- Saliba, George (1994b), A History of Arabic Astronomy: Planetary Theories During the Golden Age of Islam, New York University Press, ISBN 978-0-8147-8023-7
- Schiettecatte, Jérémie (2017). "Himyar". The Encyclopedia of Ancient History (PDF). The Encyclopedia of Ancient History. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. str. 1–2. doi:10.1002/9781444338386.wbeah30219. ISBN 9781405179355. Pristupljeno 8 November 2022.
- Shahîd, Irfan (1995a). Byzantium and the Arabs in the Sixth Century. 2 (Part 1). Dumbarton Oaks. ISBN 978-0-88402-284-8.
- Speake, Graham (1996). "Palmyra (Homs, Syria)". u Berney, Kathryn Ann; Ring, Trudy; Watson, Noelle (ured.). International Dictionary of Historic Places. 4 (Middle East and Africe). Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. ISBN 978-1-884964-03-9.
- Touma, Habib Hassan. The Music of the Arabs. Portland, Oregon: Amadeus P, 1996. ISBN 0-931340-88-8.
- Van Beek, Gus W. (1997). "Qataban". u Meyers, Eric M.; Dever, William G.; Meyers, Carol L.; Muhly, James D.; Pardee, Dennis; Sauer, James A.; Finney, Paul Corby; Jorgensen, John S. (ured.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Archaeology in the Near East. 4. Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press. str. 383–384. ISBN 978-0-195-06512-1.
- Lipinski, Edward. Semitic Languages: Outlines of a Comparative Grammar, 2nd ed., Orientalia Lovanensia Analecta: Leuven 2001
- Kees Versteegh, The Arabic Language, Edinburgh University Press (1997)
- The Catholic Encyclopedia, Robert Appleton Company, 1907, Online Edition, K. Night 2003: article Arabia
- History of Arabic language(1894), Jelsoft Enterprises Ltd.
- The Arabic language, National Institute for Technology and Liberal Education web page (2006)
- Ankerl, Guy (2000) [2000]. Global communication without universal civilization. INU societal research. 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 978-2-88155-004-1.
- Hooker, Richard. "Pre-Islamic Arabic Culture." WSU Web Site. 6 June 1999. Washington State University.
- Owen, Roger. "State Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East 3rd Ed" Page 57 ISBN 0-415-29714-1
- Levinson, David (1998). Ethnic groups worldwide: a ready reference handbook. Oryx Press. ISBN 978-1-57356-019-1.
- Raymond, André (1993). Le Caire (jezik: francuski). Fayard.
- Strawn, Brent A. (2000a). "Shem". u Freedman, David Noel; Myers, Allen C. (ured.). Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible. Amsterdam University Press. ISBN 9789053565032.
Dodatna literatura
[uredi | uredi izvor]- Price-Jones, David. The Closed Circle: an Interpretation of the Arabs. Pbk. ed., with a new preface by the author. Chicago: I. R. Dee, 2002. xiv, 464 p. ISBN 1-56663-440-7
- Ankerl, Guy. Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. INU PRESS, Geneva, 2000. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
- Bitar, Amer (2020). Bedouin Visual Leadership in the Middle East: The Power of Aesthetics and Practical Implications. Springer Nature. ISBN 9783030573973.