Introduction

● Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of

evaluating the likely environmental impacts of a proposed
project or development, taking into account inter-related
socio-economic, cultural and human-health impacts, both
beneficial and adverse.

Salient Features of 2006 Amendments to EIA Notification

● Environment Impact Assessment Notification of 2006 has

decentralized the environmental clearance projects by
categorizing the developmental projects in two categories, i.e.,
Category A (national level appraisal) and Category B (state
level appraisal).

○ Category A projects are appraised at national level by

Impact Assessment Agency (IAA) and the Expert
Appraisal Committee (EAC) and Category B projects
are apprised at state level.
○ State Level Environment Impact Assessment
Authority (SEIAA) and State Level Expert Appraisal
 Committee (SEAC) are constituted to provide
clearance to Category B process.
● After 2006 Amendment the EIA cycle comprises of four
stages:

○ Screening
○ Scoping
○ Public hearing
○ Appraisal
● Category A projects require mandatory environmental
clearance and thus they do not undergo the screening process.
● Category B projects undergoes screening process and they are
classified into two types.

○ Category B1 projects (Mandatorily requires EIA).

○ Category B2 projects (Do not require EIA).
● Thus, Category A projects and Category B, projects undergo
the complete EIA process whereas Category B2 projects are
excluded from complete EIA process.

The EIA Process

EIA involves the steps mentioned below. However, the EIA process is cyclical
with interaction between the various steps.
● Screening: The project plan is screened for scale of
investment, location and type of development and if the project
needs statutory clearance.
● Scoping: The project’s potential impacts, zone of impacts,
mitigation possibilities and need for monitoring.
● Collection of baseline data: Baseline data is the environmental
status of study area.
● Impact prediction: Positive and negative, reversible and
irreversible and temporary and permanent impacts need to be
predicted which presupposes a good understanding of the
project by the assessment agency.
● Mitigation measures and EIA report: The EIA report should
include the actions and steps for preventing, minimizing or by
passing the impacts or else the level of compensation for
probable environmental damage or loss.
● Public hearing: On completion of the EIA report, public and
environmental groups living close to project site may be
informed and consulted.
● Decision making: Impact Assessment Authority along with the
experts consult the project-in-charge along with consultant to
take the final decision, keeping in mind EIA and EMP
(Environment Management Plan).
● Monitoring and implementation of environmental
management plan: The various phases of implementation of
the project are monitored.
● Assessment of Alternatives, Delineation of Mitigation
Measures and Environmental Impact Assessment Report: For
every project, possible alternatives should be identified, and
environmental attributes compared. Alternatives should cover
both project location and process technologies.

○ Once alternatives have been reviewed, a mitigation

plan should be drawn up for the selected option and
is supplemented with an Environmental Management
Plan (EMP) to guide the proponent towards
environmental improvements.
● Risk assessment: Inventory analysis and hazard probability
and index also form part of EIA procedures.
Main elements of EIA report

EIA Report should clearly set out the methodological considerations and the
reasoning behind the identification and assessment of significant effects so that
others can see the weight attached to different factors and can understand the
rationale of the assessment. The following format captures the main elements of
a typical report:

1. Table of Contents
● Chapters and Titles
● List of Maps, Illustrations, and Figures
● List of Tables
● List of Acronyms
● EIA Preparers

2.Executive Summary

3. Executive Summary

4. Acknowledgment

5.(Chap.1) Introduction-

○ Background Information
○ Objectives of the EIA
○ Scope of the EIA
○ Administrative and Legal Framework
○ Federal Regulations / Guidelines, State Regulations, and
International Conventions and Guidelines
○ The EIA Premises/ Process
○ Terms of Reference (TOR)
○ Structure of the Report
○ Declaration
 6. (Chap.2) Project justification
○ Need for the project
○ Value for the project
○ Envisaged sustainability

7. (Chap.3) Project and/or process description

○ Type (e.g. petroleum tank farm)

○ Input and output of raw materials and products
○ Location
○ Technological Layout
○ Production process
○ Project operation and maintenance
○ Project schedule

8. (Chap.4) Description of the Environment including data

acquisition

● Study approach
● Baseline data acquisition methods
● Geographical location
● Field data
● Climatic conditions
● Air quality assessments
● Noise level assessment
● Vegetation cover characteristics
● Potential land use and landscape patterns
● Groundwater resources
● Socio-economic studies
● Infrastructural services
9. (Chap.5)Associated and Potential Environmental Impacts

○ Impact prediction methodology

○ Significant positive impacts
○ Significant negative impacts
○ Site preparation and construction impacts
○ Transportation impacts
○ Raw materials impacts
○ Process impacts
○ Project-specific environmental changes (if any)
○ Project-specific cumulative effects
○ Project-specific long/short term effects
○ Project-specific reversible/irreversible effects
○ Project-specific direct/indirect effects
○ Project-specific adverse/beneficial effects
○ Project-specific risk and hazard assessments

10. (Chap.6) Mitigation measures/alternatives

○ Best available control technology/best practicable technology

○ Liability compensation/resettlement
○ Site alternative, location/routes
○ No project option
○ Insert a table listing impacts with mitigation measures
○ Compliance with health, safety and hazard requirements

11.(Chap.7) Environmental Management Plan (EMP)

○ Scope of monitoring
○ Parameters to be monitored
○ Methodology
 ○ Monitoring schedule

12. (Chap.8) Remediation plans after decommissioning/closure

13. (Chap.9) Conclusion and Recommendations

14. Bibliography

15. Appendices

Major Methodologies for EIA The methodologies can be broadly divided into five
types on the basis of impact identification strength. 1. Adhoc methods 2.
Matrices methods 3. Network methods 4. Overlays methods 5. Environmental
index using factor analysis 6. Cost/benefit analysis

Adhoc Method Ad hoc methods indicate broad areas of possible impacts by

listing composite environmental parameters (Ex: flora and fauna) likely to be
affected by the proposed activity. These methods involve assembling a team of
specialists who identify impacts in their area of expertise. Here, each parameter
is considered separately and the natures of impacts (long term or short term,
reversible or irreversible) are considered. These methods give a rough
assessment of total impact while giving the broad areas and the general nature
of possible impacts. In this method, the assessor relies on an intuitive approach
and makes a broad-based qualitative assessment. This method serves as a
preliminary assessment and helps in identification of important areas like: 1.
Wildlife 2. Endangered species 3. Natural vegetation 4. Exotic vegetation 5.
Grazing 6. Social characteristics 7. Natural drainage 8. Groundwater 9. Noise
10. Air quality 11. Visual description and services 12. Open space 13.
Recreation 14. Health and safety 15. Economic values and 16. Public facilities
Types of Ad hoc method are: a) Opinion poll b) Expert opinion and c) Delphi
methods This method is very simple and can be performed without any training.
It does not involve any relative weighting or any cause-effect relationship. It
provides minimal guidance for impact analysis while suggesting broad areas for
possible impacts. Moreover, it does not even state the actual impacts on specific
parameters that will be affected. The drawbacks of this method are listed below:
1. It gives no assurance that a comprehensive set of all relevant impacts have
been studied. 2. Analysis using this method lacks consistency as it different
criteria are selectively evaluated by different groups. 3. It is blatantly inefficient
as it requires a considerable effort to identify and assemble a panel for each
assessment.

Methods of EIA

Methods of EIA

Listed below are the important methodologies for assessing the impacts of any
developmental activity on the environment:
 1. Adhoc method
2. Checklist method
3. Matrix method
4. Network method
5. Overlay method
6. Environmental index using factor analysis
7. Cost/Benefit analysis
8. Predictive or Simulation methods

These methods might vary from:

Simple to Complex

Static piece-meal approach to Dynamic nature of the environment

The change in EIA is moving away from a simple listing of potential impacts to complex
modes involving identification of feedback paths leading to higher order impacts as
compared to the easily visible first order impacts involving uncertainities. This approach can
be considered as an overall management technique requiring different

kinds of data in different formats along with varying levels of expertise and technological
inputs to accurately forecast the results of any planned development.
 1. Ad hoc methods

Ad hoc methods indicate broad areas of possible impacts by listing composite environmental
parameters (Ex: flora and fauna) likely to be affected by the proposed activity.

These methods involve assembling a team of specialists who identify impacts in their area of
expertise. Here, each parameter is considered separately and the nature of impacts (long
term or short term, reversible or irreversible) are considered.

These methods give a rough assessment of total impact while giving the broad areas and
the general nature of possible impacts. In this method, the assessor relies on an intuitive
approach and makes a broad-based qualitative assessment. This method serves as a
preliminary assessment and helps in identification of important areas like:

● Wildlife
● Endangered species
● Natural vegetation
● Exotic vegetation
● Grazing
● Social characteristics
● Natural drainage
 ● Groundwater
● Noise
● Air quality
● Visual description and services
● Open space
● Recreation
● Health and safety
● Economic values and
● Public facilities

Types of Ad hoc method are:

● Opinion poll
● Expert opinion and
● Delphi methods

This method is very simple and can be performed without any training. It does not involve
any relative weighting or any cause-effect relationship.

It provides minimal guidance for impact analysis while suggesting broad areas for possible
impacts. Moreover, it does not even state the actual impacts on specific parameters that will
be affected.
The drawbacks of this method are listed below:

1. It gives no assurance that a comprehensive set of all relevant impacts have been
studied
2. Analysis using this method lacks consistency as it different criteria are selectively
evaluated by different groups
3. It is blatantly inefficient as it requires a considerable effort to identify and assemble a
panel for each assessment.

2. Checklist method

In this method, environmental factors are listed in a structured format by giving importance
weightings for factors and application of scaling techniques for impacts of each alternative.

Checklists are strong indicators of impact identification. They effectively garner the attention
and awareness of their audience. Impact identification is a fundamental function of an EIA.
Checklists may be:

1. Simple
2. Descriptive
3. Scaling or
4. weighting type

Simple checklists are a list of parameters without guidelines regarding either interpretation
or measurement of environmental parameters or specific data needs or impact prediction
and assessment.
Descriptive checklists include list of environmental factors along with information on
measurement, impact prediction and assessment.

Scaling and weighting checklists facilitate decision making. Such checklists are strong in
impact identification. While including the function of impact identification, they include a
certain degree of interpretation and evaluation. The aforementined factors make these
methods attractive to decision-making analysis.

However, the scaling and weighting methods are subjective and hence pose the danger of
imparting equal importance to every impact. Another defect observed by critics is that
numerical values assigned to impacts can be derived on the basis of expert knowledge and
judgement alone.

Scaling and weighting checklist techniques quantify impacts reasonably well although they
use subjective extimates. However, they make no provision for assessing dynamic
probabilistic trends or mitigation, enhancement and monitoring programmes. These
methods cannot identify higher order effects, impacts and interactions.

Simple and descriptive checklists simply identify the possible potential impacts without any
rating regarding their relative magnitudes.
Scaling and weighting checklists remove decision making from the hands of decision makers
while they impart a single number to various inherently different impacts and this aspect
prevents the decision maker to consider the possibility of trade-offs.

In checklist method, the impacts are tabulated in the form of cells with information either in
the descriptive form that gives information regarding possibility or potential existence of an
impact whereas in the scaling or weighing methods the magnitude or importance of impact
is given. Sample checklists or weighing methods used in EIA are shown below:
The advantages of this method are:

1. It is simple to understand and use

2. It is good for site selection and priority setting

Disadvantages of this method are:

1. It does not distinguish between direct and indirect impacts

2. It does not link action and impact
3. It is cumbersome at times
3. Matrix Method

This methodology provides a framework of interaction of different activities of a project with

potential environmental impacts caused by them. A simple interaction matrix is formed
when project actions are listed on one axis (usually vertical) and environmental impacts are
listed along the other axis. This technique was pioneered by Leopold et al in 1971. It lists
about 100 project actions and about 88 environmental charateristics and conditions. An
example of this matrix is shown below:

Similarly, a sectoral matrix is shown below:

 ● The advantage of the matrix method is that it links action to impact
● This is a very good method for displaying EIA results

The disadvantages of this method are listed below:

 ● It is difficult to distinguish between direct and indirect impacts using this method
● There is potential for double-counting of impacts
● It is qualitative in nature and does not refer to quantity of impact

4. Network method:

● This method uses the matrix approach and extends it to include both the primary as
well as the secondary impacts
● It is shown in the form of a tree called impact tree. This diagram is also called as
reference or sequence diagram
● Identification of direct, indirect along with short, long term impact is a crucial and
basic step of making an impact tree
● The impact tree is used to identify cause-effect linkages
● The impact tree is a visual description of linkages
● The diagram below shows the example of a network analysis:
The advantages of the network method are:

● It links action to impact

● It is useful to check second order impacts in a simplified form
● It handles direct and indirect impacts
The disadvantages of this method are:

● It becomes overly complex if used beyond simplified version

● It is completely qualitative in nature

5. Overlays

● This method depends on a set of maps of a project area's environmental

characteristics covering physical, social, ecological and aesthetic aspects
● It enables separate mapping of critical environmental features at the same scale as
project's site plan (Ex: wetlands, steep slopes, soils, floodplains, bedrock outcrops,
wildlife habitats, vegetative communities, cultural resources, etc)
● In the old technique, environmental features were mappped on transparent plastic in
different colours
● Modern technique of the same activity is done using computer software, hardware,
data and skilled people. It is called GIS (Geographic Information Systems)

The advantages of this method are:

● It is easy to understand and use

● It has a good display and
● It is good for setting site selection

The disadvantages of this method are:

● It addresses only direct impacts

● It does not address impact duration or probability
Some possible impacts on the air environment at the meso or micro-scale

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is a process of evaluating and identifying

potential impacts of a proposed action on the environment, including the air
environment. The meso and micro scale refers to the level of detail examined when
considering air pollutants. Meso-scale looks at broader areas such as cities or regions,
whereas, the micro-scale concentrates on smaller and more localized areas.

Some possible impacts on the air environment at the meso or micro-scale that may be
considered by EIA include:

- Air pollutant emissions: A proposed action, such as construction or industrial activities,

may release air pollutants from dust, vehicles, machinery, or industrial processes. EIA
would evaluate the type and quantity of pollutants, their dispersion, and how they may
affect people, plants, and animals in the surrounding area.

- Air quality impacts: Emissions from a proposed action may result in degraded air
quality, which can lead to adverse health effects, visibility impairment, and other
environmental impacts. EIA would assess the impacts on air quality, including the
concentration and duration of pollutants in the air.

- Noise impacts: Some proposed actions involve activities that generate noise, such as
construction equipment, machinery, or transportation vehicles. EIA would consider the
potential impact of noise on human health, animal behavior, and other environmental
conditions.

- Climate change impacts: Some actions may produce greenhouse gases that
contribute to climate change, such as carbon dioxide or methane. EIA would evaluate
the amount of these gases produced and their potential impact on the environment and
human health.

Overall, EIA is a valuable process that helps identify and mitigate environmental
impacts of proposed actions. By evaluating impacts on air quality, noise, and climate
change, EIA can help ensure that the proposed action is carried out sustainably and
does not harm the environment.
the possible environmental impacts of a proposed action on water at meso and
micro scale:
It can include:

1. Water quality: The proposed action may disrupt the water quality due to increased
sedimentation, erosion, soil runoff, chemical contamination, and sewage discharge.

2. Hydrology: The proposed action may alter the natural hydrology of the water
environment by affecting the flow patterns, water distribution, and water availability.

3. Flora and Fauna: The proposed action may have an adverse effect on the aquatic
ecosystem, including the disruption of the flora and fauna, reduction of biodiversity, and
disturbance of the breeding and migration patterns.

4. Water security: The proposed action may affect the availability of water resources for
human consumption, agriculture, and other non-aquatic activities.

5. Climate change: The proposed action may contribute to climate change by increasing
greenhouse gas emissions, altering the carbon and nitrogen cycle, and changing the
temperature regime.

6. Public Health: The proposed action may pose a risk to public health by contaminating
water resources, causing water-related diseases, or disturbing the natural balance of
the ecosystem, which can indirectly affect human health.

Overall, an EIA should provide a comprehensive analysis of the potential environmental

impacts associated with a proposed action on water at meso and micro scale. The
impact assessment should consider the various water quality parameters, hydrological
characteristics, ecological attributes, and social and economic dimensions that may be
affected by the proposed action.
Possible impacts of a proposed action on land environment at meso and micro
scale according to EIA:

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) studies are conducted to assess the potential
environmental impacts of proposed development projects and the possible measures
that could be taken to mitigate those impacts. The following are some possible impacts
of a proposed action on land environment at the meso and micro scales:

1. Land degradation: The construction of roads, bridges, railways or other infrastructure

can lead to soil erosion, deforestation, destruction of wetlands or changes in the
hydrology of the land. These activities can cause damage to the land and the natural
habitat of plants and animals.

2. Soil quality degradation: The construction of structures, roadways, pipelines and

other underground utilities can disturb soil quality, compaction, and structure, which
might disrupt crucial biological organisms and processes within the soil, ultimately
impacting the crops in the area.

3. Habitat fragmentation: The development activities may result in fragmentation and

isolation of natural habitats, making it challenging for flora and fauna to live sustainably,
conduct pollination activities, and complete their lifecycles.

4. Air and noise pollution: The proposed development projects can produce noise and
air pollution from various sources such as engine emissions, transportation activities,
and construction equipment. Such pollution can adversely affect the local environment
and human health.

5. Land use changes: The proposed project can bring about changes in the land use
pattern, leading to the transformation of forests or other types of wild terrains into urban
settlements. This transformation of land use can result in loss of natural habitats and
depletion of natural resources.

4. Depletion of natural resources: The destruction of natural habitats can lead to

depletion of natural resources such as water, soil, and minerals. It can also lead to the
destruction of farmlands and other arable lands used for crops, leading to reduced food
production and increased environmental degradation.

Therefore, an EIA helps to evaluate the possible negative impacts of a proposed

development project on the land environment and identify ways to mitigate these
effects.
Impacts on biodiversity:

The impacts of a proposed project on biodiversity and functional balance of an

ecosystem must be evaluated through an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). The
following are some possible impacts that a proposed project may have on biodiversity
and ecosystem function:

1. Habitat destruction or fragmentation: The construction of infrastructure or clearing of

land may lead to fragmentation or destruction of natural habitats, limiting the ability of
organisms to find and utilize resources necessary to survive.

2. Disruption of migration or reproduction: Disruptions of seasonal movements,

reproduction, or life cycles in different species could have a negative effect on
biodiversity.

3. Introduction of invasive species: new infrastructure may introduce invasive plants or

animals that can displace native species, reducing biodiversity.

4. Pollution and contamination: Polluted air, soil, or water can harm plants and animals,
making their development difficult or outrightly killing them, which affects the balance of
the ecosystem.

5. Climate and weather changes: A proposed project may cause changes in climate and
weather patterns, which can lead to shifts in ecosystems, creating stress on different
animals and plants' populations.

6. Changes to water flow or quality: Construction of infrastructure such as dams may

change water flow and quality, affecting aquatic biodiversity.

7. Overexploitation of resources: Overuse of natural resources could lead to a decrease

in biodiversity and the loss of important plant and animal species.

It is essential to know that the severity and extent of these impacts depend on the
specifics of the project, geographical location, timing, and other factors. Environmental
Impact Assessment must be carried out to determine the specific impacts a proposed
project may have on biodiversity and ecosystems.
Impacts on socio-culture and economic pattern:

some possible impacts of a proposed project on the socio-cultural and economic

patterns of the surrounding population according to the Environmental Impact
Assessment (EIA) process.

Firstly, a proposed project might bring positive socio-cultural impacts to the surrounding
population. For instance, the project might create employment opportunities for the local
residents, help to mitigate poverty and improve their living standards. Besides, the
project may also bring new infrastructure, such as schools or hospitals, which could
improve the quality of life of the locals, and provide new economic opportunities for
businesses or entrepreneurs in the area.

On the other hand, a proposed project might also bring negative socio-cultural impacts
to the surrounding population. For example, the project might cause displacement and
resettlement of local residents, leading to adverse impacts on their social ties and
cultural heritage. The project may also cause environmental degradation which might
negatively affect the cultural practices of the local communities.

Moreover, a proposed project might also bring economic impacts, whether positive or
negative, to the surrounding population. The project may contribute to the local
economy by creating job opportunities and providing new infrastructure for businesses.
However, the project may also affect the local economy by redirecting resources from
traditional industries, such as agriculture or fishing, to the new project. This could have
a negative impact on the local economy.

In summary, the EIA process is designed to assess the potential impacts of a proposed
project on the surrounding population's socio-cultural and economic patterns. Its aim is
to identify potential impacts and provide recommendations on how to mitigate them, so
the project can bring about benefits to the local communities while minimizing negative
impacts.
life cycle assessment (LCA) of thermal power: it typically involves analyzing the
environmental impacts of the power generation process from the extraction of raw materials to
the disposal of waste products. Thermal power plants use various fuels, such as coal, natural
gas, and oil, to generate electricity through a process of combustion.

The LCA of thermal power considers the environmental impact of each stage of the power
generation process. The following are some of the main stages in the life cycle of thermal
power:

Fuel extraction and transportation: This stage involves the extraction of fossil fuels and their
transportation to the power plant. The environmental impacts of this stage include air and water
pollution, habitat destruction, and greenhouse gas emissions.

Fuel preparation and combustion: This stage involves the preparation of the fuel, such as
pulverizing coal, and the combustion of the fuel to generate heat. The environmental impacts of
this stage include air pollution, water pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions.

Electricity generation and distribution: This stage involves the generation of electricity through
the use of turbines and generators and the distribution of the electricity through a power grid.
The environmental impacts of this stage include the use of natural resources, land use, and
emissions of pollutants.

Waste disposal: This stage involves the disposal of waste products from the power generation
process, such as ash, sludge, and other byproducts. The environmental impacts of this stage
include air and water pollution and the release of greenhouse gases.

Overall, the LCA of thermal power shows that the environmental impacts of this form of power
generation are significant and can have negative effects on the environment and human health.
However, advances in technology and the use of cleaner fuels, such as natural gas and
renewable energy sources, can help reduce the environmental impact of thermal power.
Life cycle assessment of roads and highways:

The life cycle assessment (LCA) of roads and highways typically involves evaluating the
environmental impacts of the road construction, maintenance, and disposal process. The LCA
considers the various stages in the life cycle of roads and highways, including the extraction of
raw materials, the manufacturing of construction materials, the construction process, and the
maintenance and disposal of the roads.

Raw material extraction: The raw materials used for road construction include aggregates,
asphalt, concrete, and steel. The environmental impacts of this stage include habitat
destruction, water and air pollution, and energy consumption.

Manufacturing of construction materials: The manufacturing of construction materials involves

the production of asphalt, concrete, and steel. The environmental impacts of this stage include
energy consumption, water and air pollution, and the generation of waste materials.

Road construction: The construction of roads involves excavation, grading, and paving. The
environmental impacts of this stage include soil erosion, habitat destruction, water and air
pollution, and the emission of greenhouse gases.

Road maintenance: Road maintenance involves repairs, resurfacing, and rehabilitation. The
environmental impacts of this stage include energy consumption, the generation of waste
materials, and the emission of greenhouse gases.

Road disposal: At the end of their useful life, roads and highways are typically demolished and
the materials are disposed of in landfills. The environmental impacts of this stage include habitat
destruction, energy consumption, and the generation of waste materials.

Overall, the LCA of roads and highways shows that their environmental impact is significant,
and they can have negative effects on the environment and human health. However, advances
in technology and the use of sustainable construction practices, such as using recycled
materials, can help reduce the environmental impact of roads and highways.