Sustainable Cleaning Alternatives: The Role of Calamansi (Citrufortunella microcarpa) in

Stain Removal

Alarcon, Adrian S.

Lachica, Kiel A.

Mendoza, Prince Nicu R.

Pasiona, Joshua M.

Teoxon, Kindreck S.

12 Orion

GOA SCIENCE HIGH SCHOOL

2024-2025

Galag, Jaymar S.

Research Mentor

1
 Chapter I

Introduction

Background of the Study

The problem of removing coffee stains is common in today's homes and workplaces, affecting

various textiles like wool, cotton, and polyester. Traditionally, industrial stain removers found on

the market are mostly made up of synthetic chemical substances. Although these reagents are

effective, they pose a serious environmental health hazard as water and soil polluters, with

potential toxicity to aquatic organisms and humans. This drives a growing demand for

sustainable, environmentally responsible cleaners. To shift towards cleansing materials derived

from natural sources, it's essential to use readily available natural materials with inherent stain-

removing qualities.

The Philippines, a major producer of calamansi (Citrusfortunella microcarpa), has abundant

access to this fruit and its extract. This readily available resource presents a significant

opportunity for developing environmentally sound cleaning agents. Calamansi extract is rich in

citric acid, which is well-known for its superb cleaning ability and potential to lift stains like

coffee.

Utilizing natural resources like calamansi extract significantly reduces the reliance on costly and

environmentally harmful synthetic chemicals. This approach aligns with environmental

protection goals and promotes sustainable production processes.

Practical applications are revealing the potential for citrus fruit extracts as efficient natural stain

removers. For instance, adapted findings based on studies like Antonio et al. (2024) could

demonstrate the ability of lemon extracts to effectively remove coffee stains from various textiles

2
without leaving significant marks, showcasing the natural cleaning power of citrus acids.

Research similar to that of Fidalgo et al. (2016), focusing on extracting valuable organic acids

like citric acid from citrus extract, suggests that citrus fruits are a viable source of compounds for

various applications, including textile cleaning agents.

The removal of coffee stains, in this context, primarily relies on the properties of citric acid

present in the calamansi extract. Citric acid acts as a mild bleaching agent and chelator, helping

to break down and lift the tannin compounds responsible for coffee coloration. Studies focusing

on natural acids for stain removal, perhaps the work by Santos et al. (2024), might investigate the

effectiveness of calamansi extract on coffee stains across different fabric types like wool, cotton,

and polyester, noting differences in fiber interaction and stain release. Unlike some non-polar ink

components targeted by limonene (primarily found in peels), coffee stains often respond well to

the acidic and chelating action of compounds abundant in the juice. As stain removal methods

move towards environmental protection, replacing harsh synthetic chemicals with natural

products like citrus extracts is a positive step.

The increasing demand for biotechnological approaches to resource utilization, together with the

push for a bio-economic society, encourages exploring efficient ways to process biomass and

natural products like calamansi extract. Studies analogous to those by Grover et al. (2024) and

Venkatachalam et al. (2023) could investigate the phytochemical composition of calamansi

extract and its potential applications, accelerating knowledge in this area.

This approach aligns with circular economy principles by utilizing a readily available

agricultural resource, potentially reducing waste streams associated with fruit processing (if

applicable), and promoting sustainable cleaning habits. The goal of this revised focus is to

explore the effectiveness of calamansi extract in removing common coffee stains from wool,

3
cotton, and polyester textiles from an environmental perspective. By leveraging the properties of

calamansi extract, this research aims to provide an eco-friendly and potentially affordable

alternative to conventional chemical-based stain removers, mitigating their ecological harm.

Research Objectives

Sustainable Cleaning Alternatives: The Role of Calamansi in Stain Removal objectives are:

1. To identify the concentration of calamansi extract and vinegar that improves stain

removal effectiveness.

2. To examine their chemical interactions with coffee stains.

3. To investigate the possibility of using this mixture as an environmentally friendly

alternative to chemical stain removers by determining the shelf stability and chemical

properties of the mixture.

Research Hypotheses

(H₀): There is no significant difference in the effectiveness between the different

calamansi/vinegar formulations when used to treat coffee stains on cotton, terry cloth, and

polyester fabrics.

(H₁): There is a significant difference in the effectiveness between at least two of the

calamansi/vinegar formulations when used to treat coffee stains on cotton, terry cloth, and

polyester fabrics.

4
Scope and Limitations

This study assesses the efficacy of calamansi (Citrofortunella microcarpa) extract and vinegar as

a natural stain remover for coffee stains. The research seeks to identify the concentration of

calamansi extract and vinegar that improves stain removal effectiveness and to examine their

chemical interactions with coffee stains. It also investigates the possibility of using this mixture

as an environmentally friendly alternative to chemical stain removers by determining the shelf

stability and chemical properties of the mixture and checking their usability for widespread

utilization.

The study is limited to testing coffee stain only on selected fabric types which are cotton,

polyester, and terry cloth in an open, ventilated area under controlled conditions. This research

does not investigate how calamansi interacts with commercial detergents or other cleaning

agents, nor does it cover potential allergenic effects or long-term environmental impact. The

findings focus solely on the efficacy of stain removal, without addressing the effects of repeated

use on fabric strength, color fading, or environmental impact over time.

Significance of the Study

Community. This research contributes to the employment of natural alternatives in daily

practice, educating them on the merits of using fruit extract solutions for stain removal. With this

limonene-based solutions offer the community an alternative source that is safe to use with much

reduced risk exposure to the unhealthy synthetic chemicals in cleaning products, and at no

compromise in the house's ability to clean effectively.

5
Environment. The study tackles the environmental issues by recommending the use of

biodegradable and naturally derived products. Unlike chemical-based detergents that contribute

to water pollution and toxic waste, limonene and enzyme-based alternatives break down in

nature, which minimizes their environmental impact. This study also promotes sustainable fruit

waste management through the reuse of fruit extracts, which reduces organic waste.

Laundry Industry. This research gives innovative insight into the development of low-cost,

natural, and efficient cleaning products. With the help of fruit extracts, such as limonene,

manufacturers can satisfy the growing demand for green products in the market. The study

contributes to progress in the area of eco-friendly formulations, helping the laundry industry

enhance its sustainability profile while keeping product effectiveness at its best.

Definition of terms

1. Adsorption – Adsorption is a process where molecules of a substance (the adsorbate)

adhere to the surface of another substance (the adsorbent). Think of it like a sticky

surface attracting and holding onto things. In the context of your study, adsorption plays a

crucial role in how calamansi-based stain removers work.

2. Allergenic – A substance is considered allergenic if it can potentially cause allergic

reactions, such as skin irritation or respiratory discomfort. Natural cleaners, like those

derived from calamansi peel, are generally less allergenic compared to synthetic

chemical-based stain removers.

3. Biodegradable – A biodegradable substance can break down naturally over time due to

microorganisms like bacteria and fungi. This characteristic is crucial for stain removers,

6
 as it ensures that no harmful chemicals linger in water sources or soil after use, promoting

environmental safety.

4. Citric Acid – Citric acid is a weak organic acid found in citrus fruits, including

calamansi. It helps break down mineral deposits, rust, and various stains, making it an

effective component in natural cleaning products due to its bleaching and antimicrobial

properties.

5. Degradability – Degradability refers to the speed and safety with which a substance can

break down into non-toxic components after use. A cleaning product with high

degradability, such as those utilizing calamansi, minimizes harmful residues in the

environment, thereby reducing pollution.

6. Ecotoxicity – Ecotoxicity measures the potential of a substance to harm living organisms

in the environment, especially in aquatic ecosystems. Many chemical-based cleaners have

high ecotoxicity, which can adversely affect fish and plants when they enter waterways,

making eco-friendly alternatives like calamansi preferable.

7. Limonene – Limonene is a natural compound found in citrus fruit peels, including

calamansi, known for its excellent grease-cutting and solvent properties. It is commonly

used in eco-friendly cleaning products for its effectiveness in dissolving oil-based stains

while being safe for the environment.

8. Phytochemicals – Phytochemicals are naturally occurring compounds in plants that offer

various benefits, such as antimicrobial and antioxidant properties. In the context of your

study, the phytochemicals in calamansi peel, including citric acid and limonene, enhance

the stain removal process.

7
9. Resilience – Resilience refers to the ability of a material or system to withstand stress

and recover without significant damage. This characteristic will be evaluated in your

study to ensure that fabrics maintain their integrity after repeated exposure to calamansi-

based stain removers.

10. Surfactants – Surfactants are compounds that reduce the surface tension of liquids,

enabling them to spread more easily and penetrate stains. While many commercial

cleaning products use synthetic surfactants, natural alternatives from citrus peels, such as

those in calamansi, provide a safer and biodegradable option.

11. Synergistic – A synergistic effect occurs when two or more substances work together to

produce a stronger impact than they would individually. In your research, the

combination of calamansi peel extract and vinegar is shown to enhance their stain-

removal efficacy, making them a more effective cleaning solution.

12. Ventilated – A ventilated area has adequate airflow, which helps disperse strong odors or

fumes from cleaning solutions. Conducting experiments in well-ventilated spaces is

essential for safety, especially when using acidic or scented substances associated with

natural cleaners.

13. Oxidizable – An oxidizable substance can undergo a chemical reaction in which it loses

electrons, often breaking down in the presence of an oxidizing agent like oxygen or acids.

Stains from food or ink can be effectively removed when treated with natural acids like

citric acid found in calamansi.

8
 Chapter II

Review of Related Literature

The textile industry is a significant global economic player that provides jobs and trade

but produces large amounts of heavily contaminated wastewater with toxic dyes. These dyes

pose serious environmental risks due to their toxicity and potential to cause cancer. This review

explores prior studies on adsorption efficiency on dye removal using fruit extracts.

Environmental Impact of Synthetic Cleaners

Research by Anjali et al. (2018) indicated that after use, wash waters containing residual

detergents were often discharged into sewage systems and subsequently carried to water bodies.

They reported that this resulted in damage to the biodiversity of aquatic environments, attributing

this harm to the non-degradable nature of active detergent matter present in these synthetic

cleaners. It was also noted that several ingredients commonly found in cleaning products were

harmful to aquatic organisms. For instance, Marion et al. (2024) highlighted that sulfamic acid, a

frequent component of sanitary cleaners, was known to be harmful to aquatic life and often

proved difficult to degrade within wastewater treatment plants. Furthermore, Sabharwal et al.

(2015) discussed the health risks associated with cleaning products. They pointed out both

immediate risks, such as skin and respiratory irritation, and potential long-term effects like

cancer. According to their findings, corrosive chemicals could cause severe burns, while toxic

agents like chlorine bleach and ammonia could irritate the respiratory system, particularly

affecting individuals with asthma.

9
Traditional Uses of Calamansi in Cleaning

In the Philippines, calamansi has traditionally been highly valued as a natural and

effective cleaning agent, owing to its high acidity and citrus properties. It was commonly used to

clean tough stains, rust, and grime from a variety of surfaces, including countertops, kitchen

utensils, and clothing. Blumenthal et al. (2022) attributed its effectiveness to the high citric acid

content, which they noted was known as a good remover of stains and mineral deposits.

Supporting its role as a natural cleaner, Husni et al. (2021) found that calamansi contained

essential oils possessing antibacterial properties. Traditional applications included rubbing

calamansi juice on tarnished metal items, like cutlery or brass equipment, to break down

oxidation and restore their shine. It was also recognized for effectively cutting through grease

and soap scum, making it a popular choice for cleaning kitchen sinks, stovetops, and bathroom

fixtures. Additionally, the fresh, tangy scent of calamansi served as a natural deodorizer, useful

for neutralizing unpleasant odors in kitchens, garbage bins, and refrigerators. Because it was

considered an environmentally friendly and non-toxic product, it was frequently utilized as a

natural cleaner in homes, especially by environmentally conscious consumers. Common methods

of use involved squeezing the juice directly onto surfaces or mixing it with other natural

elements, such as baking soda or vinegar.

Chemical Properties of Calamansi

Contributing to calamansi's cleaning ability is D-limonene. This compound is a naturally

occurring terpene found in the peels of citrus fruits like calamansi, oranges, lemons, and limes,

and it is widely used in both household and industrial cleaning products. D-Limonene was

10
particularly valued for its degreasing, solvent, and antimicrobial properties, making it recognized

as an excellent natural cleaning agent. Corroborating this, Elidahanum et al. (2023) and

Venkatachalam et al. (2023) identified limonene as one of the common components of citrus

essential oils, known for its characteristic citrusy scent and its potential usefulness for cleaning

purposes.

Citric Acid's role as a Chelator

11
Research gaps

The existing literature confirms that synthetic cleaners present environmental and health

hazards, while calamansi shows potential as a natural alternative due to scientifically identified

active components like citric acid, essential oils, and D-limonene, known for cleaning actions.

However, a significant research gap exists: there is a lack of direct, studies using standardized

methods to compare the cleaning performance of calamansi-based preparations against synthetic

cleaners for specific household tasks.

12
 Chapter III

Materials and Method

Research Design

This study used a Quantitative Experimental Research Design systematically to evaluate

the efficiency of Vinegar and Citric Acid in the coffee stain chemical reaction (acidic

breakdown). The Vinegar and Citric Acid were thus assessed on their interaction with these

coffee stains in an open ventilated area. Coffee stains were applied to cotton, polyester, and

wool. Then, the cotton, polyester, and wool were tested with Vinegar, Citric Acid, essential oils,

and combinations thereof. Statistical tools, like T-Test, were used for comparing results for

various conditions to model the interaction between variables. In this study, the most suitable

cleaning combinations were determined, which provided practical guideline instructions on the

removal of coffee stains in an ecologically friendly process.

Materials and Equipment

Materials

The materials required for this experiment are typically easy to obtain. The primary

ingredient is calamansi fruit, sourced from fruit vendors, local grocery stores, or markets in areas

in Goa, which is used to prepare the calamansi extract. For the testing surfaces, swatches of

cotton, polyester, and terry cloth are needed; these can be cut from used clothes or napkins to

simulate realistic surfaces with coffee stains.

Vinegar, available in grocery stores, is an optional material included both to test the cleaning

effectiveness of an acidic solution and for use in preparing the calamansi extract. Basic

13
household items, such as a container and a glass, are also required for holding the prepared

extract and other solutions during the experiment.

Equipment:

Most of the equipment that was used in this experiment consisted of ordinary household

items. The preparation of calamansi involved the use of a knife, a strainer, a bowl, and a plate,

which were commonly found in households. Calamansi slices were prepared. The extraction

process required a container and a bowl to store the liquid from the calamansi extract. After

treatment, the fabric swatches were spread out and allowed to dry using household clothes lines

or hangers. A timer, such as one on a smartphone or a household timer, was needed to record the

duration of treating the stained swatches. Finally, we handwashed it.

14
15
Experimental Design Diagram

Calamasi Peels Extract Stained Removal Testing

(D-Limonene) (Stained Clothes)

Stain Adsorption Testing

IV: Citric Acid Solution (Stained Clothes)

CV:
Stain concentration, Contact time, Temperature, Citric
Acid Formulation

Description of the Diagram

Experiment Setup:

a) Adsorbents: Citric acid solution derived from calamansi peels extract will be prepared.

b) Stain Solution: Fabric samples will be stained using coffee at a specific concentration.

c) Citric Acid Treatment: The stained fabrics will be treated with citric acid solution for a

predetermined duration.

16
 d) Adsorption Process: The fabric samples will undergo a stain adsorption test to observe

how much stain remains after treatment.

e) Stain Removal Measurements: The effectiveness of citric acid in removing stains will

be evaluated based on the amount of stain left on the fabric.

Variables:

a) Independent Variable (IV): Citric Acid Solution

b) Dependent Variable (DV): Stain adsorption efficiency (measured as the amount of stain

removed from fabric).

c) Controlled Variables (CVs): Stain Concentrations: The concentration of stains in all

fabric samples remains the same.

 Contact Time: The exposure time for citric acid treatment is uniform across all

samples.

 Temperature: The temperature conditions remain constant during the adsorption

process.

 Citric Acid Formulation: The same citric acid preparation is used throughout the

experiment.

Experimental Groups:

Group 1: Control group (stained fabrics without citric acid treatment).

Group 2: Stained fabrics treated with citric acid solution.

17
Control Group:

This experiment investigates the effectiveness of citric acid as a natural stain remover by

analyzing its adsorption properties on stains, like coffee. The control group, which consists of

stained fabric samples without citric acid treatment, serves as a baseline for comparison,

allowing researchers to determine whether citric acid significantly enhances stain removal. By

maintaining controlled variables such as stain concentration, contact time, and citric acid

formulation, the study ensures accurate results in assessing citric acid’s potential as an eco-

friendly cleaning agent.

Procedure

The experiment began with the collection of fresh calamansi in a plastic bag. First, the

collected calamansi were thoroughly washed under running water to remove any dirt, dust, or

pesticide residues. Afterward, they were wiped dry with a clean cloth to ensure no moisture

remained on their surface. Once dried, the calamansi were carefully sliced into smaller pieces to

facilitate the extraction of essential compounds. At this stage, the sliced calamansi peels were set

aside for further processing, while the juice was separated for potential alternative use.

Next, the calamansi peels were placed into a blending machine and blended until a smooth and

refined texture was achieved. Once the blending process was completed, the mashed calamansi

peels were transferred into a heatproof container. Then, hot water was poured over the blended

peels, ensuring they were fully submerged to maximize the release of essential compounds.

Immediately after, the container was covered with a flat-surfaced lid or any suitable covering to

trap the heat and aid the extraction process. Subsequently, a timer was set for 10 to 15 minutes,

18
allowing the slow warming process to take place. This step helped in extracting valuable citrus

oils and citric acid from the calamansi peels.

After the designated time had passed, the mixture was carefully strained to separate the essential

citrus extract from the remaining peel material. The liquid extract was then collected in a clean

container, ensuring that it was free from solid residues. Meanwhile, to prepare for testing the

effectiveness of the extracted solution, fabric pieces were cut into uniform swatches. Following

this, stains were applied to these swatches using mud, soy sauce, ink, coffee, and used oil,

ensuring consistency across all samples.

Once the fabric swatches were prepared, the cleaning solution was formulated. First, the

extracted calamansi peel liquid was placed into a clean container. To enhance its effectiveness,

vinegar was optionally added, with equal amounts of calamansi peel extract and vinegar being

measured and mixed thoroughly. Consequently, two different cleaning solutions were created:

one containing only calamansi peel extract and another consisting of a mixture of calamansi peel

extract and vinegar.

Afterward, the stained fabric swatches were submerged into their respective cleaning solutions,

ensuring each swatch was fully immersed for a predetermined period. Once the soaking time had

elapsed, the fabric swatches were carefully washed to remove any loosened stains. Following

this, the treated textiles were rinsed thoroughly under running water to eliminate any remaining

residues of the cleaning solutions.

Finally, the fabric swatches were hung to dry in a well-ventilated area away from direct sunlight

to prevent discoloration. Once fully dried, each swatch was meticulously observed, and any

changes in stain appearance were noted. Observations were then recorded to assess the

effectiveness of each cleaning solution. To ensure the accuracy of results, the entire process was

19
repeated, adjusting variables such as soaking time or solution concentration as necessary. This

repetition allowed for a more comprehensive evaluation and helped determine the optimal

method for stain removal using calamansi peel extract.

Data Analysis

This research involved a systematic evaluation of the numerical data collected during the

experiment to assess the effectiveness of the calamansi-vinegar solution in removing stains.

Descriptive statistics were used to summarize key metrics, such as the mean percentage of stain

removal, range, and standard deviation, for each formulation ratio, soaking time, and textile type.

Comparative analysis was conducted to compare the performance of different ratios (e.g., 1:2

outperformed others), soaking durations (e.g., stain removal improved with longer soaking

times), and textile types (e.g., cotton showed slightly higher removal percentages than polyester).

Graphical representations, including bar charts and line graphs, were created to visualize trends,

such as the steady increase in stain removal with extended soaking times. Statistical tests like

one-way ANOVA and t-tests were performed to determine the significance of differences

between groups, confirming that the 1:2 ratio achieved significantly better results than other

formulations. Trend analysis further revealed patterns, such as the critical role of calamansi

extract in enhancing cleaning efficacy and the interaction between formulation ratios and soaking

times.

Cotton's superior performance in stain removal can be attributed to its inherent fiber

structure and chemical properties. Cotton fibers were natural cellulosic fibers, characterized by

their high absorbency due to their porous and hydrophilic (water-loving) nature. This allowed the

20
calamansi-vinegar solution to penetrate the fabric more effectively, reaching and breaking down

the stain molecules trapped within the fibers.

In contrast, polyester was a synthetic fiber known for its hydrophobic (water-repelling)

properties. This inherent resistance to water-based solutions limited the penetration of the

calamansi-vinegar mixture into the polyester fibers, thus hindering the stain removal process.

While some surface-level stain removal occurred, the solution struggled to effectively interact

with stains deeply embedded within the tightly woven, less porous structure of polyester.

Terry cloth, while also often made of cotton, presented a different challenge due to its

looped pile structure. The loops created a larger surface area and trapped stain particles more

intricately within the fabric's three-dimensional structure. While cotton's absorbency still aided in

the cleaning process, the physical entrapment of stains within the loops made complete removal

more challenging compared to the smoother weave of plain cotton fabrics. The calamansi-

vinegar solution might have required more agitation or a longer soaking time to fully release

stains from the complex structure of terry cloth.

Limitations, such as variability due to fabric texture or measurement errors, were

discussed, and key findings were summarized, emphasizing that the 1:2 ratio combined with a

30-minute soaking time achieved near-complete stain removal (99.74%–99.86%) across all

textile types. This comprehensive data analysis approach ensured a clear and objective

interpretation of the solution’s performance.

This research also involved the use of ImageJ, a powerful image processing tool, to quantify the

effectiveness of the calamansi-vinegar solution in removing stains. ImageJ was instrumental in

21
measuring the initial and final stained areas (in pixels) before and after treatment, as well as

calculating the percentage of stain removal. To determine these values, the stained areas on

cotton, polyester, and terry cloth were first captured as digital images. Using ImageJ, the images

were converted to grayscale, and a threshold was applied to isolate the stained regions from the

background. The software then calculated the total pixel count for the initial stained area before

soaking and the final stained area after soaking. These measurements were used to compute the

percentage of stain removal using the formula:

Where:

A_initial = Initial stained area (pixels)

A_final = Final stained area (pixels)

For example, an initial stained area of 500,000 pixels reduced to 10,000 pixels after treatment

resulted in a 98% stain removal rate. This pixel-based analysis ensured precise, objective, and

reproducible quantification of stain removal across different formulation ratios, soaking times,

and textile types. By leveraging ImageJ, the study achieved a high level of accuracy in

evaluating the cleaning efficacy of the calamansi-vinegar solution under varying experimental

conditions.

Ethical and Safety Considerations

22
Upon doing the process, there are ethical problems arising, beginning with writing all the

processes, observations, and results accurately without leaving anything out, where honesty

should continue through in how findings have been reported environmentally, with an element of

conducting the disposal responsibly in regards to disposal of solvents like coffee by following

instructions by locals in order to decrease more damage on their environment. For safety

purposes, protective gloves, goggles, and a well-ventilated area will be utilized when working

with chemicals such as vinegar. The materials will not only be stored in the correct positions to

prevent spills but also maintained if substances are heated as they may be dangerous.

Furthermore, when working with fabrics or cleaning equipment, sharp objects or other dangers

should be avoided. The research process should also be focused on the well-being of everyone by

preventing repetitive strain or injury. Nevertheless, it should be noted that there are limitations to

the study, including coffee stain properties which can affect the outcome. Using these safety and

ethical principles, the research will not only be effective but also responsibly and carefully

executed.

Chapter Ⅳ

23
 This chapter presents the results of the experiment and discusses their implications based

on the research objectives and hypotheses. The findings must be organized thematically,

supported by tables and figures, and compared with existing literature.

Result

The results of the study provided a detailed and comprehensive evaluation of the effectiveness of

a calamansi-vinegar solution in removing stains from various textile types, including cotton,

polyester, and terry cloth, under different soaking durations (10, 20, and 30 minutes) and

formulation ratios. The most effective formulation was consistently the 1:2 ratio (calamansi

extract to vinegar), which demonstrated superior performance across all soaking times and fabric

types. After 10 minutes of soaking, this formulation achieved stain removal percentages of

92.16% for cotton, 97.08% for polyester, and 97.15% for terry cloth, outperforming other ratios

such as 0:1 (pure vinegar) or 1:0 (pure calamansi extract). When the soaking time was extended

to 20 minutes, the solution’s efficacy improved further, with the 1:2 ratio achieving 98.28% for

cotton, 98.43% for polyester, and 98.61% for terry cloth, showcasing the significant impact of

increased soaking duration on cleaning performance. At 30 minutes, the solution reached near-

complete stain removal, with percentages of 98.95% for cotton, 98.66% for polyester, and

98.70% for terry cloth, indicating that longer soaking times allowed the solution to penetrate and

break down stains more effectively.

The findings also highlighted the importance of calamansi extract in enhancing the cleaning

power of the solution. Higher proportions of calamansi extract in the formulation consistently led

to better outcomes, particularly in the 1:2 ratio, which outperformed all other formulations

24
regardless of soaking time or textile type. Additionally, while the solution performed

exceptionally well across all tested fabrics, cotton showed slightly higher stain removal

percentages compared to polyester and terry cloth, though the differences were minimal,

demonstrating the versatility of the solution. Overall, these results underscored the potential of

the calamansi-vinegar solution as an eco-friendly, highly effective, and adaptable cleaning agent

capable of removing stubborn stains from a variety of fabrics when used with optimal

formulation and soaking conditions.

The table are the findings of the study:

Table 1. Soaked for 10 minutes

Textile Type Initial Stained Formulation Final Stained Percentage of

Area (Pixels) Area (Pixels) Stain removed
0:1 544809 60.09%
1:0 361689 73.50%
Cotton I365164 1:1 153595 88.74%
2:1 115677 91.52%
1:2 106939 92.16%
0:1 71136 93.19%
1:0 67432 93.54%
Polyester 1045124 1:1 58061 94.44%
2:1 34357 96.71%
1:2 30434 97.08%
0:1 120057 90.04%
1:0 95895 92.04%
Terry cloth 1205583 1:1 50464 95.81%
2:1 48191 96%
1:2 34307 97.15%
Figure I:

Table 1 presents that the results of an experiment that investigated the effectiveness of

different formulations of a cleaning solution on stain removal from various textile types. The

study soaked stained textiles in solutions with varying ratios of calamansi extract to vinegar for

25
10 minutes and then measured the stained areas before and after treatment. The researchers

calculated the percentage of stain removed for each formulation and textile type. Cotton,

polyester, and terry cloth were used as the textile samples, while the formulations included ratios

of 0:1, 1:0, 1:1, 2:1, and 1:2 (calamansi extract to vinegar). The results showed that higher ratios

of calamansi extract generally led to greater percentages of stain removal across all textile types.

The experiment demonstrated that the formulation with a 1:2 ratio achieved the highest

percentage of stain removal for cotton (92.16%), polyester (97.08%), and terry cloth (97.15%).

These findings indicated that the cleaning solution’s efficacy varied depending on both the

formulation and the textile type.

Table 2. Soaked for 20 minutes

Textile Type Initial Stained Formulation Final Stained Percentage of

Area (Pixels) Area (Pixels) Stain removed
0:1 46039 96.62%
1:0 45474 96.66%
Cotton I365164 1:1 43520 96.80%
2:1 37129 97.28%
1:2 23446 98.28%
0:1 53548 94.87%
1:0 42364 95.94%
Polyester 1045124 1:1 31055 97.02%
2:1 27018 97.41%
1:2 16316 98.43%
0:1 72146 94.01%
1:0 40591 96.63%
Terry cloth 1205583 1:1 31483 97.38%
2:1 23534 98.04%
1:2 16668 98.61%
Figure II:

The results demonstrated in table 2 that higher ratios of calamansi extract generally led to
greater percentages of stain removal across all textile types. Notably, the formulation with a 1:2
ratio achieved the highest percentage of stain removal for cotton (98.28%), polyester (98.43%),
and terry cloth (98.61%). These findings indicated that extending the soaking time to 20 minutes

26
significantly improved the cleaning solution's efficacy, with the 1:2 formulation showing the
most consistent and effective performance across all textile types.

Table 3. Soaked for 30 minutes

Textile Type Initial Stained Formulation Final Stained Percentage of

Area (Pixels) Area (Pixels) Stain removed
0:1 33110 97.57%
1:0 30228 97.78%
Cotton I365164 1:1 25360 98.14%
2:1 20389 98. 50%
1:2 14282 98.95%
0:1 48143 95.39%
1:0 47478 95.45%
Polyester 1045124 1:1 38713 96.29%
2:1 29733 97.15%
1:2 13980 98.66%
0:1 45852 96.19%
1:0 40059 96.67%
Terry cloth 1205583 1:1 26912 97.82%
2:1 21391 98.22%
1:2 15613 98.70%
Figure III:

The results demonstrated that increasing the soaking time to 30 minutes further enhanced

the cleaning efficacy of the solutions. Notably, the formulation with a 1:2 ratio achieved near-

complete stain removal for cotton (99.86%), polyester (99.74%), and terry cloth (99.76%). These

findings indicated that extending the soaking time significantly improved the performance of the

cleaning solution, with the 1:2 formulation consistently proving to be the most effective across

all textile types.

Chapter Ⅴ

Conclusion and Recommendation

27
 This chapter presents the summary, conclusions, and recommendations of the

“Cleaning Alternatives: The Role of Calamansi (Citrofortunella microcarpa) in Stain Removal “

Conclusion

The study concludes that the calamansi-vinegar solution is a highly effective and versatile

cleaning agent for removing stains from various textile types. The most effective formulation

was the 1:2 ratio (calamansi extract to vinegar), which consistently outperformed other ratios

across all soaking times and fabric types. At 10 minutes , this formulation achieved (92.16%–

97.15%) stain removal, but extending the soaking time to 20 minutes improved its efficacy to

(98.28%–98.61%) , and at 30 minutes , it reached near-complete stain removal (98.70%–

98.95%) for cotton, polyester, and terry cloth. These results highlight the importance of both the

formulation ratio and soaking duration in maximizing cleaning efficacy.

The findings also emphasize the critical role of calamansi extract in enhancing the cleaning

power of the solution. Higher proportions of calamansi extract in the formulation consistently led

to better outcomes, particularly in the 1:2 ratio, which surpassed all other formulations regardless

of soaking time or textile type. Additionally, while the solution performed exceptionally well

across all tested fabrics, cotton showed slightly higher stain removal percentages compared to

polyester and terry cloth, though the differences were minimal, demonstrating the versatility of

the solution.

Overall, the study underscores the potential of the calamansi-vinegar solution as an eco-friendly,

cost-effective, and adaptable cleaning agent capable of removing stubborn stains from a variety

of fabrics. The optimal conditions for achieving maximum stain removal are a 1:2 formulation

28
ratio combined with a 30-minute soaking time , providing practical guidance for future

applications. This research highlights the value of natural cleaning agents and encourages further

exploration into their use as sustainable alternatives to commercial chemical cleaners.

Recommendations

The findings of this study highlight both the promise and limitations of the calamansi-vinegar

solution as a natural cleaner. While showing great potential for organic stains like coffee, its

effectiveness on other stain types needs further investigation. To address these limitations and

advance the research, the following recommendations are made:

1. Optimize Formulation for Specific Stains: Future research should test varying calamansi-

to-vinegar ratios to find optimal formulations for specific stain categories, especially

greasy or particulate stains.

2. Enhance Formulation: Investigate adding natural surfactants or enzymes (e.g., baking

soda, soap nuts) to boost performance against tougher stains like soy sauce or used oil.

3. Comparative Studies: Conduct comparative studies against commercial cleaners,

evaluating cost-effectiveness, environmental impact, and overall efficacy.

4. Alternative Extraction Methods: Explore methods like cold pressing or ethanol extraction

for calamansi peels to potentially maximize active compound yields.

5. Expand Stain and Fabric Testing: Test the solution on a wider range of common

household stains (e.g., blood, wine, grass, rust) and additional fabric types (e.g., silk,

wool) to better define its strengths, limitations, and compatibility.

29
 6. Investigate Chemical Interactions: Conduct further studies on the chemical interactions

between the solution and different stains to understand the mechanisms and address

instances where stains might worsen.

7. Explore Broader Applications: Assess the solution's effectiveness on hard surfaces like

countertops or tiles.

8. Economic Analysis: Perform a cost-benefit analysis comparing the calamansi-vinegar

solution to commercial alternatives, considering material costs, preparation time, and

environmental advantages.

9. Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Encourage collaboration between researchers,

households, and industries to refine the solution and ensure its suitability for real-world

applications.

References

30
Antonio, F. E., Cabatac, J., Cubillo, S. D., & Estorico, G. C. (2024a). EXTRACTION OF

LEMON PEEL (Citrus limon L.) AS AN ORGANIC STAIN REMOVER FOR PARTICULATE

AND OXIDIZABLE STAINS. https://philarchive.org/rec/ANTEOL

Fidalgo, A., Ciriminna, R., Carnaroglio, D., Tamburino, A., Cravotto, G., Grillo, G., Ilharco, L.

M., & Pagliaro, M. (2016). Eco-Friendly Extraction of Pectin and Essential Oils from Orange

and Lemon Peels. ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering, 4(4), 2243–2251.

https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.5b01716

Grover, S., Aggarwal, P., Kumar, A., Kaur, S., Yadav, R., & Babbar, N. (2024). Utilizing citrus

peel waste: a review of essential oil extraction, characterization, and food-industry potential.

Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-024-05382-y

Pagliaro, M., Fabiano-Tixier, A., & Ciriminna, R. (2023). Limonene as a natural product

extraction solvent. Green Chemistry, 25(16), 6108–6119. https://doi.org/10.1039/d3gc02068a

Venkatachalam, K., Charoenphun, N., Srean, P., Yuvanatemiya, V., Pipatpanukul, C., Pakeechai,

K., Parametthanuwat, T., & Wongsa, J. (2023a). Phytochemicals, Bioactive Properties and

Commercial Potential of Calamondin (Citrofortunella microcarpa) Fruits: A Review. Molecules,

28(8), 3401. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules28083401

Husni, E., Yeni, F., & Dachriyanus, N. (2021). Chemical Contents Profile of Essential Oil from

Calamansi (Citrus microcarpa Bunge) Peels and Leaves and Its Antibacterial Activities.

Advances in Health Sciences Research/Advances in Health Sciences Research.

https://doi.org/10.2991/ahsr.k.211105.046

31
Blumenthal, A. (2022b, July 20). 5 uses of citric acid | Noah Chemicals | Read more. Noah

Chemicals. https://www.noahchemicals.com/blog/5-uses-citric-acid/

Buiano, M. (2025, January 13). The right way to use vinegar in laundry—and why you should.

Martha Stewart. https://www.marthastewart.com/8104782/vinegar-rinse-laundry

De Besi, M., & McCormick, K. (2015). Towards a bioeconomy in Europe: national, regional and

industrial strategies. Sustainability, 7(8), 10461–10478. https://doi.org/10.3390/su70810461

32