Who's the Best... Monster and/or Horror Artist?

Karen: Happy Halloween friends. Today we're talking about who's the best Bronze Age horror or monster artist. A lot of great names...Ploog, Wrightson, Colan instantly come to mind. Who's your choice for the top spot in comic book horror from the 70s/80s? And you can name others.

Bernie Wrightson

Mike Ploog

Gene Colan

Guest Writer - If I Had a Buck... Do the Monster Mash!

Doug: With apologies to our readers for the lack of a comic review today. I remarked to today's guest writer, the ever-helpful Martinex1 that at some point the speed of life was going to decrease. Not sure when that will be, but I'm looking forward to it whenever that does happen. So, until next Monday when Karen and I hope to have a partner review of the first appearance of the New Teen Titans, you're going to have to get your comics fix by discussing not nine but an even dozen books. And I think it's going to be a fun discussion, as ol' Mike S. has a good topic for us.

Mike S.: It is not Halloween, but it is time to consider the great horror titles of the past.   Enter the ever evolving virtual store for another $1.00 challenge of “If I Had A Buck”.   This time around we’ve got vampires, and werewolves, and ghouls, and monsters. 

Back in my youth, the comic rack seemed to be tipping with twisted tales.  Some were macabre anthologies of fear and suspense.  Others focused on creatures from the unknown.    There was quite a catalog of comics with misunderstood and tragic malcontents lurking about.  Many titles starred classic fiends that were repurposed as super heroes.  

What did you think about the horror heyday of the Bronze Age?   Did you lean toward the archetypal villains, the eerie heroes, or the hair raising tales?   Were any of these series dreadfully executed, or were they shockingly frightful?  Vile?  Ghastly?  Or Horrible?  Were there artists and writers you preferred for these types of tales?  Did the genre leave you cold or did you find balance in the heroic interplay?  How did you spend your dollar and what influenced the choice?  

 

You have quite a selection today, and like the strikes of midnight there are twelve choices this time around.  In creating the offerings, there were many titles to choose from, so if your favorite is not listed let us know what that is and why.  So if DC’s “House of Secrets” or “Haunted Tank” or Charlton’s “Ghostly Haunts” or “Ghostly Tales” float your boat, share your thoughts.  Heck, if you decide to segue into a discussion of the “Groovy Ghoulies” so be it.  

As always, have fun and spend wisely.  Here are the considerations; just pay the ferryman:

• Creatures On The Loose featuring Man Wolf (Marvel) No. 33;  $0.25.  1975.  Cover by Gil Kane and Klaus Janson. “Deathgame” by David Anthony Kraft and George Perez.   John Jameson does his modern take on the werewolf tale with great early art by Perez.  I’m howling at the moon!
• Adventure Into Fear with The Man Called Morbius The Living Vampire (Marvel) No. 29; $0.25 (Yeesh! I’m afraid that cover has more words on it than the entirety of any current issue’s 32 pages from Marvel!) 1975. Cover by Ron Wilson and Mike Esposito.  “Through a Helleye Darkly” by Bill Mantlo and Don Heck.   Another Spider Man villain gets a shot at a solo career.  Terrifying!
• The Frankenstein Monster (Marvel) No. 6; $0.20 1973. Cover by Mike Ploog.  “In Search of the Last Frankenstein” by Gary Friedrich and Mike Ploog.   I like the corner circle but hate the sweater vest.  Chilling!
• Ghost Rider (Marvel) No. 28; $0.35 1977. Cover by Ernie Chan.  “Evil is the Orb” by Roger McKenzie and Don Perlin.   Keep your eyes open, the Orb is back!
• The House of Mystery (DC) No. 236; $0.25 1975.   Cover by Bernie Wrightson.  “Death Played a Sideshow” by Coram Nobis and Steve Ditko, and “Deep Sleep” by Jack Oleck and Paul Kirchner.  Much scarier than when Death uses Powerpoint!
• Man Thing (Marvel) No. 5; $0.25 1974. Cover by Mike Ploog.  “Night of the Laughing Dead” by Steve Gerber and Mike Ploog.   I’m not laughing… I’m screaming!
• Planet of Vampires (Atlas/Seaboard) No. 2; $0.25 1975.  Cover by Neal Adams and Dick Giordano.  “Quest for Blood” but John Albano and Pat Broderick.  The publisher and title were short lived.   So are the characters!   Fiendish!
• Supernatural Thrillers featuring The Living Mummy (Marvel) No. 9; $0.25 1974.  Cover by Gil Kane and Allen Milgrom.   “Pyramid of Peril” by Tony Isabella and Val Mayerik.  Cover proves my point that most plumbing problems are caused by too much toilet paper! Bloodcurdling!
• Saga of Swamp Thing (DC) No.35; $0.75 1985. Cover by Steve Bissette and John Totleben.  “The Nuke Face Papers” by Alan Moore and Steve Bissette.  Intimidating! Daunting! Petrifying! And I’m not talking about the writer!
• Tomb of Dracula (Marvel) No. 68; $0.35 1978.  Cover by Gene Colan and Tom Palmer.   “The Return to… Transylvania” by Marv Wolfman (wolfman heh, heh) and Gene Colan with inks by Palmer.  All I have to say is wear dark pants when you read this one!
• Werewolf By Night (Marvel) No. 34; $0.25 1975.  Cover by Gil Kane and Tom Palmer.  “Not All of the Shades of Death, Nor Evil’s Majesty” by Doug Moench and Don Perlin.   Just the cover gave me sleepless nights!
• Where Monsters Dwell (Marvel) No. 4; $0.15 1970. Cover by Marie Severin and Tom Palmer.  Four tales of monsters and the macabre.   All reprints, but some fine work from Steve Ditko and Don Heck. Don’t go in the basement!

Who's the Best...Monster Comic?

Karen: We're talking comics, not magazines, and it must feature a monster -so no anthologies!

Who's the Best... Horror Comic?

Doug:  Bronze Age, or any other age; comic book or B&W magazine...  Let's hear about all of your favorite scary funny books, and if you didn't dabble in them much (like me), then tell us why you stayed on the sidelines.

BAB Frightfest: Tomb of Dracula 1

Tomb of Dracula #1 (Apr 1972)
"Dracula"
Writer: Gerry Conway
Artist: Gene Colan

Karen: Dracula was indisputably the most successful of Marvel's monsters. The series lasted far longer than any of its counterparts, running 70 issues, and Marvel's version of Dracula showed up in many of their magazines as well as other comics. I came late to the TOD fold; as I have mentioned in previous posts, I really hadn't read many issues of the title until I picked up the TOD trades, volumes 1-3. The series definitely improved as time went on. The early issues featured a parade of writers, until Marv Wolfman came along in issue #7, and began to forge his long and highly acclaimed run. Of course, any discussion of Dracula would be incomplete without praising the efforts of artist Gene Colan, who truly owned the character. Colan was the penciller for the entire run! His style, making great use of lighting and shadows, fit the book perfectly.

Doug:  Well you have much more of a history with all of our ghouls this month than do I -- I am lame-o supreme-o when it comes to the monsters.  I don't know why I never got into them, because as I read this stuff now in the Marvel Firsts, the Essentials, etc. I love them!  So I'm going to be positive about making up for lost time rather than dwelling on my lack of taste as a Marvel Superhero Zombie in days of yore.

Doug:  I'll echo your sentiments toward Gentleman Gene Colan -- I've always loved him on Daredevil and already get the feeling I'm going to like him on just about any Tomb of Dracula I'll encounter. 

Karen: This first issue would introduce us to the supporting cast, who in many ways were just as popular as the title character. Dracula was never portrayed as "the hero" in the series -- complicated, intriguing, yes, but the vampire was always shown to be at his core, evil. The heroic vampire hunters who took him on were given as much face time as the Count.

Doug:  And I'll ask everyone to pardon my ignorance, as I'm not trying to be coy -- I really did read this for the first time for this review.  But it was pretty obvious that the young folks were going to be the protagonists with the Count the antagonist.  They're a little formulaic, as we'll describe, but that seemed to fit well into the tale.

Karen: Our story opens, and it is a dark and stormy night. No, really. Three travelers are driving to  an ominous castle, when their jeep goes off the road. Frank Drake, his girlfriend Jeanie, and their companion, Clifton (Jeanie's ex-boyfriend -- that won't be a problem, will it?) scramble out of the vehicle unscathed and walk back to the last village. The villagers, who would all fit in nicely in any Hammer horror film, are sitting in the local inn, speculating about these newcomers, with an old man named Burgeister saying that the castle will bring them only sorrow. The door pops open and the three bedraggled travelers enter, and Burgeister welcomes them to Transylvania! At this point I do have to note that I found it odd that the villagers seem to be Germanic, calling everyone 'Herr' -- wouldn't Transylvanians speak Romanian? Another thing -- this whole scene plays a bit odd for me, as I had the impression that the threesome had already stopped in this village, and yet they introduce themselves as if no one knew them. Did you find that odd?

Doug:  You know, I read it and re-read it, and to be honest I'm not certain.  Clifton does remark that they passed the village, but it's sort of ambiguous as to whether or not they'd actually stopped.  And how about the period costumes on the denizens of said village?  Clifton reminded me somewhat of Sir William Cecil Clayton from Tarzan of the Apes -- you just know that down the road he's going to become a major pain-in-the-butt.

Karen: Frank and the others try to get someone to take them to the castle, but most of the villagers are afraid, but one, Otto, says he'll give them a lift in his carriage if they pay him well enough. On their way there, the three young people question Otto about the rumors of Dracula. Otto says its superstition -- and yet, he won't drive all the way up to the castle. The travelers dismount and begin their long walk. Clifton notes that they're almost out of money. They better hope the castle is a real tourist attraction.

Doug:  The carriage was the perfect touch, wasn't it?  Who needs a car in a yarn like this?  I thought Gerry Conway did a nice job of building suspense in these early parts of the story.  Certainly we know where this is all headed, but there's still a sense of wariness. 

Karen: As they approach the castle, Frank muses about how they got here. He had inherited a million dollars from his father, and blown through it in three years. He'd also wound up falling in love with his best friend's girl -- but oddly enough, Clifton took it pretty well. In fact, Clifton was the only one who stood by Frank after he lost his money. Frank realized his only hope to make some money was to sell the castle he'd inherited. "Castle?" Clifton asked. It turns out Frank is a direct descendant of Count Dracula -- yes, the real Dracula. Clifton tells him that this is huge, that it could make a ton of money. Frank reads back through the centuries-old diary he's been carrying around, one that was written by Dracula's daughter, grandson, and a man named Van Helsing. It describes how Dracula became a vampire and also how he was killed. Frank keeps thinking about the body of Dracula, lying staked in the depths of the castle. He can't get it out of his head. Clifton tells him that they could turn it into a museum and make a ton of money. And so the three of them are off.

Doug:  This section of the story was great -- Conway did a nice job getting the casual reader up to speed on the mythos of the Count.  One really begins to get the sense, too, that Clifton deserves to "get it"... and soon.  He's just smarmy, isn't he?  Frank, on the other hand, is somewhat of a dubious hero isn't he?  He's certainly not virtuous in regard to heisting Clifton's girl and his financial lack-of-prowess.  Yet at this point he's all we've got.

Karen: You're right, Clifton may be a creep, but Frank's no paragon of virtue either. By the time they reach the castle though, Frank is sick of Clifton.He doesn't trust him. Frank blows up at Clifton, but once they enter the castle, he gets caught up in a feeling of deja vu. It's like he knows this castle. Suddenly a gaggle (flock?) of bats fly past them. Startled, the three separate. Clifton falls through some rotted floorboards and winds up beneath the castle. He goes down a set of winding stairs and finds Dracula's coffin. Clifton is filled with excitement. Turns out he's been planning to take the castle, steal Jeannie back, and kill Frank.  He approaches the coffin and pulls it open to reveal a staked corpse. Clifton chuckles about what idiots people were to think Dracula was a vampire. He pulls the stake out and leaves, thinking about how he'll arrange Frank's 'accident'.  Now maybe I am asking too much, but isn't it convenient that he decides to pull the stake out for no reason?

Doug:  Actually, bats travel in a colony.  Or a cloud.  Not that I knew that...  Yep, ol' Clifton's got everyone in a pickle now, doesn't he?  And how about him falling through the floorboards?  Didn't you find it odd that no one heard the ruckus and came to his aid?  Surely, too, he would have cried out.  Colan is not called a master of shadows for nothing, and he certainly shows it throughout these pages.  The coloring, full of grays and browns, is aptly moody, but Gene the Dean's blacks are fantastic. 

Karen: As soon as Clifton leaves, the skeleton in the coffin begins to change. Flesh forms on the bones and suddenly, Dracula is back. The Count stops Clifton, who shoots him, but to no effect. Dracula tosses him down a hole, "with the Others," and pauses -- he hears voices above, including a woman. Dracula flies up as a bat and turns back into his human form to confront Frank and Jeannie. He mesmerizes Jeannie and she tries to go to him. Frank knocks Jeannie out and drives Dracula away with her silver compact. Now that just seemed silly. Dracula flies off to the village and slakes his thirst with the blood of a local barmaid. Her body is soon discovered and the enraged villagers head off with torches in hand to the castle. Torches?  It's 1972!

 Doug:  Sort of B&W magazine fare with Jeannie's blouse flying open, ya think?  Loved the scene with the villagers -- just goes to show you that these scary stories are timeless!  Everyone has a part to play, I guess.  Colan's scratchy style really lends itself to the turmoil brewing as Dracula comes back from the dead and begins to do his thing.

Karen: Dracula goes back to the castle and creeps towards the unconscious Jeannie, but draws back when he encounters the golden crucifix around her neck. Frank leaps out and tells Dracula that he is his descendant. Dracula says he'll wind up a vampire too, but Frank comes towards him with the compact again. Worse, he throws the compact at him. Oh come on! Dracula, annoyed, grabs Frank and slams his head against the wall. As Frank slips from consciousness, Jeannie awakens, and Dracula commands her to remove her cross.

Doug:  The thrown compact was pretty dumb.  C'mon -- when it's your only weapon, you've got to at least use it to buy some time, huh?  Dracula does exude power, and the scene where he gets Frank around the neck just feels like it would hurt (a lot!).  Dracula has about as many powers as Ultra Boy, ya think?

Karen: The villagers reach the castle and set it on fire (a stone castle??) just as Dracula begins to leave with the girl. But Frank wakes up, and armed once again with his trusty silver compact, he drives Dracula off. Frank grabs Jeannie and carries her outside. He fears she's dead, but she rises and turns to him. He sees her fangs and she tells him that once one is bitten by a vampire, one can never die. Frank covers his face and cries as the girl disappears into the night.

Doug:  I wish I had the following issues -- Conway and Colan wove an interesting tale; certainly not without some bumps, but compelling nonetheless.  I'd be curious to see how Wolfman settled in and started to steer this in his own direction, past this introductory tale that served mostly as set-up.

Karen: I have to say that the whole silver compact thing drove me a bit crazy. The story had a lot of atmosphere, but this was - -I thought -- a fairly weak start.The art was really the saving grace. As a bonus, I'm including a pin-up from the Tomb of Dracula TPB, which is apparently the piece Colan did to convince Stan Lee he should be the artist for the book. Pretty nice, huh? 

Spotlight On: Gene Colan

Doug: Welcome back to another creator spotlight. Today the brightness falls on Gentleman Gene Colan, perhaps best known for his Silver and Bronze Age work on Daredevil. Others may recall his tenure on Iron Man or Dr. Strange, or over at the Distinguished Competition as the penciller for Batman or Wonder Woman. Colan has been somewhat well-traveled, leaving a memorable trail wherever he's gone.

Doug: As I've said in the past, I really haven't delved into Marvel's Tomb of Dracula. Like a lot of great comics, it's somewhere on the to-do list. I will say this about it, however -- from what I have seen of Colan's output on that title, there may never have been an artist more tailor-made for a character and his/her mythos than Colan was for that book. I really think Colan is best when he's allowed to work in the darkness. As the TwoMorrows biography of Colan was entitled Secrets In the Shadows, Colan was a master of the blacks. Now, having said that, it may seem odd that he would have been successful during his tenure on Iron Man or Captain America, or even Wonder Woman. All of those titles lend themselves toward brighter settings, and perhaps this is where some readers will part ways on Colan's work on the "more standard" superhero books. What do you think?

Karen: I don't want to ruin Doug's flow here, but I did want to throw in my two cents. I've never really been a fan of Colan's super-hero work simply because it is so shadowy. However, on Dracula and Dr. Strange, I think it works really well -the moody quality is quite fitting.

Doug: Flow? You are too kind to the ramblings of this middle-aged commentator...

Doug: During his run on Daredevil, the book was most often pretty straightforward in the hero genre. Yet I think that the pinnacle of Colan's work was perhaps in DD #47, "Brother, Take My Hand". That story was reprinted in Son of Origins of Marvel Comics, where I first read it. DD befriends a blind man, and the best part of the story is a fight where DD battles some thugs in the dark. The setting is perfect for Colan's art.

Doug: So give us a comment or three -- what do you like or not like about Colan's style? I remarked in an earlier review that I thought he could be overly frenetic; in a review on the Two Girls... blog I commented on his panel lay-outs. What's your reaction to Gene's version of dynamism, and to his stretching of conventional page-looks? As always, thanks in advance for your thoughts!

BAB Two-In-One: Jungle Norms and Snowbound Enemies

Doug: Welcome back to another BAB Two-In-One. Today I'd like to continue Joe Kubert's 4-part adaptation of Edgar Rice Burroughs' Tarzan of the Apes. When last we saw the youthful jungle lord, he had beaten Bolgani the gorilla just outside the cabin built by his father, John Clayton, Lord Greystoke. Today we see a Tarzan in his teen years, going through the life changes of adolescence. Tarzan #208 was cover-dated May 1972 and entitled, "Origin of the Ape-Man Part 2 -- A Son's Vengeance". Kubert was the series writer/artist/editor.

Kubert starts us off with a 2-page recap of the previous issue. You might note that DC was advertising on the covers that, while they had continued the numbering from the Gold Key series, they were letting everyone know their own number of published issues. Nothing wrong, then, with Tarzan fans who may have been slightly confused and come over to DC late being able to get caught up quickly. As we begin the new material, Tarzan has joined his tribe in the dance of the Dum Dum -- that ancient ape ritual used for only three reasons: a victory, the killing of an enemy, or the celebration of a new king. Tonight, it was the celebration of the killing of an enemy. Kubert really does a great job of visualizing what Burroughs had written. As a teen, I devoured the Tarzan paperback series. Going through these stories is a real treat!

It may have put some readers off, however, to see the culmination of the Dum Dum -- the eating of the deceased. In a rite that amounts to cannibalism, Tarzan used his new knife to section off a large piece of the dead ape -- much to the displeasure of angry Tublat. Taking after Tarzan, Tublat chased him into a tree. Being much lighter, Tarzan ascended higher and tossed insults at the older ape. On the ground, Kala -- Tarzan's mother -- barked her concern. Seeing her, Tublat abandoned Tarzan to attack Kala. Not caring that this was a ploy to get him out of the tree, Tarzan descended like a white missile to engage Tublat. With Tarzan's knife and superior intellect, Tublat didn't have a chance. Tarzan walked away with his mother, assuring her that no one would bother her again.

Back at the cabin, Tarzan begins to look through the picture books and primary readers that were indeed destined to teach him to read -- many years earlier. I've always had a hard time believing that Tarzan could teach himself to read; Kubert emphasizes over and over that Tarzan did indeed educate himself, reading in a language he could not speak! It's funny that he associates letters and words with tracks -- he quickly deduces that L-I-O-N is the track of Numa, and that M-A-N is his own track. Back to the tribe, Tarzan is determined to clothe himself. He taunts Sabor the lioness in an effort to kill her and get her pelt; his grass rope is not strong enough to hold her, and he ends his quest.

A note on the art: Joe Kubert does a phenomenal job at depicting the flora and fauna of the African forest and veldt. In particular, his cats are incredibly fierce and powerful. I'd also like to note his inks -- in this very blog we've often discussed the scratchiness of Vince Colletta. To see Kubert's work here, there's really not much difference. However, I'd argue that this style is perfect for the backgrounds and the humanoids in this tale -- it's a natural setting, and the lack of powerful lines and heavy blacks seems wholly appropriate.

Kubert portrays another curious scene, well outside the social norms of civilized man. Whilst among his "people", Tarzan notices that the young she, Teeka, has taken a liking to him. Annoyed that his playmate Taug seems to have taken a shine to Teeka, Tarzan jealously barks a challenge to Taug. As they begin to square off, Sheeta the panther enters the scene and moves toward Teeka. While Taug flees for the trees, Tarzan selflessly defends Teeka. Using his new, stronger rope, Tarzan hangs Sheeta from a tree. But as he turns toward the tribe, he sees Teeka walking away with Taug. Ah, the pains of adolescence...

After another visit to the cabin, Tarzan heads back into the jungle and for the first time sees M-A-N -- a tribe of black warriors. Little does he know that one of those people will change his life. Alone in the jungle, Kala forages for food. From behind, a black warrior launches a poison-tipped arrow into the mother of Tarzan. Dying almost-instantly, she leaves Tarzan truly alone. Hearing the commotion as the tribe finds her, Tarzan arrives to cradle the dead ape. Swearing revenge, he hurries to the "nest" of the blacks -- for revenge. Easily killing the man who had killed Kala, Tarzan appropriates his weapons and garments. He also returns to the village to "haunt" it, striking fear in the hearts of the the superstitious denizens.

The next chapter in the ape-man's life begins as he teaches himself to be proficient in the use of the bow and spear. Now armed not only with his superior intellect but poisonous weapons as well, this is a new Tarzan... a Tarzan that is soon to become Lord of the Jungle.

Karen: Much as Doug is continuing with Tarzan stories, I'll be continuing my look at Tomb of Dracula, with issue 19 (Apr 1974), by Marv Wolfman, Gene Colan, and Tom Palmer. This directly follows the Dracula-Werewolf cross-over. If you recall, at the end of that, Dracula was frantically flying after Rachel Van Helsing and Frank Drake, who had escaped in a helicopter with a magical book that could destroy all vampires.

Karen: Well, this issue opens up with the lord of vampires and his female nemesis wandering together through a snow storm in the Transylvanian alps. It seems that Drac did catch up to the chopper, but killed the pilot, and the craft then crashed.

Karen: OK, a problem here: Drake was clearly shown to be with Van Helsing in the previous story. But here, he is miraculously not aboard the doomed helicopter! Wolfman wrote both stories, so I'm a bit surprised at this gaffe.
Karen: The story is of a kind we've all seen before: two mortal enemies are forced to work together in order to survive. Van Helsing, injured in the crash, needs Dracula's help to get to safety, and Dracula is keeping Van Helsing alive in case he can't find anyone else to feed on! So the two must fight their urges to kill one another and work together. However, Dracula has to sleep sometime, and Van Helsing makes a feeble attempt to stake him when he does. Honestly, Dracula seems too powerful for any one normal person to be able to defeat him.

Karen: We get a brief interlude with Blade and Quincy Harker back in England. When last we saw the two, Blade had been bitten by Dracula. Harker is about to stake the vampire hunter when Blade suddenly arises and discovers that the bite has had no effect on him. The two believe that he has gained some measure of immunity to vampirism, since his mother was bitten by a vampire when Blade was in the womb. Sure, why not? With this new knowledge, Blade feels energized to pursue the Count again.

Karen: A sub-plot about a mysterious Dr. Sun, who apparently wants to destroy Dracula, got 6 panels this issue. We never see Dr. Sun, but we know he is using a vampire, a former victim of Dracula's named Brand. More will be revealed in issues to come.

Karen: As time goes on, Dracula grows weaker. He is nearly killed by an enraged Tur -you don't have to look it up, I did it for you. It's a half-ram, half-ibex found only in the Caucasus mountains. I am not making this up. However, before the beast can do in the lord of darkness, it is shot and killed by Van Helsing. She says she wanted to let it kill Dracula, but couldn't. OK, Marv, you lost me there. Did Dracula mesmerize her, while he was lying in the snow, getting stomped? Why would she save him otherwise? It makes no sense.

Karen: Luckily for Van Helsing, the missing Frank Drake shows up in another helicopter, firing wooden bullets at Drac. However, he escapes, and Drake decides it's more important to pick up Rachel than pursue Dracula. No, that will come next issue.
Karen: This was a real mixed bag. The idea of two enemies forced to work together is a great one, but the execution here could've been better. The mistake with Drake and the helicopter pilot was huge and really threw me. The art was Colan and Palmer's typical solid work. Now that I've read over a dozen issues of Tomb of Dracula, I've come to the conclusion that I enjoy it more the less Dracula appears - I wouldn't want him entirely out of the book (like the way Thor disappeared from his own title when JMS wrote it) but I'm more interested in the vampire hunters than I am in Dracula. So far, he's a pretty one-note character. Still, I look forward to reading further and seeing how the characters are developed.